9-etu-mobile advertising and brand trust
TRANSCRIPT
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How Mobile Advertising Works The Roie of
Trust in Improving Attitudes and Recall
OK Z KI
de Madrid
KIHIRO K TSUKUR
dentsu.co.jp
How does trust affect consumer attitudes and recall in mobile advertising? This study
explores this question by conducting a large-scale pseu do mobile advertising
campaign in Japan. Two real brands (one durable and one nondurable good) of
major Japanese manufacturers were used as study stimuli. Using a push messaging
service, both a campaign message and a subsequent questionnaire for each brand
were sent to 40,000 opt-in mobile users. Five primary constructs were examined:
brand trust, mobile advertising trust, attitude toward brand, attitude toward mobile
advertising, and mobile campaign recall. Findings suggest that a mobile campaign's
recall largely depends on perceptions of both the medium and the advertised content,
and that the effects of mobile advertising trust on attitude toward mobile advertising
were stronger than those of other relationships. The path from attitude toward brand
to mobile campaign recall was notably and statistically stronger for the durable good
sample than for the nondurable good sample. Only in the durable good sample is
attitude toward brand a mediating variable in linking attitude toward mobile advertising
and mobile campaign recall. This study offers a basic but useful research framework
for a mobile-based online survey.
R E S E A R C H E R S A N D PRACT I T I ONE RS AG RE E th t th e
most explosive growth in telecommunications has
occurred in internet and mobile telephone ser-
vices (Lehr and McKnight, 2003). Combining these
two technologies, the internet-enabled mobile de-
vice has become one of the most promising ad-
vertising media around (Okazaki, 2006). For
example, SMS (short message service) direct mar-
keting is a popular campaign method worldwide,
with consumer spending in the United Kingdom
reaching 58 million messages per day in 2004
(Trappey and Woodside, 2005). The trend has mi-
grated to the United States as well. McDonald's
conducted an SMS-TV direct marketing campaign
in conjunction with a popular song contest pro-
gram, offering concert tickets and backstage passes.
Coca-Cola executed a text message campaign for
college students in which a number printed on a
Diet Coke can could be used as an entry in the
Coca-Cola Grand Sweepstakes Competition. Ac
cording to Mullman (2006), as many as 8 percen
of 18- to 2]-year-olds have mobile phones, and
most of them are likely to participate in TV o
radio polls, purchase ring tones, play games, and
send text messages.
On the other hand, SMS is not used in Japan a
widely as in Western markets. Instead, an email
compatible version of mobile mail is commonly
used in NTT DoCoMo's i-mode, which has been
cited as by far the most successful and mos
comprehensive example of m-commerce today
(Sadeh, 2002, p. 5). While widely used for deliv
ering digital content such as ring-tones/songs
news,
weather reports, travel and traffic reports
games, standby displays, and animated video
this service allows users to transmit em ail of up to
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10,000 alphanumeric characters or 10,000
bytes (NTT DoCoMo, 2006). For promo-
tional cam paign s, i-mode offers Message
F (Free), which is a push-type service
delivering advertising exclusively to opt-in
users.
Advertisements are delivered to a
designated Message F inbox, and users
are exempt from the normal packet trans-
mission charges. This Message F can be
sent to specific regional, gender, or age
groups, thus allowing firms to target mes-
sages to selected segments (D2 Commu-
nications, 2005). In addition, an image
attachment service begun in July 2005 sup-
ports the transmission of images, logos,
and other visual effects up to 8KB per
message (192 X 192 pixels in JPEG or
G I F .
In 2006, major Japane se mob ile car-
riers are beginning to launch m obile ha nd-
sets that can receive terrestrial digital
broadcasting signals in addition to con-
ventional analog signals, thus enabling
firms to take advan tage of interactive pre-
sentations with static, animated, and/or
broadcast images (NTT DoCoMo, 2005).
