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    C h a p t e r 7

    ULTWVIOLET P N D V I S I B L E L I G H T SPECTROSCOPY

    R o b e r t A . SCHOONHEYDT

    K a t h o l i e k e U n i v e r s i t e i t L e u ve n, C en tru m v o o r O p p er v l ak t e sc h e ik u n d ee n C o l l o i d a l e S c he i ku n de , D e C r o y l a a n 4 2 , B-3030 Leu ve n, Belgium .

    7 . 1 INTRODUCTION

    The d i c f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f c l a y m i n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s which ca n b e

    s t u d i e d by u l t r a v i o l e t ( u . v . ) a n d v i s i b l e ( v i s . ) l i g h t sp e c t r o s co p y

    a r e s um m ar iz ed i n T a b l e 7 . 1 . I t i s c l e a r t h a t u s e f u l c he m ic a l

    i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o fo un d i n t h e n e a r i n f r a r e d ( n . i . r . ) and t h i sr e g i o n i s t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r ev ie w.

    TABLE 7 . 1

    C la y m i n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s s t u d i e d b y u . v . - v i s . - n . i . r . s p e c t r o s c o py

    L a t t i c e S p e c t r o s c o p i c S u r f a c e S p e c t r o s c o p i cp r o p e r t e s d om a in s p r o p e r t i e s d om ain s

    A b s o r p t i o n e d g e U . V. S u r f a c e

    u . v . , v i s . , n . i . r .m r r o b i l i z e dt r a n s i t i o nmeta l i o n s

    L a t t i c es u b s t i t u t e d u.v. , v i s . P d s o r b e dt r a n s i t i o n n . i . r . c h r o r o p h o r e s u ' v ' vis 'm e t a l i o n s

    V i b r a t i o n a lo v e r t o n e s a nd n . . .c o m b i n a t i o n

    b a n d s

    A l t h o u g h a s t u d y o f t h e a d s o r p t i o n e d g e i n i t s e l f i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g

    r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t , o n e i s h i s t o r i c a l l y i n c l i n e d t o work w i t h " wh it e "

    s am p le s , t h a t i s , s am p l es w i t h a b s o r p t i o n e d g e s be yo nd t h e

    s p e c t r a l r e g i o n o f i n t e r e s t (X 5 0 , 0 0 O ~ r r - ~ ) .

    m o s t s t u d i e d c l a y r n - i ne ra ls , h e s m e c t i t e s , h e a b s o r p t i o n e d geb e g i n s below 5 0 , 0 0 O ~ m - ~ n d r e a c h e s i t s maximum ab ov e 5 0 , 0 0 O ~ r - ~ .

    I n t h e s e c a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t s p e c t r o s c o p i c i n f o r m at i o n c an s t i l l b e

    g a t h e r e d f r om t h e U . V. r e g i o n .

    F o r t h e

    The ch an ge t r a n s f e r a nd d-d b an ds o f t r a n s i t i o n n e t a l i o n s c o n t a i n

    i n f o r m a t io n a b ou t t h e f i r s t c o o r d i n a t i o n s p h e r e . They a r e t h e r e f o r e

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    p ro be s f o r i so m or ph ic s u b s t i t u t i o n . I n t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a r s p a c e

    t h e d i r e c t c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s u r f a c e ox yg en s t o t h e t r a n s i t i o nm e ta l i o n and t h e s u r f a c e - t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n

    c a n b e s t u d i e d . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e s u r f a c e c an b e c o n s i d e r e d

    a s a r i g i d a n i o n i c s o l v e n t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e s u r f a c e ox y qe n s

    a r e n o t c o o r d i n a t e d t o t h e t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l i o n .

    The n- n:: o r II+ :: t r a n s i t i o n s o f a d s o rb e d c hr o mo p ho r ic

    m o l e c u l e s a re s u b j e c t t o s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n s . A d s or p t io n ont h e c l a y s u r f a c e may i n d uc e a g g r e g a t i o n , r ed o x r e a c t i o n s o r a c i d -

    b a s e r e a c t i o n s .

