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clear that it is decisive to include the existing building stock in the quest for a more sustainable builtenvironment. Hence, it is important, how the existing building stock is managed.

This paper explores the role of FM in relation to sustainable development in the existing building stock. First,the role of FM in managing the flow of energy and matter is investigated. Secondly it is show that there ismore to FM than managing the flows. The concept of space management is central and can be used toquestion the concept of sustainable building. FM has a potential for being a part of a more professionalplanning of the maintenance of the existing building stock. Benchmarks and collection of data about thebuildings performance are an important part of FM, they could be further developed to support sustainabledevelopment.

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The president of the International Facilities Management Association, Sheila Sheridan, closed the EuroFM2004 conference by stressing the importance of sustainability in future FM. Attention was paid to the energyefficiency of existing buildings. The Danish Facilities Management Association is planning a special meetingon sustainable facilities management in September 2005. This can be seen as indications of an increasedattention on sustainable facilities management among professional facilities managers.

A number of Danish facilities managers take part in a benchmarking network, reporting their key-figures to acentral database. The participants are primarily people managing business facilities. Using their figures, onecan estimate the average costs of the resource flows water, sewage, waste and energy to be 26- 27 % ofthe total budget for the daily operation of the business buildings (Malmstrm 2001, Jensen 2001).

Interviews with facilities managers carried out in an ongoing project reveal a range of views on theimportance of the resource flows. Facility managers pay attention to the resource flows and the cost ofresource flows. It is a part of their professional behavior to avoid unnecessary costs. They emphasize theprofessional facilities managers role in reducing the flows of energy and other resources. Much attention is,however, paid to the companies core activities. The companies core activities must not be at risk in trying toreduce the flows of energy and matter. If the choice is between an energy efficient solution and a solutionthat secures a 100 % stable indoor climate, many facility managers will tend to choose the last one,especially if they are responsible for buildings with a large turnover per m

2like shopping centers. Even in

office buildings, the cost energy and other resources are infinitesimal compared with the value of theproduction the value of the production is perhaps 4000 SHUP

2and the cost of resources 10 SHUP

2

(Jensen 2001). Even green companies like Novo Nordisk have to focus on the stability of the workingenvironment rather than the cost of energy and other resources.

The most advanced Danish municipalities have sustainable facilities management of the municipal buildingsas an integral part of their work for a sustainable development, striving for showing other building ownershow to handle their buildings in a sustainable way.

The Danish public housing is about 20% of all dwellings in Denmark. In numbers, it is 487300 dwellingsorganized in about 700 housing associations and about 8000 housing departments (Danmarks Statistik 2001,Boligselskabernes Landsforening 2004). The core function is to provide good and affordable housing foreverybody on a non-profit basis. Two important developments did take place during the 70s and thebeginning of the 80s. One was the growing concern for the environment the pioneers of sustainablehousing moved to the countryside and developed their own sustainable settlements. Later, the attempts tobuild sustainable houses moved to the towns, being described as bykologi (directly translated to urbanecology with a much stronger emphasis on the technical aspects than in the English interpretation ofurban ecology) (Jensen et al 1998). The other development was the response to the accelerating socialdecay in some of the social housing areas, recognizing the lack of strong social networks in these areas.This led to numerous experiments and reports, describing methods used to develop social networks(Adamsen & Fisker 1986; Ebbe & Friese 1985; Kierkegaard et al 1988; Elle 1991). This development can befound in our neighboring countries, too (Svane 2002).

Facilities management is not only about saving costs through better management, it is about generating

more value. In some projects the question of environmental sustainability is used to catalyze processes thatcreate more social sustainability. A project concerning water savings was for instance used to organize theresidents in local actions, creating a strong local social network. In this project it was evident that thephysical change of the water installations applying water saving devises was far from enough. Peoplehad to become involved in the process if the water saving was to be permanent (Elle 1991). The publichousing sector has a long tradition of involving residents in different actions, experimenting with differentmethods, increasing the social capital. (Gibson 1984). How to combine resource savings with increasedsocial capital is one of the important lessons that can be learned about sustainable facilities managementfrom the Danish public housing sector (Nielsen et al. 2004).