Hence, the use of SMS as a reference
point for mobile advertising may no lon-
ger provide a realistic impression. How-
ever, there is little, if any, empirical
evidence as to the question of how mobile
advertising works in a more enhanced
environment. Our primary objective here
is to close this research gap through an
experimental study of mobile advertising
campaigns. The study consisted of trans-
mitting pseud o mobile advertisements
of popular Japanese brands, one a dura-
ble good and the other a nondurable good,
to opt-in users. The advertisements con-
tained both textual and v isual parts, which
is more consistent with currently prevail-
ing mobile technology that enables firms
to use rich digital content rather than
simple text-based m essages. One week af-
ter sending the advertisements, we sent a
structured questionnaire to the same users
in an attempt to examine their level of
acceptance. The study set out to examine
five primary constructs: trust toward the
advertised brand, trust toward mobile ad-
vertising, attitude toward brand, attitude
toward mobile advertising, and mobile
campaign recall.
In what follows, we first critically re-
view the extant literature on mobile ad-
vertising research, then establish the
theoretical framework of the study. On
this base, research hypotheses are pro-
posed. Following a detailed explanation
of the methodology, we present the study
results and discuss the implications of
the study while recognizing important
limitations.
DV NCES IN MOBILE DVERTISING
RESE RCH
One of the benefits of a mobile-based
campaign is its capacity to attract con-
sumer attention and increase consumer
responses through a one-to-one dia-
logue with customers (Kavassalis et al.,
2003).
This matches the characteristics of
the mobile phone: a highly portable com-
munication device with ubiquitous data
transmission capability. In recent years,
higher-capacity 3G technologies have re-
sponded to more specific information
needs by offering always-on service with
more interactive and location-based appli-
cations (Perlado and Barwise, 2004). So
far, however, with the exception of some
Asia Pacific countries, SMS has been the
most common platform for mobile adver-
tising (Kavassalis et al., 2003) and there-
fore the most studied application. Table 1
summarizes the recent advances in mo-
bile advertising research.
In a pioneering study, Barwise and
Strong (2002) conducted a trial of
permission-based SMS message adver-
tising in the United Kingdom. On re-
cruitment, respondents were paid cash
incentives and received more than 100
messages in the six-week trial period. Al-
most all respondents were satisfied or
satisfied. The study found that
8 1
pe
read all messages, 63 percent respon
or took action, and 17 percent forwa
at least one message. Surprisingly, as m
as 84 percent of respondents were li
to recommend the service to their frie
whereas only 7 percent were likely
abandon the service.
That research was later corroborate
Rettie, Grandcolas, and Deakins (20
who conducted a study based on r
mobile advertising campaigns that
place between October 2001 and Jan
2002. In total, the researchers condu
5,401 telephone interviews regarding
different campaigns and found that
overall acceptability of SMS adverti
was 44 percent, with an average resp
rate of
2 5
percentmuch higher than e
marketing. Acceptability was also sig
cantly correlated with campaign inte
campaign relevance, and monetary in
tives. Similarly, sporadic industry surv
report a rather optimistic blueprint.
experimental survey conducted by E
son indicates that 60 percent of cons
ers liked receiving mobile advertis
while Quios found that the level of re
nition of mobile advertising was sur
ingly high: 79 percent of particip
recalled 60 percent of the adverti
(Bames, 2002).