    F i n a l l y , v i b r a t i o n a l o v e r t o n e s a nd c o mb in at io n b an d s n o t o n l y

    c o n t a i n in f o rm a t io n o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a d so r be d s p e c i e s b u t a l s o

    on i t s r o t a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y . The l a t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n

    e x t r a c t e d f rom t h e v + 6 b a n d o f H 2 0 on s i l i c a b u t i t s e x t e n s i o nt o c l a y m i n e r a l s p o s e s no p r o bl e m i n p r i n c i p l e ( K l i e r , 1973; K l i e r ,

    S he n a n d Z e t t l e m o y e r , 1 9 7 3 ) . I t s h o u ld b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o c om pare

    t h e r e s u l t s w i t h t h o s e o b t a i n e d by NMR o r ne u t ro n d i f f r a c t i o n .

    U . v. - v i s . - n . i . r . s p e c t r o s c o p y i s a l s o c om plem en tary t o e p r ,

    m a g n et i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y m e as ur em e nt s, M ijssb au er s p e c t r o s c o p y a nd

    ESCA, w hi ch a r e r e v i e w e d i n o t h e r c h a p t e r s o f t h i s b oo k.

    7 . 2 TECHNIQUES

    With t h e d im en si on s o f t h e c l a y p a r t i c l e s c om p ar ab le t o t h e

    w a v e l e n g t h l i t i s i m p o s s ib l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e phenomena o f

    r e f l e c t i o n , r e f r a c t i o n a n d d i f f r a c t i o n . The l i g h t i s s c a t t e r e d .

    F or c l o s e l y p a ck ed p a r t i c l e s ( d i s t a n c e b etw ee n p a r t i c l e s l e s s t h a n

    2 - 3 p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r s ) i n t e r f e r e n c e s a nd p ha se r e l a t i o n s a r i s e

    among t h e s c a t t e r e d l i g h t beams. To g et h e r w i t h a b s o r p t i o n o f l i g h t

    t h e s e s c a t t e r i n g phenomena s t r o n g l y i n h i b i t t r a n s m i s s i o n

    s p e c tr o s c o p y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , many q u a l i t a t i v e t r a n s m i s s i o n

    m e a s u r e m e n t s o n o r i e n t e d f i l m s o r s h e e t s h a v e b e e n pe r fo r m e d. A l l

    t h e s e s t u d i e s i n v o l v e i n t e n s e b an ds , e i t h e r d ue t o t h e i r l a r g e

    a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , o r t o a l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f

    a b s o r b i n g c e n t e r s . F o r " f o r b i d d e n " b a n ds o f a b s o r b i n g

    c e n t e r s i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( t h i s i s m o s t l y t h e casef o r t r a n s i t i o n m e t al i o n s ) o n e ca n u se e i t h e r d i f f u s e r e f l e c t i o n

    s p e c t r o s c o p y ( D R S ) o r p h o t o a c o u s t i c s p e c t r o s c o p y ( PA S ) . Botht e c h n i q u e s w i l l b e b r i e f l y com pared . F o r a d e t a i l e d s t u d y t h e r e a d e r

    s ho u l d c o n s u l t t h e b a s i c l i t e r a t u r e ( K o r t i i m , 1 9 6 9 ; K e l l e r m a n , 1 9 7 9 ;

    Ha rs hb ar ge r and Rob in , 1973 ; Monahan and N o l l e , 1 9 7 7 ) .

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    7 . 2 . 1 D i f f u s e r e f l e c t a n c e s p e c t r o sc o p y