Studying facilities management in different sectors makes it clear that sustainable facilities managementshould not be reduced to only a matter of reducing the flows of energy and matter in operation of the building.One has to take the business core activities into consideration, too, remembering that the core activities

The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference,Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)

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could be to provide good and affordable housing. Alternative, more sustainable solutions must notendanger the smooth operation of the core activities. Furthermore, it is very important to bring attention tothe possible extra values gained by using facilities management, for instance an increased social capital or abetter working environment.

An increase in the professionalism of facilities managements will no doubt hold the potential for a furtherfocus on reduction of the use of energy and water and the generation of waste and wastewater. This is not,however, facilities managements most important contribution to sustainable development in the builtenvironment.

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Space management is an indispensable sub-discipline in facilities management. The apparent need forspace is enormous, with Danes leading in the use of space. The total use of floor space is approximately120 m

2per person, and of that, the use of floor space for housing is approximately 60 m

2per person

(www.statistikbanken.dk). The apparent need of buildings has increased with a factor between 4 and 5 injust one century (Elle et al 2004(b)). This is a trend in still more EU-countries, according to the EuropeanEnvironmental Agency (EEA), who notes: (XURSHDQVPD\XVHPRUHHQHUJ\HIILFLHQWDSSOLDQFHVLQWKHLUKRPHVIRUH[DPSOHDVDZKROHWKHLUKRPHVFRQVXPHPRUHHQHUJ\WKDQWKH\GLGEHIRUH (EEA, 2001).Indeed, space management should be a key issue in a sustainable development of the building stock bearing in mind that the most sustainable building is the building that is not being built (Lading 2000).

Space management is concerned with the use of floor space. It is usually applied to the use of office space.More and more space is being used per person working in offices. In some cases in older buildings 40 50

m2

per person is used, in well planned, modern office buildings the figure is 15 30 m2

per person. Thisfigure can even be lower by introducing new forms of working (Jensen 2001). The focus in spacemanagement is not only to make efficient use of the space the primary goal is to create good workingconditions for the modern employees in the knowledge society, supporting the informal communicationbetween the employees and stimulating their creative capacities (Mosbech 2004). In The Palaces andProperties Agency under the Danish Ministry of Finance the total use of floor space per person was reducedfrom 39 m

2to 27 m

2.

The notion of space management leads to one of the most central questions concerning sustainablebuildings. ,VLWSRVVLEOHWRFRQVLGHUDEXLOGLQJDVVXVWDLQDEOHZLWKRXWFRQVLGHULQJWKHDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHEXLOGLQJ" Does it make any sense to refer to x/m

2as an indicator of the sustainability of a building with x

= heat consumption, electricity use, water consumption etc? The civil engineers and architects cannot decidethe actual use of a building. They can, however, in their planning of the building make an intense use of thebuilding possible (or not).

The concept of space management might be used at societal level and in other sectors. In Denmark, a part

of the explanation of the extremely high use of floor space for housing per person is the number of elderlypeople living alone in a large detached house. It could benefit the Danish society if these persons had betteropportunities to move to a denser, elderly-friendly environment. This would decrease the need for newhouses for young families. The public housing sector could make an effort to teach the residents how toreplace the need for more space with a more efficient use of the existing floor space teach the residentsways of compact living (Graining 1999).

Among urban planners in Europe, the compact city has been the solution to the question of sustainabledevelopment. The city should be compact, the functions in the city should be integrated, and existing urbanspace should be used before taking new land into use (CEC 1990). The compact city is necessary todevelop efficient public transport. Most cities, however, suffer from becoming less and less denselypopulated, as their citizens demand more and more floor space. This is a threat to the existing publictransport in cities. The compact city can only be really compact (in number of persons per hectare), if itscitizens learn to live in a compact way.

