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Ecological Engineering61P (2013) 706–714

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering

 journa l homepage: www.elsevier .com/ locate /ecoleng

Laboratory study on the potential use of recycled inert construction

waste material in the substrate mix for extensive green roofs

Slobodan B. Mickovskia,b,∗, Kirsty Bussa, Blair M. McKenzieb, Birol Sökmener c

a Civil Engineering Department, University of Dundee, Nethergate, DundeeDD27HR, UK b James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK c Jacobs Engineering UK Ltd., 95 Bothwell Street, Glasgow G2 7HX, UK 

a r t i c l e i n f o

 Article history:

Received4 August 2012

Receivedin revised form 11February 2013

Accepted11 February 2013

Available online 11 April 2013

Keywords:

Green roofs

Sustainability

Recycled aggregate

Constructionwaste

Drainage

Slope stability

a b s t r a c t

Green roofs, definedas roofs of buildings that are partiallyor completely coveredwith vegetationplanted

in a growing medium can provide multiple sustainability benefits. There is potential to increase the

sustainabilitybenefitsof green roofs byusingrecycled constructionmaterials for greenroof construction.

This study investigates the viability of  using recycled aggregates in the substrate mix for extensive

green roofs where a ‘carpet’ of plants is supported by lightweight growingmedia (substrate) overlying a

drainage layer. We investigated the adequacy of recycled inert construction waste as a growthmedium,

the drainage properties of the substratemix containing recycled materials as well as its susceptibility to

erosion and resistance to slidingwhen placed on a slope.

In this laboratory studywe compared the establishment, development and performance of both grass

and sedum model green roofs under simulated rainfall and found that the substrate mix containing

recycled construction waste materials was adequate in supporting plant growth, was resistant to ero-

sion and slippage and capable of providing good drainage. When vegetated, the ‘green roof’ can provide

attenuation of the drainagewater with magnitude depending on the type and percentage of vegetation

cover.

We attempt to put the results of this small scale laboratory investigationon extensive green roofs intothe wider perspective of sustainability benefits offered by the green roofs.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

A ‘green roof’ (sometimes referred to as ‘living roof’ or ‘vege-

tated roof’) is a building roof that is partiallyor completely covered

with vegetation planted in a growing medium over a waterproof 

membrane. Green roofs may include root barriers, drainage and

irrigation systems.

Green roofs serve several purposes, such as intercepting and

retaining rainwater, providing insulation, creating habitat for

wildlife, helping to lower urban air temperatures and combattingthe heat island effect (Grant et al., 2003; Dunnett and Kingsbury,

2004; Dunnett, 2006; CIRIA, 2007; Berndtsson, 2010). There are

two types of green roof: intensive and extensive.While the inten-

sive green roofs arethicker andcansupport heavyplants including

trees, extensive green roofs usually have a ‘carpet’ of plants sup-

ported by lightweight growing media overlying some form of a

∗ Corresponding author. Present address: Glasgow Caledonian University, 70

Cowcaddens, GlasgowG4 0BA,UK. Tel.: +441412731105.

E-mail address: slobodan.mickovski@gcu.ac.uk(S.B. Mickovski).

drainage layer. Standard construction and operation principles as

well as codes ofpractice exist inmany countries suchasFLL (2002)

in Germany and GRO (2011) in theUK.

Recent green roof research has focussed on thermal bene-

fits including reducing the urban heat island effect (Kumar and

Kaushik, 2004; Lazzarin et al., 2005; Onmura et al., 2001) andpro-

ducingsuitablehabitatsto promotebiodiversityandwildlife(Grant

et al., 2003; Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; Dunnett, 2006). Con-

currently, research on the hydrological properties of green roofs

has operated on an experimental plot scale (Berghage et al., 2007;Gregoire and Clausen, 2011; Stovin, 2010) showing the contribu-

tion of green roofs to theattenuationandretentionof stormwater,

aswell as decrease in annual runoff.