    I n DRS t h e l i g h t i n t e n s i t y s c a t t e r e d a t a g i v e n w a v e le n g th

    f ro m an " i n f i n i t e l y t h i ck ' : c l o se l y -p a c ke d c l a y l a y e r i s compared

    w i t h t h a t s c a t t e r e d f rom an i n f i n i t e l y t h i c k l a y e r o f a

    n on -a bs or bi ng ( w h i te ) r e f e r e n c e . The r a t i o o f t h e l i g h t i n t e n s i t y

    s c a t t e r e d f ro m t h e c l a y t o t h a t from t h e r e f e r e n c e i s r e c o r d e d asa f u n c t i o n o f t h e w av el en gt h. T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e d i f f u s e

    r e f l e c t a n c e s pe ct ru m . T he re a r e 2 ways t o i l l u m i n a t e s a p p l e an d

    r e f e r e n c e . I n t h e f i r s t mode a d i r e c t , d i s p e r s e d l i g h t b e a r

    i m pi n ge s ' p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y on t h e sa m p le a nd on t h e r e f e r e n c e . The

    f i r s t l a y e r o f r a n d o m ly o r i e n t e d p a r t i c l e s s c a t t e r s t h e l i g h t i n a l l

    d i r e c t i o n s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e a n g l e of i n c i d e n c e ( L a m b e r t ' s l a w )

    and e n s u r e s d i f f u s e i l l u m i n a t i o n o f t h e o t h e r p a r t i c l e s . The

    l i g h t s c a t t e r e d f r om sa mp le and r e f e r e n c e i s c o l l e c t e d i n an

    i n t e g r a t i o n s p h e r e a nd d e t e c t e d by a PbS c e l l ( n . i . r . 1 o r a

    p h o t o m u l t i p l i e r ( v i s . - u .v . ) on t o p o f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s p h er e .

    B e ca u se t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s p h e r e m us t s c a t t e r t h e l i g h t and n o t

    a b s o r b i t , i t i s c o a t e d w i t h a p e r f e c t l y w h i te c o a t i n g ( K o r t i h ,

    1 9 6 9 ; K e l l e r m a n , 1 9 7 9 ) . I n t h i s way a n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l amount of

    s p e c u l a r r e f l e c t i o n ( o n t h e f i r s t l a y e r o f p a r t i c l e s ) i s i n c l u d e d .

    I n t h e s e c o n d mode o f o p e r a t i o n s a m pl e an d r e f e r e n c e a r ei l l u m i n a t e d w i t h d i f f u s e , u n d i s p e r s e d r a d i a t i o n , i t s d i f f u s e

    c h a r a c t e r b e i n g e n su r e d by t h e i n t e g r a t i o n s p h e r e .

    M ea su re me nts on l u m i n e s c e n t s a mp l es p r e s e n t i n p r i n c i p l e n o

    d i f f i c u l t i e s . I n mode 1 t h e a b s o r p t i o n s p ec t r um i s o b t a i n e d ,w h e r e a s i n m ode 2 b o t h t h e a b s o r p t i o n a nd l u m in e sc e nc e a r e

    r e g i s t e r e d . By s u b s t r a c t i o n t h e l u m i ne s c en c e s p e ct r u m i s o b t a i n e d .

    The e x p e r i m e n t a l sp e ct r um c o n t a i n s a n a b s o r p t i o n p a r t and a

    s c a t t e r i n g p a r t . A t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s no t h e o r y a b l e t o d e s c r i b e

    q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t h e phenomenon o f " d ep e nd e nt " m u l t i p l e s c a t t e r i n g ,

    as i t o c c u r s o n c l a y p o w de r s. T h e r e a re 2 a p pr o ac h es . I n t h ec o n ti n u u m o r ph e n o m en o l o gi c a l a p p ro a c h - t h e m o s t p o p u l a r - t h e

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s , c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e

    i n f i n i t e l y t h i c k l a y e r , a r e n e g l e c t e d . I n t h e s t a t i s t i c a la p pr oa c h t h e y a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c ou n t a n d t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e

    r e s u l t s d ep en ds on t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e model c h os en t o d e s c r i b e

    t h e p a r t i c l e s .