Interaction between people, networking, is decisive in the modern knowledge based society. The increased

isolation of people is a trend that threatens the development of the social capital and societys economicbasis. You have to break the trend of bowling alone (Putnam 1995). This interaction is closely related withthe density of the city. It is very hard to develop the life between the houses in a scattered city, with only 20 25 people per hectare as in many suburban areas with single detached housing. It is essential to have manypeople to make the meeting places function. The knowledge society is dependent on peoples possibilitiesfor informal networking; the pattern from advanced design of working space is repeating itself in aneighborhood scale. The boundaries between urban planning and facilities management are blurred.

In restad Nord the new urban development in Copenhagen - the businesses have formulated a strategyfor making the urban environment function in terms of informal meetings. Instead of having lunch facilities inevery company, the companies have made an agreement with a number of small local restaurants and cafs,making it possible for the employees to have a cheap meal. This arrangement is rather unique in a Danishcontext; most employees are restricted to their workplace during the working day. The eating out


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arrangement will probably catalyze a number of informal meetings between the employees of different smallbusinesses.

Facilities management and space management teach us to IRFXVRQWKHDFWLYLWLHV in the buildings insteadof the size of the floor space. It is not interesting to speak about very large buildings with few activities assustainable buildings. Can a 230 m

2-large detached house for a single family be called sustainable, even if

it uses 30 % less energy for heating per m2

than an average house? You have to go into details with the(possible) activities, if you have to assess whether a building is sustainable or not.

Space management can be a tool for more efficient use of floor space. The compact city is central to

sustainable urban planning, but the compact city will only make sense, if it is compact in respect to thedensity of people. Space management is a tool that can catalyze informal networking in different scales ofthe built environment; hence it can be a decisive tool for the economy.

)DFLOLWLHVPDQDJHPHQWDQGVXVWDLQDEOHPDLQWHQDQFHRIEXLOGLQJV

A number of existing buildings are in urgent need for maintenance and repair, at least in Europe. The lack ofprofessionalism in the maintenance strategy and the lack of professional competences among the decisionmakers are major reasons for this.

A study of the strategies for maintenance of almost 100 single-owner occupied houses in Denmark turned upwith rather depressing results. None of the house-owners showed any interest in what could be calledenvironmental sound maintenance. Their main focus was on the appearance of their house, not on itsenvironmental performance. Much cosmetic repair was carried out, sometimes with devastating results.Money is spent on renovating the k itchens and bathrooms to make them look fashionable, whereas very littleattention is paid to spending money on improving the insulation or checking the water installations (Almlundet al 2002). One of the reasons, among a number of other reasons, might be that in modern life many of thenegative impacts of human activity are invisible and intangible. Most people have seen neither carbondioxide nor the greenhouse effect.

Similar conditions can be found in other areas of the built environment. Presently, there is much debate ofthe maintenance or rather the lack of maintenance of school buildings in Denmark. One of the reasonsfor the poor state of the buildings is very obvious: in general, far too little money has been allocated tomaintenance. Much better planning is needed (Petersen 2001). But even schools with a budget formaintenance of a reasonable size have a deficit in the building maintenance, because the decision makerslack a proper decision support. In one case, it has been decided to use most of the money for maintenanceto paint the interior wall of the school quite often more often than needed from a more professional view(painting quite often could, however, be a part of a plan for crime reduction). No money was left when theroof needed serious repair and the windows had to be changed.

A proper plan for maintenance is a decisive part of FM. It is essential to identify the different kinds of neededmaintenance in order to prevent unnecessary large repairs. The professional maintenance planning does notonly focus on clearly visible needs but also the more basic, often less visible needs of the building structure.One of the important in future facilities management is to develop ways of explaining decision makers theconsequences of inadequate maintenance: the costs of future repair is much higher than the money savedin maintenance.

In the municipalities it is often very hard for the civil servants to attract attention and money to dailyoperations and refurbishment of the municipal buildings it is clearly not an area for political focus. People,responsible for the technical performance of the building, see new ways of collaboration as a way of bringingmore political attention to building maintenance. They see new ways of collaboration as a possibility ofsaving the buildings that have been neglected (Kruse Hansen and Bruun Moesby 2004).