The integrated approach of managing the excess rainfall water

and satisfying the need for water on a building or settlement scale

has been investigated in the past (VanSeters et al., 2007; Berghage

et al., 2007;Newtonet al., 2007), and found tobe dependant onthe

green roof make up, local climatic conditions, atmospheric depo-

sition characteristics and rainfall chemistry. Green roofs are often

quoted to provide additional environmental benefits including the

use or re-use of recycled materials in their construction (Dunnett

0925-8574/$ – see front matter© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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S.B. Mickovski et al. / Ecological Engineering 61P (2013) 706–714 707

and Kingsbury, 2004; Thormark, 2006; Carter and Keeler, 2008;

Berndtsson, 2010).

Apart fromstudieswith limited coverageof theissue(Kolbetal.,

2001; Roth-Kleyer, 2001; Fischer andJauch, 2002; Emilsson,2008),

the potential to add environmental benefits by using recycled

aggregates in green roof construction and operation, which is

the main objective of this study, has not been explored in detail.

Recycled aggregates are derived from reprocessed constructionwaste as an alternative to quarried material. Examples include

recycled concrete from construction and demolition and railway

ballast that together represent more than 25% of the total aggre-

gates used in the UK (QPA, 2007). Incentives exist to increase

this percentage and thus decrease waste to landfill (WRAP, 2011).

Acknowledging recycled materials may contain pollutants (e.g.

heavy metals, PAHs, etc.), and that any use must comply with

proper environmental restrictions this study focuses on the use of 

recycled inert construction wastematerial.

Some of the problems and issues related to the use of inert

recycledconstructionwaste ingreenroof constructionareexplored

here. These include the adequacy of the recycled material for use

in the substrate, the drainage and attenuation properties of sub-

strate containing recycled materials, the susceptibility to erosion,

as well as overall stability of the vegetated substrate against slid-

ing/failures. The establishment and early development of physical

model green roofs, vegetatedwith grass and sedum,was recorded

and is discussed in the following sections, together with their

performance under different durations of simulated rainfall. The

strength of the substratemixpermeatedwith grass rootswasalso

investigated in order to help understand the maximum slope for

green roof installation.

Additionally, an attempt is made to put the results of this

small scale laboratory investigation on extensive green roofs into

the wider context of the sustainability benefits offered by the

green roofs. They are seen to offer a more sustainable approach

to stormwater management contributing to Sustainable Urban

DrainageSystems (SUDS)andRainwaterHarvesting(RWH), where

naturalcatchmentprocesses(infiltration,conveyance, storage,bio-logical treatment) control runoff qualityandquantity (CIRIA, 2007;

Stovin, 2010) but also addressing urban water quality and provid-

ing amenity value.

2. Materials and methods

The green roof test-beds consisted of growth trays filled with

substrateand plantedwith test species, a channel tocollect surface

runoff and subsurface channels to capture basal drainage.

 2.1. Growth trays

High density poly-ethylene (HDPE) trays (408mm×310mm×86mm; volume 0.011m3; Camlab Ltd., Cambridge, UK) were

used as growth trays. At the bottom of the tray, was a 10mm

thick layer of plastic chips (diameter 1–2mm covered with nee-

dle punched polypropylene geotextile secured to the sides of the

tray to serve as a drainage layer for the substrate. Below this,

the base of each tray was perforated to allow basal drainage to

the plastic ducts that were installed inside and below the trays

(Fig.1). Thesurface runoffchannelwaswrappedinneedlepunched

polypropylene geotextile to prevent sediment entering the

channel.

Surface runoffwascollectedin ameasuringbeakerwithgradua-

tionscale(±5ml) thatwasconnected tothe surface runoffdrainage

channel via a 6mm diameter plastic pipe (Fig. 1). Anothermeasur-

ing beaker was used to collect the basal drainage from the tray.

Fig. 1. Schematic of thegrowth tray with modifications allowing quantification of 

drainage.