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    The b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r t h e p h en om en ol og ic al t h e o r i e s i s t h e

    r a d i a t i o n t r a n s f e r e q u a t i o n (Kortfim, 1 9 6 9 ) :

    d II i s t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t i n t e n s i t y o f a g i v e n w a v e l en g t h a n d

    i t s c ha ng e w i t h p a t h l e n g t h ; p i s t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e m edium;

    K i s a n a t t e n u a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t c o r r es p o n d i n g t o t o t a l r a d i a t i o n

    l o s s due t o b o t h a b s o r p t i o n and s c a t t e r i n g .

    j i s a s c a t t e r i n g f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d ' a s :

    p ( @ , $ , ~ ' , $ ' ) , h e p ha se f u n c t i o n , i s a m ea s u re o f t h e i n t e n s i t y ofs c a t t e r e d r a d i a t i o n i n t h e s o l i d a n g l e d o ' = s i n O ' d @ ' d $ ' i f a

    beam i n t h e d i r e c t i o n ( @ , ) s t r i k e s a m a s s e l e m e n t o f t h e medium.

    The o ne p a r a m e t e r a pp r o x im a t e s o l u t i o n of e q u a t i o n 1 , known ast h e S c hu s te r -K u b el k a- M u nk o r t h e K ub elk a-M un k e q u a t i o n , i s t h e

    m os t p o p u l a r ( K o r t k n , 1 9 6 9) :

    l i g h t i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t e d f ro m sa m pl e

    l i g h t i n t e n s i t y r e f l e c t e d f ro m r e f e r e n c eR m =

    K i s t h e a p p a r e n t a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t an d S t h e a p p a r e n ts c a t t e r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . E q u a t i o n 3 i s d e r i v e d f o r a n i n f i n i t e l y

    t h i c k l a y e r of random ly d i s t r i b u t e d p a r t i c l e s , s u b j e c t t o d i f f u s e

    r a d i a t i o n an d i s o t r o p i c s c a t t e r i n g . I t i s a r e m a r k a b l y g o o da pp ro x i ma t i on i n t h e l i m i t of low c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a b s o r p t i o n

    c e n t e r s ( H e c h t , 1 9 7 6 ; K l i e r , 1 9 7 2 ) . F o r s t r o n g l y a b s o r b i n g m ed ia

    s o l u t i o n s o f t h e r a d i a t i o n t r a n s f e r e q u a t i o n b a s e d upon a n i s o t r o p i c

    s c a t t e r g i v e a b e t t e r ac c ou n t o f t h e e x p e r im e n t a l r e f l e c t a n c e( H e c h t , 1 9 7 6 ) . F o r t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r i e s t h e o r i g i n a l l i t e r a t u r e

    s h o u l d b e c o n s u l t e d ( K el le r ma n , 1 9 7 9 ; M e l a m e d , 1 9 6 3 ) .

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    7 . 2 . 2 P h o t o a c o u s t i c S p e c t r o s c o p y

    The e n e r g y o f t h e a b so r be d r a d i a t i o n , w hi ch i s r a d i a t i o n l e s s

    r e l e a s e d , h e a t s u p t h e g a s e ou s m o l e c u l e s i n t h e i mm ed ia te e n vi ro nm e nt

    and a p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e r e s u l t s . When t h e i n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n i sc ho pp ed , p e r i o d i c p r e s s u r e ch a ng e s o c c u r . They p r o p a g a t e th r o u g h t h e

    g a s eo u s e n v i ro n m e n t an d a r e d e t e c t e d b y a m i cr o ph o ne . The i n t e n s i t y

    o f t h e m i cr o ph o ne r e s p o n s e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e amount o f a b so r be d

    r a d i a t i o n . T h u s , w h e n a w a v e l e n g t h r a n g e i s s c a n n e d , a " s p e c t r u m "i s o b t a i n e d . T h i s i s a p o w e r s p e c t r u m : t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s i g n a l

    i s n o t o n l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e n umber o f p ho to ns a bs or be d b u t a l s o

    t o t h e i r e n e r g y . The b an d p r o f i l e i n t h e p h o t o a c o u s t i c sp ec tr um

    a p p e a r s d i s t o r t e d d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h i g h f re qu en cy s i d e

    a b s o r b s m ore pow er t h a n t h e low f r e q u e n c y s i d e . F o r

    g a s eo u s s am p le s t h e m ol e c ul e s t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t i t u t e t h e medium f o r

    t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e p u l s e s . F o r l i q u i d s and s o l i d s a

    g a s e o u s e n v i r o n m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y .