FM makes a distinction between and a link between the operation of the buildings and the core activities. Itopens up opportunities for a more professional management of the buildings. A number of cases illustratethat it is very hard for lay-people to plan a proper maintenance of buildings. Furthermore, maintenance of

buildings is not typically a focus area for politicians. New ways of collaboration which we will discuss inparagraph 6 is seen as a way of bringing back political attention to the area.

%HQFKPDUNLQJDQGGDWD

Measuring and defining key figures is an essential tool in facilities management, often related to theeconomical management. The Danish Facility Management Association has a special section for key figures.The companies related to this function report a number of important figures to a central database. Thefigures are primarily related to cost per m

2. They can be used for setting internal goals and comparing

different companies (Jensen 2001). It is possible to save approximately 10 % of the costs of operating abuilding by using the key figures in the right way using them as an inspiration for where to look for possiblesavings (Carlsen 2004). However, one should handle the figures with care. To use figures related to cost per


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m2

will not reflect the activities a building with a high activity level will probably have a higher cost per m2,

but be far more sustainable. Many companies use very detailed data in their management of the operation ofthe buildings. These data often reflect the actual use of the floor space and can be useful in the effort ofmanaging the facilities in a sustainable way.

A number of private companies have developed green accounts. Many housing associations anddepartments have worked with green accounts for electricity, heat, water, waste etc. The idea is that thevisualization of the consumption (and comparison with reference data or benchmarks) will make residentsmore aware of their own consumption, and lead to a decrease in consumption. There are many examplesshowing that the green accounts lead to awareness and reductions in consumption levels, but no generalevaluations on the effect of green accounts in housing areas have been made yet. A concept of GreenAccounting has been developed by the Danish Building and Urban Research, and used by manydepartments, but several associations have also developed their own concepts (Jensen 1999).

Municipalities develop green accounts too. In Denmark, the municipality of Albertslund, a Copenhagensuburb, started developing green accounts in 1992 and have developed them ever since. Today the greenaccount is an important part of the municipalitys Dogma 2000 project the strategy developed to enhancelocal sustainable development.

As key figures and benchmarks are an important part of FM, one can expect that an increased use ofprofessional FM will provide decision makers with more data. A further refinement of the data will bevaluable in sustainable facilities management, it is especially important to operate with the actual flow ofenergy and other resources, not only their economic impact. Furthermore, the data need to be related to theactual activities in the building, not only the used floor space.

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In recent literature on the development of society, the term networks play an increasingly important role.Networks of different kinds becomes decisive, the more traditional, rigid, hierarchical way of running societyis partly being replaced by softer but sometimes also less transparent ways. In the Danish literature thisprocess is described as the transition from government to governance (Sehested 2002). Parallel to this,private public partnerships are rapidly developing. Seen in a historical perspective, private publicpartnerships are hardly new, but rather the rule. The intention is that a common attitude will make it possiblefor both the public partners to exploit each others skills and strengths making the solution better than it wouldbe if they worked separately. (Akintoye et al. 2003). Both the public and the private partners have to getaccustomed to the new situation.

FM is the subject for a number of public private partnerships. In order to establish a partnership, a number ofthings have to be discussed. It is quite essential that the gap between the expected service and theperceived service the perceived service quality is minimized (Barret and Baldry 2003). It is not simple,

both parts have to be very detailed in their description of the expected effect of the work. Both hard and softissues need to be discussed. This process can be a process of enlightenment for the building owner: it mightbe the first time that the standards of operation and maintenance really are discussed (Kruse Hansen andBruun Moesby 2004).