 2.2. Substrate

Amixture of calcareous (65%weight) andsiliceous (35%weight)

aggregate from construction and demolition waste was sourced

from local waste management and disposal services (WasteCare

Ltd., Livingston, Scotland). The sourced coarse gravel- and cobble-

sized aggregate was crushed to

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layer wereweighed, before the substrate was added in 10mm lay-

ers and compacted. The weight of the full tray was recorded and

the test repeated three times for each tray.

After the preliminary tests, trays were filled producing 75mm

thicksubstratelayer, using this establishedmethod. Each layerwas

compacted after being laid with onepassing of a concrete cylinder

with 50mmdiameter, 200mm length and a mass of 3.5kg.

 2.4. Seeding, planting, and growth conditions

After packing, the trays were left to settle for 24h before plant-

ing. Five trays were planted with Sedum lydium, an alpine plant

species commonly used in green roofing. The plants were sourced

from established nursery stock (Sedum Supply Ltd., Welshpool,

UK) and were of uniform size (approximate radius 80mm)when

planted in the trays. The planting density of the Sedum plants

was 6 plants per tray–3 rows×2 columns, spaced equidistantly

between thetray edges.Theremainingfivetrayswere seededwith

a standard grass seedmix (25% Perennial ryegrass Lolium perenne,

20% Creeping red fescue Festuca rubra, 30% Hard fescue Festuca

longifolia, 10% Smooth stalked meadow grass Poa pratensis, 10%

Brown top bent grass  Agrostis capillarys, and 5% White clover Tri- folium repens; Hogarths Ltd, Preston, UK) at 50g/m2 rate. One tray

was packed using the method described above and left unplanted

to beused as a control.

All trays, including the control, were kept in a controlled envi-

ronment glasshouse (day 20±3 ◦C, night 14±3 ◦C) and watered

regularly (approx. 300ml of water per day per tray) over the sub-

sequent 2 weeks. After the initial 14 day growth period, the water

supply was terminated for 7 days prior to each rainfall simulation

experiment taking place.

Digital photographs of each tray were taken on a daily basis.

These were used to determine the area of established veg-

etation (‘green area’) as a proportion of the total tray area

using a freely available pixel-counting programme (ImageJ;

http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/index.html).After 21 days the grass had grown to approximately 120mm,

andthesedumplants expandedon average40mm inradius(Fig.3).

 2.5. Rainfall simulation experiments

To assess the ability of the green roofs to attenuate and retain

rainwater, as well as to potentially offset the peaks in rainwater

discharge, rainfall simulation testswere performed. A rainfall sim-

ulator comprising a closed line of 48 syringe needles (6×8 grid

forming a 500×500mm frame) was used to supply mains water

dispersed over a fine wire mesh (Ball et al., 1999). An empty tray

under the mesh collected the rainfall for a set time to determine

theflowrate andtherainfallvolumetheoreticallyreachingthesub-

strate. This procedure was replicated three times for each rainfallduration: 15, 30, and 60min. The replication, intensity and dura-

tion of the simulated rainfall were chosen to minimise variability,

ensure robust analysis and to focus on the comparable behaviour

of growth trays under different vegetation.

Before a rainfall simulation test, each traywas exposed to a dry

period of 7 days. After the dry period, each growth tray, including

the control, was placed in sequence in the test area of the simula-

torata 10◦ slope, takingcare that thesimulatormore than covered

thearea of thetray and, thus,minimising anyedge effects. Foreach

rainfall simulation test, surface runoffandbasaldrainagewere col-

lectedand thevolume (ml)wasrecorded.Once thepre-determined

rainfall durationwasachieved, thegrowthtray wasremoved from

the rainfall simulator and placed onto a bench at the same angle,

taking care not to disturb the drainage flow that continued to be

Fig. 3. (a) Typical growth trays after planting/seeding with Sedum lydium (front

row) and grass (back row). Typical short and long grass samples (b), and typical

vegetation cover for Sedum lydium (c) after 5 weeks fromseeding/planting.

measured.Each tray, including thecontrol, wassubject to separate

tests under 15, 30, and 60min rainfall.