In contrast, a study conducted by Ts
H o ,
and Liang (2004) reveals less en
siastic attitudes toward mobile adve
ing among Taiwanese. Their struct
model included both utilitarian and
periential factors affecting consum
attitude toward permission-based SMS
vertising. It was found that (1) consum
generally have negative attitudes tow
mobile advertising unless they have b
informed and have preconsented
opted-in) to the advertisements, and
there seems to be a direct and pos
relationship between consum ers' attit
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ng (2002 )
g (2005 )
Research
Topic
Adoption of
permission-
based push
advertising
Perceptions
of pull-type
advert is ing
platform
Adoption of
SMS
advertising
Adoption of
SMS
advertising
Adoption of
m-commerce
(including
advertising)
Satisfaction in
m-commerce
(including
advertising)
Loyalty in
m-commerce
(including
advertising)
Population
General
consumers
General
consumers
Mobile
internet
users
General
consumers
General
consumers
-H mobile banking
users + students
Mobile
site users
University
students
- ge neral
consumers
Size
500
800
430
5,401
850
116
25 5
Sample
Age
1 6 - 3 0
n.a.=
Under 30
(85 )
Unknown
Under 39
(82 )
Under 41
(average:
24 )
1 8 - 3 9
Gender
M a l e /
Female
50 /50
n.a.
Unknown
Unknown
76 /24
5 9 /4 1
Occupation
Unknown
Students,
office workers,
housewives.
professionals.
etc.
Students
(60 )
Unknown
Students,
office workers.
etc.
Unknown
Students,
high-firm
employees.
and insurance
employees
Response
Rate
1 0 0
8.0
8 8 . 3
25
3 6 . 7
n.a.
n.a.
(quota
sample)
Methodology
Survey
P & P
P&P
P&P
Phone
interview
P&P
P&P
P&P
Scale
Type
Interval
scale
7-point
Likert
7-point
Likert
Ordinal
7-point
Likert
7-point
Likert
7-point
Likert
Reliability
Assessment
CFA,'' a
C F A , a
C F A ,
a
n.a.
CFA
C F A ,
CFA
P = paper-and-pencil survey
= confirmatory factor analysis
tinguishes this study from other empirical
studies carried out in recent years.
Much less attention has been paid to
web-based pull ad vertising. Okazaki
(2004) exam ined the factors influencing
consumers' motives to click text banner
advertisements in the i-mode mobile ad-
vertising platform known as Tokusuru
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Menu . This platform is included in an
official i-mode menu, which enables sub-
scribers to freely access the promotional
information delivered by various compa-
nies. He found that three constructs
content credibility, infotainment, and
irritationaffected the formation of atti-
tudes toward wireless advertisements,
which in turn determined tbe level of
intention to click the advertisements. In-
terestingly, tbe demographic analysis re-
vealed that tbe unmarried working youth
segment has a higher propensity to access
such pull mobile advertisements.
THEORETIC L FR MEWORK
Trust as a factor determining mobile
advertising acceptance
Traditionally, the relevance and credibil-
ity of advertisements have been consid-
ered important mediators of advertising
effects (MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). In
particular, perceived trust can be seen as
consumer feedback, reflecting individu-
a l s
determination of whether the im-
parted information is true or false. Trust
becomes crucial when consumers must
make decisions or take action on the basis
of uncertain information. On the internet,
however, it may be seen as more difficult
to distinguish between more and less trust-
worthy information because, as is not the
case with traditional media, much of the
content of online information is not sub-
ject to governmental or ethical regulation
(Eastin, 2001). In tbis light, Hoffman, No-
vak, and Peralta (1999) claim that a fun-
damental mistrust by customers of online
business lends support to the view of
some separation between brand identity
and brand experience. Tbis lack of faith
in the unregulated flow of information
presents a similar problem for those seek-
ing information via mobile devices.
In this vein, Sadeh (2002) points out
that the success factors associated with
the i-mode m-commerce portal are precur-
sors of future internet business m odels, in
wbicb value will be created through con-
venience, ease of use, and compelling con-
tent tbat users will be willing to pay for.
Mobile users are likely to choose to open
mobile advertisements out of curiosity,
but they must then decide whether to
further access mobile campaign sites. Such
a decision must be made mainly on tbe
basis of trust in the advertisement and in
the advertised brand. Therefore, trust
should be conceptualized as consisting of
two different constructs, brand trust and
mobile advertising trust, both of which
affect users' choice to open push mobile
advertising. The users are likely to do so
only when they perceive both the me-
dium and the content to be nondeceptive
and trustworthy.
