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?

9

Find out howmany states havebeen created inthe last 10 years.Is each of thesestates a region?

THE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFTHE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURESREGIONAL CULTURES

One of the commonest ways of describing peopleis in terms of the language they speak. When we

refer to a person as a Tamil or an Oriya, this usuallymeans that he or she speaks Tamil or Oriya and livesin Tamil Nadu or Orissa. We also tend to associateeach region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes,poetry, dance, music and painting. Sometimes we takethese identities for granted and assume that they haveexisted from time immemorial. However, the frontiersseparating regions have evolved over time (and in factare still changing). Also, what we understand asregional cultures today are often the product of complexprocesses of intermixing of local traditions with ideasfrom other parts of the subcontinent. As we will see,some traditions appear specific to some regions, othersseem to be similar across regions, and yet others derivefrom older practices in a particular area, but take anew form in other regions.

The Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the DevelopmentThe Cheras and the Developmentof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalamof Malayalam

Let us begin by looking at an example of theconnection between language and region. The Cherakingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in theninth century in the south-western part of thepeninsula, part of present-day Kerala. It is likely thatMalayalam was spoken in this area. The rulersintroduced the Malayalam language and script in theirinscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliestexamples of the use of a regional language in officialrecords in the subcontinent.

123THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

?Find out when thelanguage(s) youspeak at homewere first usedfor writing.

Fig. 1An early Keralainscription, composedin Malayalam.

At the same time, the Cheras also drew uponSanskritic traditions. The temple theatre of Kerala,which is traced to this period, borrowed stories fromthe Sanskrit epics. The first literary works inMalayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, aredirectly indebted to Sanskrit. Interestingly enough, afourteenth-century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing withgrammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam– literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the twolanguages, Sanskrit and the regional language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:Rulers and Religious Traditions:The Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha CultThe Jagannatha Cult

In other regions, regional cultures grew aroundreligious traditions. The best example of this processis the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world,a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. Todate, the local tribal people make thewooden image of the deity, whichsuggests that the deity was originallya local god, who was later identifiedwith Vishnu.

In the twelfth century, one of themost important rulers of the Gangadynasty, Anantavarman, decided toerect a temple for PurushottamaJagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in1230, king Anangabhima III dedicatedhis kingdom to the deity and proclaimedhimself as the “deputy” of the god.

Fig. 2The icons ofBalabhadra,Subhadra andJagannatha, palm-leaf manuscript,

Orissa.

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As the temple gained in importanceas a centre of pilgrimage, its authorityin social and political matters alsoincreased. All those who conqueredOrissa, such as the Mughals, theMarathas and the English East IndiaCompany, attempted to gain controlover the temple. They felt that thiswould make their rule acceptable tothe local people.

The Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andThe Rajputs andTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of HeroismTraditions of Heroism

In the nineteenth century, theregion that constitutes most ofpresent-day Rajasthan, was calledRajputana by the British. While this

may suggest that this was an area that was inhabitedonly or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true.There were (and are) several groups who identifythemselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern andcentral India. And of course, there are several peoplesother than Rajputs who live in Rajasthan. However,the Rajputs are often recognised as contributing tothe distinctive culture of Rajasthan.

These cultural traditionswere closely linked withthe ideals and aspirationsof rulers. From about theeighth century, most ofthe present-day state ofRajasthan was ruled byvarious Rajput families.Prithviraj (Chapter 2) wasone such ruler. These rulerscherished the ideal of thehero who fought valiantly,often choosing death on thebattlefield rather than face

Fig. 3Jagannatha temple,Puri.

Fig. 4Prince Raj Singh ofBikaner.

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defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded inpoems and songs, which were recited by speciallytrained minstrels. These preserved the memories ofheroes and were expected to inspire others to followtheir example. Ordinary people were also attracted bythese stories – which often depicted dramatic situations,and a range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship,love, valour, anger, etc.

Did women find a place within these stories?Sometimes, they figure as the “cause” for conflicts, asmen fought with one another to either “win” or “protect”women. Women are also depicted as following theirheroic husbands in both life and death – there arestories about the practice of sati or the immolation ofwidows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. So those

Map 1Regions discussed inthis chapter.

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who followed the heroic ideal often had to pay for itwith their lives.

Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:Beyond Regional Frontiers:The Story of The Story of The Story of The Story of The Story of KathakKathakKathakKathakKathak

If heroic traditions can be found in different regions indifferent forms, the same is true of dance. Let us lookat the history of one dance form, Kathak, nowassociated with several parts of north India. The termkathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskritand other languages for story. The kathaks wereoriginally a caste of story-tellers in temples of northIndia, who embellished their performances withgestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into adistinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies with the spread of the bhakti movement. Thelegends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk playscalled rasa lila, which combined folk dance with thebasic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathakwas performed in the court, where it acquired its presentfeatures and developed into a form of dance with adistinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in twotraditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan(Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow. Under the patronageof Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh,it grew into a major art form. By the third quarter

of the nineteenthcentury it was firmlyentrenched as a danceform not only in thesetwo regions, but inthe adjoining areasof present-day Punjab,Haryana, Jammuand Kashmir, Biharand Madhya Pradesh.Emphasis was laidon intricate and

?Find out whetherthere aretraditions ofheroes/heroinesin your town orvillage. What arethe qualitiesassociated withthem? In whatways are thesesimilar to ordifferent from theheroic ideals ofthe Rajputs?

Fig. 5Dance class,Lakshmana temple,Khajuraho.

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rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as on theenactment of stories.

Kathak, like several other cultural practices, wasviewed with disfavour by most British administratorsin the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, itsurvived and continued to be performed by courtesans,and was recognised as one of six “classical” forms ofdance in the country after independence.

“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances“Classical” dances

The question of defining any art form as “classical” isoften quite complicated. Do we define something asclassical if it deals with a religious theme? Or dowe consider it classical because it appears torequire a great deal of skill acquiredthrough long years of training? Or is itclassical because it is performedaccording to rules that are laid down,and variations are not encouraged?These are questions we needto think about. It is worthremembering that many danceforms that are classified as “folk”also share several of thecharacteristics considered typicalof “classical” forms. So, while theuse of the term “classical” maysuggest that these forms aresuperior, this need not always beliterally true.

Other dance forms that arerecognised as classical at present are:

Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Kathakali (Kerala)

Odissi (Orissa)

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Manipuri (Manipur)

?THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

Find out more about any one of these dance forms.

Fig. 6Kathak dancers, a court painting.

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Painting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The TraditionPainting for Patrons: The Traditionof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniaturesof Miniatures

Another tradition that developed in different ways wasthat of miniature painting. Miniatures (as their veryname suggests) are small-sized paintings, generallydone in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliestminiatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of themost beautiful of these, found in western India, wereused to illustrate Jaina texts. The Mughal emperorsAkbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highlyskilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscriptscontaining historical accounts and poetry. These weregenerally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed

court scenes, scenes of battle orhunting, and other aspects of sociallife. They were often exchanged asgifts and were viewed only by anexclusive few – the emperor and hisclose associates.

With the decline of the MughalEmpire, many painters moved outto the courts of the emerging regionalstates (see also Chapter 10). As aresult Mughal artistic tastesinfluenced the regional courts of theDeccan and the Rajput courts ofRajasthan. At the same time, theyretained and developed theirdistinctive characteristics. Portraitsof rulers and court scenes came tobe painted, following the Mughalexample. Besides, themes frommythology and poetry were depictedat centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur,Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.

Another region that attractedminiature paintings was theHimalayan foothills around themodern-day state of Himachal

Fig. 7Akbar restingduring a hunt,Mughal miniature.

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Pradesh. By the late seventeenth century this regionhad developed a bold and intense style of miniaturepainting called Basohli. The most popular text to bepainted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari. NadirShah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to thehills to escape the uncertainties of the plains. Here

Fig. 8Maharana RamSingh II playing holi.Rajput miniature,Kota.

Fig. 9Krishna, Radha andher companion,Pahari miniature,Kangra.

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they found ready patrons which led to the foundingof the Kangra school of painting. By the mid-eighteenth century the Kangra artists developed astyle which breathed a new spirit into miniaturepainting. The source of inspiration was theVaishnavite traditions. Soft colours including coolblues and greens, and a lyrical treatment of themesdistinguished Kangra painting.