The municipal civil engineers see this process from the buildings point of view some of them see PrivatePublic Partnerships (PPPs) as the only way of saving the quality of the building. One of their important gainsof the partnership is that a fixed untouchable sum is dedicated to the maintenance of the buildings it willnot be possible to postpone maintenance year after year and use the money for more politically sexyprojects. But the process is quite difficult for the local politicians. They have to fight against a number ofmyths concerning high costs and low quality of this kind of arrangements. Furthermore, they often have tosupport the small and medium sized local building companies it can be necessary to involve thesecompanies in the process. The process of development of a culture of partnership, a common set of values,is a process taking some time. It is decisive to be able to document the effect of the partnership in order tokeep the political organization on the right track and communicate the results in the right way to the local

inhabitants (Kruse Hansen and Bruun Moesby 2004).New forms of collaboration will be essential for sustainable management of cities. The city is not a company,the organizational structure is much softer the business way of environmental management cannot bedirectly implemented. The different elements in the city will have their own path towards sustainability.Sustainable urban management will have to recognise the many different actors and their characteristics.The uncertainties and the complexity of the informal organization of the city must be respected. The differentactors will have their own agenda for sustainable development factories, housings companies, utilities etc.Soft management methods have to be introduced. Partnerships could play an important role. Different kindsof intermediaries could be introduced as part of navigating towards a sustainable development (Elle et al2004 (a)).

Public participation is central in the development of a sustainable built environment. There are at least threedifferent reasons for having people participating in different kinds of processes. It strengthens democracy, it


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strengthens networks and it increases knowledge. Participatory processes have been seen as a cornerstoneof democracy in the Scandinavian countries. Hal Kochs writing just after WW2 interpreted participation asthe real democracy (Koch 1945). The German philosopher Jrgen Habermas shares the same ideal in hiscentral writing The Theory of Communicative Action (Habermas 1987). The participation can be of differentqualities, ranging from mere audits to a more active involvement. Participation is a key element in modernurban planning processes (Malbert 1998, Healey 1997) as well as the design and operation of buildings(Granath 2001). Participation is a major challenge for the building professionals, it is essential that decisionsare taken on the right basis a number of problems can be traced to participatory decision processes inwhich decisions are taken by lay-people with no proper decision support.

Private Public Partnerships can play an important role in future development of sustainability on severallevels. It is, however, important to realize that public private partnerships are not without problems. A centralproblem for the new partnerships is their potential lack of ability to handle innovation (Kock and Buser 2003).Another problem could be that the processes lead to less transparency (Sehested 2003). Studyingsustainable facilities management, it is quite essential to put public private partnerships and other new waysof collaboration on the research agenda (Elle et al 2004 (b)).

Seen from the buildings point of view, new forms of collaboration like public private partnerships, could leadto more attention to the operation and maintenance of buildings saving the neglected public buildings.Facilities management is in the focus of an increasing number of public private partnerships in Denmark.This can be seen as a part of the general change of the way society is managed and could be a part ofsustainable urban management. One should, however, be aware of the risk of making processes lesstransparent.

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Facilities management is a term that is still under development, the definition differs in both theory andpractice. Central to the perception of facilities management is, however, that it is an activity supporting corebusiness activities. It is a chance to focus on operating and maintaining existing buildings. In this paper, theterm sustainable facilities management has been used as an empty concept, exploring the potential of theconcept of Facilities Management in relation to sustainable development.

An immediate reaction to the term sustainable facilities management will link it to the flows of energy andother resources in buildings. Managing the flows in the building is a part of facilities management. Howimportant this part is perceived by the facilities managers depends on the character of the core activity. It isdecisive that the core activity is not threatened by for instance alternative ways of handling the indoor climate,especially if the core active is private shopping. In the public housing companies much attention is paid toreducing the resource flows. It is used as a way of branding the company and as an excuse for involvingthe residents in activities that strengthen the local social networks.

Space management is a central feature in facilities management. The increase in floor space used perinhabitant is a major threat to sustainability. The buildings might use less resource per m

2, but with an

increased use of floor space per person, the final result is unsatisfactory in terms of sustainable development.Space management is probably one of facilities managements strong potentials in the quest for sustainabledevelopment, bearing in mind that the most sustainable building perhaps is the building that is not being built.At the same time, space management inspires to raise a critical question to sustainable building: ,VLWSRVVLEOHWRFRQVLGHUDEXLOGLQJDVVXVWDLQDEOHZLWKRXWFRQVLGHULQJWKHDFWLYLWLHVLQWKHEXLOGLQJ"Furthermore, it can be argued, that space management is quite decisive if the urban planners idea of thecompact city has to make any sense in the perspective of sustainable development.