Trust as a factor determining online
branding effectiveness
Mylonopoulos and Doukidis (2003) argue
tbat mobile advertising via email or SMS
is effective in enhancing brand awareness
and customer loyalty. Hence, tbere is strong
evidence that many firms actually use
mobile advertising for branding pur-
poses. Okazaki (2005) interviewed 53 se-
nior executives of multinationals operating
in European markets and found that tbe
creation and enhancement of brands are
tbe most important motives for multi-
national corporations to adopt mobile ad-
vertising in international markets. This is
consistent with Sultan and Rohm (2005),
who argue, Mobile marketing creates new
opportunities for companies to form or
shift consumer attitudes toward a brand
through the use of value-added content
p .
85).
There is evidence that a growing num-
ber of firms actually use mobile advertis-
ing in brand promotion. For example,
McDonald's offers three different types of
mobile coupons on three different plat-
forms, from the basic text-only SMS ver-
sion to the graphically rich version
i s ,
fully trackable and rede emab le, all
out any point-of-sale hardware or
ware requirements (iMedia Connec
2005a). DreamWorks Home Enter
ment used a viral campaign for the D
of the film
Th e R i n ^
that operate
mobile phones and email accounts.
tors to the campaign site were invite
scare their friends by entering their
address and mobile telephone num
Tbe site then sent them an email, inv
them to click on a link and watch
video (iMedia C onnection, 2005b). Ad
enables consumers to download pop
athletes' pbotos on a mobile site and
itally superimpose their own pboto
those im ages (Sultan an d Rohm, 200
Japan, Kirin MC Danon Waters Co.
launched a campaign for Volvic mi
water in wbicb consumers enter a sw
stake contest in mobile phones wi
serial bottle nu mb er (Senden K aigi, 2
P&G sends a sample of the Pantene b
shampoo to users who respond to
mobile advertising in i-mode (Se
Kaigi, 2004).
The success of these branding e
ples, however, appears to depend on
distance between brand identity and b
reputation. That is, tbe more consu
trust the brand, the smaller tbe incon
ity between what firms intend to e
lish and what consumers identify
the brand (Jevons and Gabbott, 20
Hence, in tbe context of mobile adve
ing, trust plays a crucial role in obtai
desired consumer responses.
ttitude formation and mobile
campaign recall
An attitude toward an object can be
fined as an individual's internal ev
tion of it on tbe basis of his or her be
(Fishbein a nd Ajzen, 1975). In other w
beliefs determine tbe basic form of
attitude, which in turn triggers behav
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A mobile advertisement can be seen as
orable or unfavorable attitudes, irrespec-
However, a company's ultimate goal of
e advertising, bu t the formulation of an
neglected tbe importance of brand
despite empirical and theoretical
Karahanna, and Straub,
2003;
Kim and
Benbasat, 2003), including m-commerce
(Lin and Wang, 2006).
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
On the basis of tbe preceding arguments,
tbis study proposes to examine trust in
tbe advertised content and in the adver-
tising medium, given that brand trust and
mobile advertising trust affect favorable
attitudes toward tbe advertisement and
tbe brand, respectively. Both attitudes, in
turn, are hypothesized to directly and
positively influence the level of mobile
campaign recall. Tbus, the following hy-
potbeses are suggested:
H I :
Mobile advertising trust directly
and positively affects attitudes to-
ward mobile advertising.
H 2 :
Brand trust directly and posi-
tively affects attitudes toward
brand.
H 3 :
Mobile advertising trust directly
and positively affects attitude to-
ward brand.
H 4 :
Attitude toward mobile advertis-
ing directly and positively affects
attitude toward brand.
H 5 : Attitude toward mobile advertis-
ing directly and positively affects
mobile campaign recall.