After all rainfall simulation tests had been conducted on the

trays seeded with grass, the grass was cut to a uniform length

(approx. 50mm). The growth trays with cut grass were allowed a

7 dayantecedent dryperiod, then testedunder therainfall simula-

tor in the samemanner as the original lengthgrass, and the results

compared.

 2.6. Surface runoff and drainage analysis

 2.6.1. Soil and water pH 

Todetermineanyeffectof thechemical compositionof thesub-

strate and/or chemical reactionwith the vegetation, we tested the

pH of the substrate and the drainage water both at the begin-

ning andat theendof theexperimentalprogramme. Differences in

drainage water pH after rainfall events of different duration were

considered possible if leaching from the substrate mix occurred

( Javed, 2011). This test was a preliminary check to test whether

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S.B. Mickovski et al. / Ecological Engineering 61P (2013) 706–714 713

rainwater harvesting (RWH). Green roofs can be used as part of 

RWHsystems inorder tocontribute towards reducing thepressure

on centralisedwater supplyanddistribution systems (Dixon et al.,

1999). As RWH from conventional roofs could provide potentially

better quality and larger volumes of water, the sustainability and

the cost-effectiveness of RWH from green roofs approachmaynot

be evident on a single-building scale and should be analysed on

a larger (e.g. catchment, settlement) scale (Roebuck et al., 2011).Adding green roofs as part of RWH systems, especially for non-

potable water use, require less maintenance, particularly where

the water is captured on the roof surface and passed through the

recycled aggregatesubstrateacting as a primary filter. In this case,

themaintenance is likely tobeonanannual basis (CIRIA, 2001a). If 

RWH from green roofs is used to replace the mains water supply,

the mains water savings from the green roof systems will depend

onthelocalrainfallpatterns, roof or catchmentsize,andsizeof col-

lection tanks,andwill begreatestwhere there isa large roof area to

building users ratio such as offices, schools or factories. Although

conventional roof and RWH from it will produce larger quantities

and better quality of water to be used as mains water, the use of 

green roof as part of the RWH could provide additional sustaina-

bilitybenefits in termsof improvingbiodiversityand offsetting the

carbon footprint of the building.

This study shows no evidence of detrimental quality of the

water drained through the green roofs and suggests possible use

of the drained water for non-potable purposes. The present study

investigated the use of inert construction waste material in the

substrate mix and ‘pollution’ beyond pH change, turbidity, and

nutrient leaching, as aspects of water quality directly dependent

on the substrate type, was not expected. It should be noted that

the views on the potential water quality risks usually range from

fears of permanent leaching of nutrients to endorsements of the

drainedwateras ‘natural’or environmentallybenign(Stovin, 2010)

while in reality the water quality is likely to depend upon the

type of substrate, the local climatic conditions, atmospheric depo-

sition characteristics and rainfall chemistry (CIRIA, 2001a; Stovin,

2010). The results of this study showed an increase, albeit not sta-tistically significant, in the pH levels of the soil after the rainfall

simulation. The pH levels of the drained mains supplywater were

measuredonlyto investigateanydifferencesbetween thedrainage

from different vegetation types. The pH, nutrient screening and

turbidity were used in this study to highlight potential for pollu-

tion stemming from the use of certain type of substrate mix and

vegetation type without detailed chemical analysis for pollutants

with a view of using the drainedwater for non-potable purposes.

To ascertain the existence of an effect of the substrate mix and

vegetation type which could potentially preclude the use of cer-

tainrecycledaggregateorvegetationtype,longer-termlarger-scale

studies with monitoring of the changes in the substrate chem-

istry shouldbe carried out, coupled withmonitoring of the rainfall

chemistry and varying the composition of substrate and vegeta-tion cover. With such studies, the quality of the drained water

can be recorded over a longer period and investigated in more

detail.