    P o t e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e s of PAS o v e r DRE a r e : i ) n o p r o b l e m s w i t h

    s c a t t e r e d and s p e c u l a r l y r e f l e c t e d l i g h t ; i i ) a s y m e a s u r e m e n t s

    o f l u m i n e s c e n t m a t e r i a l s a nd i i i ) h e u s e o f s m a l l amounts o f

    m a t e r i a l . T h e m o s t s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n f o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e

    a p p l i c a t i o n o f PAS a t p r e s e n t i s t h e l a c k o f a f i r m t h e o r e t i c a lf o u n d a t i o n . The t h e o r y of R os en cw ai g a n d G e rs h o f o r n o n - s c a t t e r i n g

    s o l i d s h a s b ee n r ev i e w ed ( K e l le r m a n , 1 9 7 9 ) . F o r p ow de rs at h e o r y r e l a t i n g t h e PAS s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y t o t h e a b s o r p t i o n

    c o e f f i c i e n t , i s p u b l i s h e d (M on ahan a n d N o l l e , 1 9 7 7 ) . I t i s c l e a r

    how ever t h a t more t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l work i s n e c e s s a r y

    ( A d a m s , K i n g a n d K i r k b r i g h t , 1 9 7 6 ) . F or i n s t a n c e , u n c e r t a i n t i e s

    a r i s e d u e t o p a r t i c l e s h ap es an d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s i n

    t h e p ow d er ed s a m p l e s . A l s o , i f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h e r m al d i s t a n c eo f t h e f i l l e r g a s i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e p a r t i c l e d i a r r e te r , t h e

    p a r t i c l e s a r e t h e r m a l l y s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e

    PAS s i g n a l i n t e n s i t y i s s m a l l e r t h a n e x p e c t e d . F i n a l l y , no a cc ou n t

    i s g i v e n of t h e e f f e c t o f s c a t t e r e d l i g h t . I t h a s b e e n s h o w n

    e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t s c a t t e r e d l i g h t c o n t r i b u t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e

    PAS s i g n a l a t l o w o p t i c a l d e n s i t i e s o r / a n d h i g h r e f l e c t i v i t i e s . P

    f r a c t i o n o f t h e s c a t t e r e d l i g h t may r e a ch t h e c e l l w a l l s , b e

    p a r t i a l l y a b s or b ed t h e r e , t h u s p r o d uc i ng a ba ck gr ou nd s i g n a l

    d e pe n de n t on t h e o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s a m pl e a nd c e l l w a l l s . A

    s u i t a b l e c e l l d e s ig n w i t h t r a n s p a r e n t windows e l i m i n a t e s t h i s e f f e c t

    ( M cC le ll an d a nd K n i s e l e y , 1 9 7 6 ) . About t h e e f f e c t o f i n t e r -p a r t i c l e s c a t t e r i n g n o t h i n g i s known.

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    7 2 3 E x p e r i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

    r e q u i r e d b y e q u a t i o n 3 , a re m o s t c l o s e l y m e t when t h e mediumc o n s i s t s of d e n s i l y pa c ke d , r an do ml y s ha pe d p a r t i c l e s whose s i z e s

    a r e c o m pa ra bl e o r s m a l l e r t h a n t h e wa ve le ng th o f t h e l i g h t .

    C la y l a y e r s o f % 5mm t h i c k a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i n f i n i t e

    t h i c k n e s s c r i t e r i o n . F or work i n vacuum, a d s o r p t i o n s t u d i e s

    o r c a t a l y t i c e x p e r i m e n t s , s p e c i a l l y d e s ig n e d c e l l s a r e n e c e s s a r yw i t h s i l i c a windows w i t h e x t r e m e l y low OH a n d H 2 0 c o n t e n t s .