At the same time, we posit tbat attitude
toward brand would
a c t a s a
mediating vari-
able in linking attitude toward mobile ad-
vertising and m obile campaign recall. This
is because the growing use of mobile ad-
vertising suggests that practitioners may in-
tuitively believe that favorable p erceptions
of the advertising will lead to favorable per-
ceptions of the brand advertised, which
could achieve their ultimate goal: a higher
level of mobile campaign recall. This sug-
gests the following and final hypotheses:
H 6 :
Attitude toward brand directly
and positively affects mo bile cam-
paign recall.
H 7 :
Tbe relationship between atti
tude toward mobile advertising
and mobile campaign recall is me-
diated by attitude toward brand
Figure 1 shows our research model.
METHODOLOGY
Pseudo mobile campaign
This study w as organized into two phases
(1) transmission of the pseudo mobile cam-
paign, and (2) questionnaire survey via
mobile device (Figure 2 . In tbe first phase
we sent mobile advertisements that con-
tained pseudo-campaign messages with
hyperlinks to access further campaign
information on the mobile site. D2 Com-
mun ications (D2C), tbe largest mobile ad-
vertising agency in Japan, collaborated in
tbis study by creating the pseudo adver-
tisem ents. It offered its Message F, a
push service that delivers textual and vi
sual information from advertisers to opt-in
users only. Tbis service bas been success
fully used as a campaign tool by many
firms, such as P&G, Sapporo Beer, and
Panasonic (Senden Kaigi, 2004).
In addition, we contacted two large Jap
anese manufacturers, both listed in tbe
first section of tbe Tokyo Stock Exchange
who agreed to collaborate in the experi
ment and allow us to use their most pop-
ular brands as real stimuli in tbe campaign
One company manufactures a sophisti
cated portable audio player (i.e., durable
good), whereas the other makes a puffed
com snack (nondurable good). Both brands
are firmly established in tbe Japanese mar
ket. After designing textual and visua
information for tbe mobile advertise
ments, we created a promotional mobile
site to which respondents could jump by
clicking a ban ner saying Please click here
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Figure 1 Research Model
for further information in the adver
ments (Figure
2 .
Again, as an incenti
participate in the campaign, we offer
free ring-tone and a present (a
coupon).
Questionnaire design
In tbe second pbase, which took p
approximately one week after that t
mission, we contacted the customer
sending another mobile message con
ing a structured questionnaire and as
for tbeir impressions and perception
Push Mobiie Advertising
Mel
Carl Present for
10 000 people
Sales campaign
Buy our Carl and win
a sweepstake
because 10 00 0
people can get a
mysterious picture
book. Free screen
image applications
too...
Please click here for
NTT DoCoMo:
This message is free
of packet
transmission charges.
One week
later
Invitation to
the survey.
structured Questionnaire
Explanation of
the incentives
for participants
Question items
to measure five
constructs and
demographics
Figure 2 Research Design
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adve rtisem ents, we created a promotional mobile
o which respondents could jum p by clicking a banner
ng Please click here for furthe r informa tion in the
is critical in online surveys
1 9 9 8 ; Sheehan, 2 1 ;
The questionnaire consisted of two parts.
k the app ropriate box to indicate their
tic differential scales, with 3 ( cann ot
answer/determine ) as an anchoring point.
All surveys w ere completed by the end of
July 2005.
RESULTS
Response rate
For each type of product, 40,000 pseudo-
campaign messages were sent to the opt-in
users. Thus, 80,000 messages were sent in
total. The respondents were randomly cho-
sen from the customer database in the
greater Tokyo Metropolitan District area,
including three nearby prefectures. The
click-through rate was estimated at ap-
proximately 17 percent for the durable
good sam ple and 13 percent for the non -
durable good sample. Thus, approxi-
mately 6,800 and
5 200
consumers ,
respectively, actually chec ked the link.
In total, we received 1,335 usable re-
sponses for the audio player and 1,899 for
the com snack, which made the response
rate, based on the total clicks, approxi-
mately 19.6 and 35.5 percent, respectively.