Remember that ordinary women and men paintedas well – on pots, walls, floors, cloth – works of art thathave occasionally survived, unlike the miniaturesthat were carefully preserved in palaces for centuries.

A Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: BengalA Closer Look: Bengal

The Growth of a Regional Language

As we saw at the outset, we often tend to identifyregions in terms of the language spoken by thepeople. So, we assume that people in Bengal alwaysspoke Bengali. However, what is interesting is thatwhile Bengali is now recognised as a languagederived from Sanskrit, early Sanskrit texts (mid-firstmillennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengaldid not speak Sanskritic languages. How, then, didthe new language emerge?

From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercialties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha(south Bihar), which may have led to the growing

Fig. 10A page from apalm-leaf manuscriptof the earliest BengaliRamayana.

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influence of Sanskrit. During the fourth century theGupta rulers established political control over northBengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area.Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from themid-Ganga valley became stronger. In the seventhcentury the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observedthat languages related to Sanskrit were in use allover Bengal.

From the eighth century, Bengal became thecentre of a regional kingdom under the Palas(Chapter 2). Between the fourteenth and sixteenthcenturies, Bengal was ruled by Sultans who wereindependent of the rulers in Delhi (Chapter 3). In1586, when Akbar conquered Bengal, it formed thenucleus of the Bengal suba. While Persian was thelanguage of administration, Bengali developed as aregional language.

In fact by the fifteenth century the Bengali groupof dialects came to be united by a common literarylanguage based on the spoken language of thewestern part of the region, now known as WestBengal. Thus, although Bengali is derived fromSanskrit, it passed through several stages ofevolution. Also, a wide range of non-Sanskrit words,derived from a variety of sources including triballanguages, Persian, and European languages, havebecome part of modern Bengali.

Early Bengali literature may be divided into twocategories – one indebted to Sanskrit and the otherindependent of it. The first includes translations ofthe Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literallyauspicious poems, dealing with local deities) andbhakti literature such as the biographies ofChaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhaktimovement (Chapter 8).

The second includes Nath literature such as thesongs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, storiesconcerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairytales, folk tales and ballads.

THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

132OUR PASTS – II

Maynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andMaynamati, Gopichandra andDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma ThakurDharma Thakur

The Naths were ascetics who engaged in a variety ofyogic practices.

This particular song, which was often enacted,described how Maynamati, a queen, encouraged herson Gopichandra to adopt the path of asceticism inthe face of a variety of obstacles.

Dharma Thakur is a popular regional deity, oftenworshipped in the form of a stone or a piece of wood.

The texts belonging to the first category are easierto date, as several manuscripts have been foundindicating that they were composed between the latefifteenth and mid-eighteenth centuries. Thosebelonging to the second category circulated orally andcannot be precisely dated. They were particularlypopular in eastern Bengal, where the influence ofBrahmanas was relatively weak.

Pirs Pirs Pirs Pirs Pirs and Templesand Templesand Templesand Templesand Temples

From the sixteenth century, people began to migratein large numbers from the less fertile western Bengalto the forested and marshy areas of south-easternBengal. As they moved eastwards, they cleared forestsand brought the land under rice cultivation.Gradually, local communities of fisherfolk and shiftingcultivators, often tribals, merged with the newcommunities of peasants.

This coincided with the establishment of Mughalcontrol over Bengal with their capital in the heart ofthe eastern delta at Dhaka. Officials and functionariesreceived land and often set up mosques that served ascentres for religious transformation in these areas.

The early settlers sought some order and assurancein the unstable conditions of the new settlements.

PirA Persian wordmeaning aspiritual guide.

?Why do you thinkthe secondcategory of textswas not writtendown?

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These were provided by community leaders, who alsofunctioned as teachers and adjudicators and weresometimes ascribed with supernatural powers. Peoplereferred to them with affection and respect as pirs.

This term included saints or Sufis and otherreligious personalities, daring colonisers and deifiedsoldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and evenanimistic spirits. The cult of pirs became very popularand their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.

Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree fromthe late fifteenth century, which culminated in thenineteenth century. We have seen (Chapters 2 and 5)that temples and other religious structures were oftenbuilt by individuals or groups who were becomingpowerful – to both demonstrate their power andproclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick andterracotta temples in Bengal were built with thesupport of several “low” social groups, such as theKolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metalworkers). The coming of the European tradingcompanies created new economic opportunities; manyfamilies belonging to these social groups availed ofthese. As their social and economic position improved,

Compare thetemple shownhere with that inChapter 2.

?

Fig. 11 (left)A double-roofedthatched hut.

Fig. 12 (right)A four-roofed templewith a tower.

THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

AnimismAttribution ofliving soul toplants, inanimateobjects, andnaturalphenomena.

134OUR PASTS – II

they proclaimed their status through the constructionof temples. When local deities, once worshipped inthatched huts in villages, gained the recognition ofthe Brahmanas, their images began to be housed intemples. The temples began to copy the double-roofed(dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of thethatched huts. (Remember the “Bangla dome” inChapter 5?) This led to the evolution of the typicalBengali style in temple architecture.

In the comparatively more complex four-roofedstructure, four triangular roofs placed on the four wallsmove up to converge on a curved line or a point.Temples were usually built on a square platform. Theinterior was relatively plain, but the outer walls of manytemples were decorated with paintings, ornamentaltiles or terracotta tablets. In some temples, particularlyin Vishnupur in the Bankura district of West Bengal,such decorations reached a high degree of excellence.

Fig. 13Krishna with gopis,terracotta plaquefrom the Shyamarayatemple, Vishnupur.

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Fish as FoodFish as FoodFish as FoodFish as FoodFish as Food

Traditional food habits are generally basedon locally available items of food. Bengal isa riverine plain which produces plenty ofrice and fish. Understandably, these twoitems figure prominently in the menu ofeven poor Bengalis. Fishing has alwaysbeen an important occupation and Bengaliliterature contains several references tofish. What is more, terracotta plaques onthe walls of temples and viharas (Buddhistmonasteries) depict scenes of fish beingdressed and taken to the market in baskets.

Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food, but the popularity of fishin the local diet made the Brahmanicalauthorities relax this prohibition for theBengal Brahmanas. The BrihaddharmaPurana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit textfrom Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to eatcertain varieties of fish.

Fig. 14Fish beingdressed for domesticconsumption,terracotta plaque fromthe Vishalakshitemple, Arambagh.

THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

Emergence of nation-states in Europe

Till the eighteenth century, people in Europe saw themselves assubjects of an empire, such as the Austro-Hungarian empire, ormembers of a church, such as the Greek Orthodox church. But,from the late eighteenth century, people also began to identifythemselves as members of a community that spoke a commonlanguage, such as French or German. By the early nineteenthcentury, in Rumania school textbooks began to be written inRumanian rather than in Greek, and in Hungary Hugarian wasadopted as the official language instead of Latin. These and othersimilar developments created the consciousness among the peoplethat each linguistic community was a separate nation. This feelingwas strengthened by the movements for Italian and Germanunification in the late nineteenth century.

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

ELSEWHERE

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KEYWORDS

classical

miniature

pir

dialect

Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

Anantavarman Kerala

Jagannatha Bengal

Mahodayapuram Orissa

Lilatilakam Kangra

Mangalakavya Puri

Miniature Kerala

2. What is Manipravalam? Name a book written in thatlanguage.

3. Who were the major patrons of Kathak?

4. What are the important architectural features of thetemples of Bengal ?

Imagine

You are a Rajput prince. Howwould you like your story to betold?

137THE MAKING OFREGIONAL CULTURES

Let’s discuss

5. Why did minstrels proclaim the achievements ofheroes?

6. Why do we know much more about the culturalpractices of rulers than about those of ordinarypeople?

7. Why did conquerors try to control the temple ofJagannatha at Puri?

8. Why were temples built in Bengal?

Let’s do

9. Describe the most important features of the cultureof your region, focusing on buildings, performingarts and painting.

10. Do you use different languages for (a) speaking,(b) reading, (c) writing? Find out about one majorcomposition in language that you use and discusswhy you find it interesting.

11. Choose one state each from north, west, south, eastand central India. For each of these, prepare a list offoods that are commonly consumed, highlighting anydifferences and similarities that you notice.

12. Choose another set of five states from each of theseregions and prepare a list of clothes that are generallyworn by women and men in each. Discuss yourfindings.