    I t i s a d v i s a b l e t o s i e v e t h e c l a y a nd t o work w i th i d e n t i c a l

    f r a c t i o n s . The s c a t t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s a r e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d

    by a ds or be d l a y e r s on t h e e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e s . T hu s, t h e H20

    c om b in a t io n an d o v e r t o n e b an ds i n t e n s i t i e s a r e n o t l i n e a r l y

    d e p e n d e n t on t h e am ou nt a d s o r b e d f r om c o m p l e t e d e h y d r a t i o n u p t o

    f u l l s a t u r a t i o n b e ca us e of a d s o r p t i o n o n t h e e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e i n

    t h e l a t t e r c a s e .

    The c o n d i t i o n s o f i s o t r o p i c s c a t t e r i n g an d d i f f u s e i l l u m i n a t i o n ,

    The p h o t o a c o u s t i c S p e c t r o m e t e r r e po n ds t o t h e t o t a l amount o f

    l i g h t a ds or be d i n t h e s am pl e w i t h i n a d e p t h r o u gh l y e q u a l t o t h e

    t he rm a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h . I f a l l t h e l i g h t i s a b s o r b e d w i t h i n t h a t

    d e p t h t h e s a m p l e i s p h o t o a c o u s t i c a l l y "o pa qu e" . Pn ex am ple i l l u s t r a t e s

    t h i s ( E G G PA R 6 0 0 1 P h o t o a c o u s t i c s p e c t r o m e t e r ) . A t am o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y of 40Hz t h e t h e r m a l d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h i n a n

    a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n i s of t h e o r d e r o f 30pm. The p h o t o a c o u s t i c d e t e c t i o n

    p r o c e s s w i l l o n l y y i e l d a m ea su re o f t h e l i g h t a b s o r p t i o n w i t h i n t h e

    30pm d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h . O p t i c a l a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s g r e a t e r t h a n

    I 3 0 0 0 ~ m - ~ a n n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n : t h e y w i l l

    a p p e ar e q u a l l y opaque t o t h e p h o t o a c o u s t i c d e t e c t i o n p r o c e s s .

    S o l u t i o n s t o t h i s p ro b l e m a r e ( i ) t o work w i t h s am p le s t h i n n e r t h a n

    t h e r e c i p r o c a l a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o r i i ) o i n c r e a s e t h em o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y . B o th m e th o ds h a v e t h e i r o d ds an d o pt im um

    c o n d i t i o n s h a ve t o b e c h os en d e p e nd e nt o n t h e p ro bl em u n d e r i n v e s t i g a -

    t i o n .

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    I n a ny c a s e f o r tw o -d im en si on al s o l i d s o r m a t e r i a l s w i t h weak

    s u r f a c e a d s o r p t i o n p r o p e r t i e s , a d so r be d g a s es ( t r a n s p a r e n t i n t h e

    s p e c t r a l r e g i o n o f i n t e r e s t ) d o n o t p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e

    p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e PAS s i g n a l . A l s o , t h e r m a l e x pa n si o n and c o n t r a c -t i o n o f t h e s o l i d a nd an y t h e r m a l l y i n d u ce d v i b r a t i o n a r e t o o s m a l l t o

    p r o d uc e a d e t e c t a b l e PAS s i g n a l .

    7 . 3 INTERLAMELLAR T R A N S I T I O N METAL I O N COMPLEXES

    T he r e a r e 3 t y p e s of t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e s p e c t r a : d - d , c h a rg e

    t r a n s f e r 'and i n t r a l i q a n d b an ds . The l a t t e r a r e o n l y o b s e r v e d w h e n

    m o l e c u l e s w i t h n d o r 7 1 4 ~ : : r a n s i t i o n s a r e c o o r d i n a t e d . The

    s p e c t r a w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s o l u t i o n s p e c t r a .

    T h i s a l l o w s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e b i d i r e n s i o n a l c l a y

    s u r f a c e o n t h e g eo me tr y and on t h e e l e c t r o n i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e

    a d s o r b e d c om p le xe s. T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l b e d i v i d e d i n 3 p a r t s ,

    d ep en di ng on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l i g a n d s : H 2 0 a nd l a t t i c e ox yg en s,

    a l i p h a t i c p o ly a m in e s an d a r o m a t i c m o l e c u l e s .