All the surveys were completed by the
end of July 2005.
Respondent profile
Table 2 summ arizes the major demo graph-
ics of the respondents for each sample
(durable and nondurable goods) in terms
of gender, age, and occupation. Generally
speaking, the respondents of both sam-
ples exhibited very similar characteristics.
The proportion of female respond ents out-
weighed their male counterparts, while
the differences across the samples were
not statistically significant p= .423). Nei-
ther did the occupational patterns differ
across the samples (p = .071). However,
for age, a chi-square test detected signifi-
cant differences between the two brands
{p =.004). Participants un der 19 years old
responded more for the audio player, while
those between 30 and 34 years old re-
sponded more for the corn snack. Al-
though the sample was not stratified
according to age, it was somewhat ex-
pected to receive a reasonable num ber
of responses from older age groups. How-
ever, our results were consistent with prior
research in that people over 40 years old
hardly replied to our survey invitations.
Measurement assessment
The research model was tested by struc-
tural equation modeling (SEM), which is
an approach to modeling complex depen-
dencies among unobserved or hypoth-
esized variables, such as perceptions,
beliefs, and attitude. With SEM, any vari-
able can serve as a predictor of any other
variable, whether it is observed or hyp oth-
esized. By simultaneously evaluating de-
pendencies am ong variables, SEM extends
traditional modeling techniques by pro-
viding additional insight into the under-
lying nature of relationships. Thus, this
approach is considered to be appropriate
to test causal relationships between the
five constructs of brand trust, mobile ad-
vertising trust, attitude toward brand, at-
titude toward mobile advertising, and
mobile campaign recall. We used AMOS
5.0 to conduct all the analyses.
According to the recommendations made
by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we first
tested the measurement model by con-
ducting a confirmatory factor analysis.
This is a necessary proce dure in establish-
ing measurement reliability and validity.
J u n e 2 7 J O y R l lI l L O F H D U E R T IS IIIG R E S E H R C H I 7
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T A B L E
2 -96,
Comparative
Fit
Index
(CFI) =
haracteristicsof theRespondents( )
increme ntal Fi t index
I F I ) = . 9 5 ,
and
Mean-Square Error of Approxim
Durable Good Nondurable Good
(RMSEA) = .055. All indicated an ac
W=1 , 3 3 5 ) /V = 1 , 8 9 9 ) f Test
able fit of the model. Further, all the i
_
loaded onto the corresponding factors
1^ . A-^R A Oo
stan dar diz ed coefficients greater than
Reliabili ty
was
m e a s u r e d
via
C
....i: f ^^
56.4 57.8 ;64 (p = .423)
bach 's a lpha, compo si te re liabihty,
an
Age
erage variance extracted.
As
clearly
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3 il^ advertising to mobile campaign recall
and
Val id i ty
^^^
^ ' y ' '^^^*(standardizedp
= .i4)
Second, in the nondurable good sam-
verage pie, two paths were found to be insigni-
Composite Variance
ficant:
(1) the
path f rom mobile a dver t is ing
struc ts lpha Reliability Extracted trust to attitude toward brand, and (2) the
, ,., ^^ ^ path from attitude toward mobile adver-
rand trust .60 .90 .43 ^
tising to mobile campaign recall. The path
obile adyertisirig trust .73 .94 .53 from attitude toward mobile advertising
de toward brand .71 .96 .59 to attitude toward brand exhibited the
de toward mobile advertising .56 .85 .40 strongest effect (standardized ^ = .95)
while the path from mobile advertising
obile cannpaign recall .83 .98 .71 , , , . ,
trust to attitude toward mobile advertis-
ing was the second (standardized /3 =
.85).