Further research shouldbe concentratedon thequality aspects

of the rainwater drained or collected from the green roofs. While

this study touched upon theaestheticandchemicalquality param-

eters such as turbidity and pH, future studies should investigate

the microbiological aspects of the collected rainwater (bacteria

and pathogenic organisms) as well as the physical parameters

(dissolved solids, etc.) as these are aspects also considered as bar-

riers to uptake not only of green roofs, but also of rainwater for

use in buildings (CIRIA, 2001b). Long term monitoring on larger

scale experimental or working green roofs, where the values of 

total suspended solids and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) are

measured, will contribute towards understanding of water filtra-

tion process through the substratemix and the potential leaching

of nutrients or organic content into the harvested rainwater. High

values of DOC in the harvested rainwater may prohibit its use if 

it is disinfected by chlorination, such disinfection could lead to

high concentrations of disinfectant by-products (Mendez et al.,

2010). Also, the leakage of pollutants into the drainage water

from non-inert recycled material used in substrates need to beinvestigated.

The shortcoming of this study was the small scale of the exper-

imental setup which was ideal for laboratory conditions but the

results of which may not be easily extrapolated to a large scale

deployment of green roofs particularly in colder climates. How-

ever, theobjectivesof this studywarrantedand theresults justified

the scale of the experiment as a feasibility study and the first step

into the investigation of the use of recycled construction waste

aggregates for green roof construction.

Acknowledging that different climates will have different

effects on growing media and vegetation (Stovin, 2010) this study

provided an accurate parametric investigation analysis on sev-

eral sustainability and environmental benefits of green roofing.

Other environmental benefits that mayaccrue fromimplementing

more sustainable green roofs will include amenity opportunities,

reduction in the urban heat island effect, biodiversity and eco-

logical enhancements, as well as rain water quality improvement

through filtration and bio/phyto-remediation and storm water

runoff reduction. More large scale trials andmonitoring through a

longer time periodareneededon different substratemixes aswell

asvegetationmixes inorder toascertainthe ecological advantages,

especiallywith regardstomaintenanceof thesystem.Furthermore,

monitoring of live green roofsneeds tobe carried outand recorded

for specific climate and vegetation conditions in order to realisti-

callycapturethe establishment,developmentphases,andresponse

of green roof construction to different environmental conditions

such as seasonal and temporal changes in temperature, humidity,

insolation, and precipitation.

5. Conclusions

This laboratory study investigated the potential for use of 

recycled construction waste in extensive green roofs substrate,

the investigation focussed on the establishment of vegetation, as

well as the drainage properties of such substrate under different

simulated rainfall events. Providing an accurate parametric inves-

tigation and analysis on several sustainability and environmental

benefits of green roofing, the main conclusions of this study are as

follows:

•  Grass and sedum can effectively establish on a relatively thin

and lightweight substratemixcomprising recycled constructionwaste in laboratory conditions.

•   Substrate mix comprising recycled construction waste (20%

weight), inert loam (65%) and compost (15%), can provide

relatively free-draining properties (e.g. high coefficient of per-

meability; Bear, 1988), and also attenuation and drainage flow

retardation.•  Thematerial in themixwas relativelystable, unlikely todisperse

and hence likely to resist erosion.• The root permeated substrate had increased shear strength,

allowing even steeper roof slopes to be stable.•  There is no evidence of detrimental quality of the water drained

through the substrate suggesting, subject to rainwater quality,

that green roof drainage may be appropriate for non-potable

purposes.

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•   The use of recycled construction waste for green roof construc-

tion has wider environmental implications in terms of reducing

the amount of landfill waste.

 Acknowledgements

This research was funded by a Dundee University scholarship.

The help of Michael McNamara with the laboratory shear tests,as well as the advice and guidance of Dr M.F. Bransby are greatly

appreciated. We thank the Scottish Government Rural and Envi-

ronment Science andAnalytical Services (RESAS) for funding from

the Sustainable Agriculture–Plants Programme.

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