Facilities management holds a potential for improving the maintenance of existing buildings, bringing in moreprofessionalism in the planning of maintenance. A number of buildings (at least in Denmark) are in need ofmaintenance. Non-professional focus on the visible needs, they are using far to many resources on cosmeticrepair. Maintenance is often not a politically hot topic.

Benchmarking and data are essential in facilities management. It is necessary to measure in order to be able

to manage. Collection of data to a central database, enabling comparisons between different buildings, is acentral function for the Danish Facilities Management Association. The data is, however, closely linked to thecost per m

2in the perspective of sustainable development it would be useful with even more detailed data.

The way society is managed is changing rapidly. Networks and soft ways of managing come into focus.Private Public Partnerships is one of the new ways of collaborating. Facility management is the topic of anumber of partnerships established or under establishment in Denmark. This could bring back some politicalattention to the maintenance of buildings, partly because a partnership would include a dialogue concerningthe quality of maintenance of the buildings. Furthermore, partnerships concerning facilities managementcould secure that a certain amount of money actually was used for maintenance and not for politically moresexy projects.


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In this paper, until now, sustainable facilities management has been used as an empty concept. Hopefully ithas become clear to the reader that the potential of facilities management is much more than just dealingwith the resource flows in the building. If one is to try to define sustainable facilities management, one optionis to build on the Chalmers Initiative definition of facilities management: 6XVWDLQDEOH)DFLOLWLHV0DQDJHPHQWLVWKHGHVLJQDQGFKDQJHRIIDFLOLWLHVDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIVHUYLFHVUHODWHGWRIDFLOLWLHVEDVHGRQUHTXLUHPHQWVGHULYHGIURPXVHUFRUHDFWLYLWLHVDQGVRFLHW\VGHPDQGIRUVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQWHPEHGGLQJERWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFSHUVSHFWLYHVRIVXVWDLQDEOHGHYHORSPHQW.Sustainable facilities management has the potential to play a decisive role in the necessary sustainabledevelopment of the existing building stock.

3HUVSHFWLYHV

Facilities management is still an emerging concept; a number of people are gradually becoming aware of thefact that they are actually facilities managers. Opportunities for interaction between local governments andfacilities managers are opening op. Facilities managers could be important actors in the development ofmore sustainable cities, being the intermediaries between local governments strategies for sustainabledevelopment and the individual users of the buildings.

Facilities management could also have an impact on the way buildings are designed in the future buildingscould be designed with facilities management in mind. It is, however, too early to really trace the possibleimpact of facilities management on the building design.

5HIHUHQFHVAdamsen, L. and Fisker, J. 1986, Socialt forsgsarbejde I boligomrder (social experimental work in housingareas in Danish), AKF, Copenhagen

Akintoye, A., Beck, M. and Hardcastle, C. 2003, Public-Private Partnerships, Managing Risks andOpportunities, Blackwell Science, Oxford

Alexander K. (eds), 1996, Facilities Management Theory and Practice. Spon Press. London.

Alexander, K. Atkin B., Brochner J and Haugen T., 2004, Facilities management -Innovation andperformance- Taylor & Francis, London.

Almlund, P.; Jessen, A. and Elle, M., 2002. kologisk renovering og vedligeholdelse af parcelhuse(Sustainable renovation and maintenance of single houses in Danish). Ministry of Environment and Energy,Copenhagen

Barrett, P. & Baldry D.2003, Facilities management -towards best practice-, 2. ed. Blackwell. Oxford

Becker, F. 1991, The Total Workplace Facilities Management and the Elastic Organisation, Van NostrandReinhold, New York

Carlsen, H. 2004, Benchmarking af ejendomme (Benchmarking of Buildings In Danish), Stads- ogHavneingeniren, no.3, pp. 47 48

Chalmers FM Iniative, http://www.fm.chalmers.se/php/allmant_e.php

EEA, 2001,: Environmental signals 2001. EEA, Copenhagenhttp://themes.eea.eu.int/Sectors_and_activities/households/indicators.