The effects from both attitudes to
brand: This path was negative but tude toward brand to mobile campaign mobile campaign recall were similar to
insignificant. Among the struc- recall was also strong (standardized ji = those in the durable good sample,
paths, the one from mobile advertis- .56). A similar strength was also observed On the basis of these findings, we con-
rust to attitude toward mobile in the path from attitude toward mobile elude that Hypotheses HI, H2, H4, and
strongest (standard- advertising to attitude toward brand. How- H6 were supported by our data, but Hy-
/3 = .83) while the effect from atti- ever, the effect from attitude toward mo- potheses H3 and H5 were rejected.
4
Model Results
Durable Good
Standardized
Nondurable Good
Standardized
zed Paths
e advertising trust >
->
e advertising trus t
-^
ude toward mobile advertisement
->
->
>
Attitude toward mobile
advertisement
Attitude toward brand
Attitude toward brand
Attitude toward brand
Mobile campaign recall
Mobile campaign recall
Coefficient t Vaiue
.8 3
.32
- . 12
.5 2
.1 4
.5 6
8.45
5.12
- . 9 2
3.34
3.53
7.30
X^
=482.02
P
* + *
* * *
.360
* * *
* + *
{df=57 p
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iViedlation anaiysis
Finally, we addressed Hypothesis H7 in
that two independent variables, attitude
toward mobile advertising and attitude
toward brand, were mediated causes: i.e.,
attitude toward mobile advertising would
affect mobile campaign recall through at-
titude toward advertised brand. Because
of the structural model results in the pre-
ceding section, this hypothesis was tested
for the durable good only.
In order to test this mediation, we fol-
lowed the procedure recommended by
Baron and Kenny (1986). Specifically, the
following conditions were examined: (1)
attitude toward mobile advertising has a
positive effect on the mobile campaign
recall in the absence of attitude toward
brand; (2) attitude toward mobile adver-
tising has a positive effect on attitude
toward brand; (3) attitude toward brand
has a positive effect on mobile campaign
recall; and (4) the effect of attitude toward
mobile advertising on mobile campaign
recall is reduced in the presence of atti-
tude toward brand. We found that all the
mediating conditions were satisfied. There-
fore, Hypothesis 7 was supported by the
data.
iVIuitigroup analysis
A subsequent multigroup analysis de-
tected statistical differences across the two
models in three structural paths: (1) the
path from brand trust to attitude toward
brand {t = 5.18, p .001), (2) the path
from attitude toward mobile advertising
to attitude toward brand (f = 3.31,p
.001),
and (3) attitude toward brand and
mobile campaign recall (f = -4.14, p
.001).
This finding also corroborates that
the mediation effect of attitude toward
brand is only observed in the durable
good sample in the preceding section: Con-
sumers evaluations on the mobile adver-
tis ing campaigns across two product
A mobile campaign s m em orability is likely to depe
on perceptions of both the medium and the advertis
content. Especially, we should note that the effects
mobile advert ising trust on att i tude toward mob
advert ising were stronger than those of oth
relationships.
types were very dissimilar in terms of the
overall results in the structural paths.
LliVIITATiONS
To make our findings more objective, we
must acknowledge a few limitations. First,
although i-mode has been exported to
many countries, the data transmission en-
vironment in Japan and the psychological
readiness of people there to accept mobile
advertising may not be directly applica-
ble to other countries. Any international
generalization of the findings must be
treated with caution.
Second, our response rates based on
the total clicks were m odest, and it should
be taken into account that those respon-
dents represent only a small portion of
total mobile advertising subscribers. There-
fore, any future extension may need to
combine both offline and online survey
methods to reach a core portion of mobile
advertising subscribers and to better un-
derstand the nature and extent of any
response bias involved.
DiSCUSSiON
Theoreticai impiications
This study provides useful and important
implications for m-commerce researchers
in several ways. First, it provides em-
pirical evidence that not only attitude
toward brand but also attitude toward
mobile advertising affect the level of
bile campaign recall. That is, a m
cam paign s m emorability is likely to
pend on perceptions of both the med
and the advertised content. Especially
should note that the effects of mobil
vertising trust on attitude toward m
advertising were stronger than thos
other relationships.