    7 . 3 . 1 Water and l a t t i c e ox yg en s

    [M(H20) 12+ c o m ple x es i n t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a r s p a c e .s p e c t r u m o f t h e s e h e x a qu o -c o m pl e xe s i s - w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f e x p e r i m e n t -

    a l accuracy-similar tothe a qu eo us s o l u t i o n s p e c t r a ( Kd ni g, 1 9 7 1 ; L e v e r ,

    1 96 8; Ta r a s e v i c h an d S i v a l o v, 1 9 7 5 a , 197513, 1 9 7 5 c, 1 9 7 7 ) . I n a i r - d r y

    s y st em s [ C U ( € ~ O ) ~ I * + o l l a p s e s t o t h e p l a n a r [ C U ( H ~ O ) ~ ] t h e 2

    o t h e r s r e ma in o c t a h e d r a l ( Ta r a s e v i c h and S i v a l o v , 1 97 5a ; Vel gh e ,S ch oo nh ey dt and U y t t e rh o e v e n , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h es e r e s u l t s a r e c o n f i r r e d by

    e p r ( C l e m en t z , P i n n a v a i a an d M o r t l a n d , 1 9 7 3 ) .

    H 0 - s a t u r a t e d Cu 11) -, Co 11) and N i 11) c l a y s h av e t h e o c t a h e d r a l2

    The d-d band

    2+

    T h a t C u ( I 1 ) p r e f e r s t h e t e t r a g o n a l l y d i s t o r t e d c o o r d in a t i o n( D 4 h symmetry) i s w el l- kn ow n i n i n o r g a n i c c h e m i s t r y ( Ha th aw ay a nd

    B i l l i n g , 1 9 7 0 ) an d a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e J a h n - T e l l e r e f f e c t . F or t h i s

    p l a n a r com plex t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f l a t t i c e o xy g en s t o t h e l i q a n d

    f i e l d i s n e g l i g i b l y s m a l l ( Ve l qh e , Sc h oo n he y dt an d U y tt e r ho e v e n, 1 9 7 7 ) .

    I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t e x a c t t o w r i t e [ C U ( H ~ O ) ~ ( O ~ ) ~ ]

    o x y g e n ) as s u g g es t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( T a r a s e v i c h and S i v a l o v , 1 9 75 a ) .

    I n s t r o n g l y d e h y d r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h e s p e c t r a d r a s t i c a l l y c ha n ge .

    2+ ( O Q = l a t t i c e

    The s c a t t e r i n g power of t h e m a t e r i a l i s a l t e r e d and t h e b ac kg ro un d

    h a s i n c r e a s e d s t r o n g l y : t h e s p e c t r a becom e i l l - r e s o l v e d . Band maxima

    a r e o n l y d e t e r m i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y . I t i s i n m os t cases i m p o s si b le t o

    d e c i d e o n t h e n um be r of c o m po n en t s u n d e r o n e b a n d e n v e l o p e . T he

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    a ss ig nm en ts pr op os ed a r e t h e r e f o r e i d e a l i z e d and t e n t a t i v e

    ( Ta r a s e v i c h a nd S i v a l o v, 1 9 7 5 a, 1 9 75 b , 1 9 7 5 ~ ; Ve l g h e , S c h o o n h e y d ta n d U y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 7 7 ) . R e s u l t s a r e s um marized i n T a b l e 2.

    They c o r re s p on d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g i d e a l i z e d d e h y d r a t i o n s e q u en c e s

    ( Ta r a s e v i c h , 1 9 7 5 ) :

    E s p e c i a l l y t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e 5 - c o o r d i n a te s p e c i e s a r e d i f f i c u l t

    3ho v i s u a l i z e i n t e rms o f t h e i d e a l i z e d Cl lV ( s q u a r e p y r am i d) o r D( t r i g o n a l b ip yr am id ) s t r u c t u r e s . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a l s o made

    d i f f i c u l t b y t h e p o s s i b l e p r e s e n c e o f d -d b a n d s i n t h e n . i . r .

    o u t s i d e t h e s p e c t r o m e t e r r a n g e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r Co 11) ( Ta r a s e v i c ha n d S i v a l o v, 1 9 7 5 3 3 ) .