Commission of the European Communities, 1990, Green Paper on the Urban Environment, (EUR 12902 EN),CEC, Brussels

Ebbe, K. and Friese, P. 1985, Miljarbejde en grundbog om forebyggende socialt arbejde I lokalsamfund,(Environmental projects an introduction to social projects in neighbourhoods in Danish), AkademiskForlag, Copenhagen

Elle, M. 1991, Aktiv Beboerinddragelse (Active Involvement of Residents in Danish), Detkriminalprventive Rd, Copenhagen

Elle, M., Balslev, S., Hoffmann, B. & Jensen, J.O. 2004 (a): The Seven Challenges of Sustainable Cities. InProceedings from the COST C8 final Conference: Sustainable Urban Infrastructures: approaches solutions methods. Trento, Italy, 6-8 November 2004. Temi Editrice, Trento, pp 379-387

Elle, M.; Engelmark, J; Jrgensen, B. Koch, C; Nielsen, S.B. and Vestergaard, F. 2004(b), ManagingFacilities in an Scandinavian Manner Creating a Research Agenda, in Facilities, 2004, 22 (11/12) pp. 311 -316

Gibson, T. 1984, Counterweight The Neighbourhood Option, TCPA, London

Graining, J. 1999, Compact Living, Octopus Publishing Group, London.


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Granath J.A. 2001, Architecture - Participation of users in design activities. International Encyclopedia ofErgonomics and Human Factors. Accessed athttp://www.fm.chalmers.se/uploaded/publikationer/architecture.pdf

Habermas, J. 1987, The Theory of Communicative Action, The Critique of Functionalist Reason, Vol. 2,Policy Press, London.

Healey, P. 1997 Collaborative PlanningMacmillan,London

Jensen, O. M. 1999, Grnt regnskab for boligomrder (Green Accounts for residential areas In Danish),Danish Building and Urban Research, Hrsholm

Jensen, P. A. 2001, Hndbog I Facilit ies Management (Guide to Facilities Management In Danish), DanishFacilities Management Association, Taastrup

Kirkegaard, O., Kristensen, H. and Varming, M. 1988, Sdan forbedres etageboligomrder katalog overideer til forbedring af nyere boligbebyggelser (How to improve multi-storey housing areas In Danish),Danish Building and Urban Research, Hrsholm

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Koch, H. 1945, Hvad er Demokrati (What is democracy? in Danish) , Gyldendal, Copenhagen

Kruse Hansen, R. and Bruun Moesby, S. 2004, Nye samarbejdsformer mellem offentlige og private parter proces og effekt (New forms of collaboration between public and private partners process and effect inDanish), Master Thesis, BYGDTU

Lading, T. 2000, De store bygningers kologi (The ecology of large buildings in Danish), paper presented

at the Danish Parliaments Conference Bykologi (Urban Ecology) 29 May 2000Malbert, B. 1998, Urban Planning Participation: Linking Practice and Theory, dissertation, Department ofUrban Planning and Design, School of Architecture, Chalmers University of Technology. Gteborg.

Mosbech, K. 2004, Workspace Organizational Goals and Physical Environments, PLH Arkitekter,Copenhagen

Nielsen, S. B., Elle, M., Hoffmann, B. & Jensen, J. O. 2004, Sustainable Facilities Management: lessons tolearn from the Danish public housing,

Petersen, K. S. 2001, Albertslund redder forsmte skoler (The municipality of Albertlund saves neglectedschools), Danske kommuner, no. 24, 2001

Putnam, R. D. 1995, Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. Journal of Democracy Vol. 6, 64-78.Sehested, K. 2002, Netvaerksstyring I byer (Governance in Cities in Danish), Copenhagen

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