Second, there are notable differenc
the strength of the paths across the p
uct types (i.e., durable and nondu
goods). In particular, a careful obs
tion of the standardized coefficient
veals that the path from attitude to
brand to mobile campaign recall
notably and statistically stronger for
durable good sample than for the
durable good sample. Furthermore,
tude toward brand is a mediating var
in linking attitude toward mobile ad
tising and mobile campaign recall
in the durable good sample. This im
that, as far as the durable good is
cerned, mobile campaign recall seem
rely primarily on the strength of the b
to be effective.
Third, our data indicate that mobil
vertising trust may negatively influ
attitude toward brand, although this
was statistically insignificant in both
ples.
This result somewhat corrobo
Tsang, H o, and Liang s (2004) stud
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HOW MOBILE ADVERTISING WORKS
Taiwan (KG Telecommunications), and the
Netherlands (KPN Mobile NB) in 2002; in
Italy (WIND Telecomunicazioni) and Spain
(Telefonica Moviles) in
2003;
and in Aus-
tralia (Telstra Corporation) and Greece
(COSMOTE) in 2004 (NTT DoCoMo, 2003a,
2003b, 2004a, 2004b). By the end of June
2004, i-mode users outside Japan ex-
ceeded 3 million (NTT DoCoMo, 2004c).
European users are said to spend an in-
cremental 6 to 10 euros ($8 to $13) a
month on i-mode services (Greenwood,
2004). As 3G-enabled mobile handsets pro-
liferate worldwide, many point out that
i-mode potentially may be one of the most
influential business models in mobile in-
ternet technology (Okazaki, 2006; Sadeh,
2002; Scuka, 2003).
S HINT RO O K Z K I
Ph.D..
U niversidad Autonoma
de
Madrid)is anassociate professorofmarketingat the
CoilegeofEconomics and Business Administration,
Uhiversidad Aut6noma
deMadrid, Spain.His
research
interests focus ontheareasofcross-cultural issues
in international advertising, electronic and mobile
commerce,and knowledge diffusioninsocialnet
works.
Hisworkhasappearedinthe
Jourrtal of
Adver-
tisir g.
the
tnternatior al Journa l of Advertisirig,the
Journal
of
International Marketing, Information
Man-
agement,t he
European JournalofMarketing,
Inter-
national Marketing
Review,
Internet
Research,the
JournalofMarketing Communications,
the
Journal of
International Consumer Marketir\g, Computersin
Human
Behavior,
Electronic Markets,
among others.
Dr. Okazaki serves
on
several editorial b oards.
Includ-
ing the
Journal of Advertising,
the
International Journal
of Advertising,
the
JournalofPublic Policy Marketing,
Internet Research, the JournalofElectronic Commerce
Research,
t he
Journal
of
Website Promotion,
and
Inno-
vative Marketing.
KIHIRO K TSUKUR is adeputy directorat theGroup
Companies Auditors O ffice
of
Dentsu Inc.,
Japan.He
isarecognized authorityin thefieldsofaccount
plan-
ning,
branding, and m edia strategy, and
has
more
than30yearsofexperiencein theadvertising indus-
try.
Hisarticles have appearedinmany academicand
professionai publications.HeholdsaB.A. from
Waseda University,
Japan.
M M O R U NiSHiYAiMAis anassociate account supervi-
soratDentsu Inc.,Japan.He hasbeen engagedin
various account planning activities.
He
holds
a B.A.
fromtheUniversityofOsaka andanM.A. fromthe
University
ofTokyo, Japan.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research
was
funded
by a
grant from
the
Japan Academy
of
Advertising,
The
authors
appreciatively acknowledge technical support
provided
by D2
Communications
Inc. for the
data collection. They also thank
the
anony-
mous reviewers
for
their very helpful, insight-
ful,
and constructive commentson theearlier
versions
of
this article. Please address
all cor-
respondence
to
Shintaro O kazaki.
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