    1 2 ( Ta r a s e v i c h a nd S i v a l o v , 1 9 75 a )w i t h a d-d band a t 14800cm-‘ is i n t e r e s t i n g .

    s y n t h e t i c z e o l i t e s A X o r Y [ C U ( O ~ ) ~ ]

    1 0 8 0 0 ~ m - ~ i t h a s h o u ld e r a ro un d 1 5 0 0 0 ~ m - ~ . The d i f f e r e n c e ( 14 80 0-10800) i n d i c a t e s t h a t C u ( I1 ) i s more s t r o n g l y c o o r d i n a t e d t o t h e

    s u r f a c e o x y g e n s of c l a y s t h a n t h o s e o f z e o l i t e s . I n t h e l a t t e r cases p i n - o r b i t c o u p l i n g and J a h n - Te l l e r e f f e c t s m us t b e i n c l u d ed i n t h e

    l i g a n d f i e l d c a l c u l a t i o n t o e x p l a i n t h e s p ec tr um ( S t r o n e an d K l i e r ,

    1 9 8 0 ) . B e t t e r r e s o l v e d s p e c t r a a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r c l a y s , b e f o r e

    m e an in gf u l l i g a n d f i e l d p a r am e t e r s c an b e d e r i v e d .

    The o b s e r v a t i o n o f [C u(O )I n d e h y dr a t ed

    h a s i t s band maximum a t+

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    TABLE 7.2

    S p e c t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s i c s of t h e a qu o complexes

    Band p o s i t i o n s ( c m - l ) P s s i gnn-en t s

    8 5 5 0 1 9 4 0 0 21 5 00 sh [ C O ( H ~ O ) ~ ] ~ +

    7 8 0 0 1 3 3 0 0 1 8 0 5 0 2 2 0 0 0 [Co ( H 2 0 ) ( O k ) 1 +6 3 2 0 ( 1 ) 7 2 5 0 ( 1 ) 8 1 3 0 1 5 7 5 0 1 7 26 0 1 8 7 60 [ C o ( O R ) H 2 0 12 +

    i 3 9 08 4 0 0 ( 1 3 8 T 2

    1 5 1 5 0154 50 2 )

    2 5 6 0 0

    1 4 5 0 0 2 5 0 0 0

    8 7 7 0 1 5 0 5 0 1 7 0 0 0

    1 4 4 0 0 2 4 8 0 0 2 )

    2 +lOOOOsh 1 2 6 5 0 [CU H20) 1

    1 3 00

    1 0 5 5 0 ( 1 3 100 (2 1 5 2 0 0 )[ c u ( ~ ~ 0 )2+

    1 4e00

    1 ) n o t o b s e r v e d( 2 ) Ve l gh e , S c h oo n he yd t a nd U y t t e r h o ev e n , 1 97 7; t h e o t h e r s p e c t r a

    a r e f r om Ta r a s e v i c h a nd Giva lov, 1 9 7 5 a , 1 9 7 5 b , 1 9 7 5 c .

    7 .3 .2 A l i p h a t i c p o ly a m in e s

    The c om pl e x e s o f t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l i o n s w i t h p o l y a m in e s on c l a y s

    h a v e b e en i n v e s t i g a t e d a s m o l e c u l a r p r o p s ( K nu d se n a nd M c Pt ee , 1 9 7 2 ;

    T h i e l m a n n a n d M c F t e e , 1 9 7 5 1 , as s o i l c o n d i t i o n e r s an d a s w a s t e w a t e r

    c l e a n e r s ( C r e m e r s , P e i g n e u r a n d Maes, 1 9 7 9 ) . The l a t t e r a p p l i c a t i o n sa r e c o ns e q u en c es o f t h e e x t r a - s t a b i l i t y g a i n e d b y t h e s e c om pl e x es

    o n t h e s u r f a c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r s t a b i l i t y i n a qu eo us s o l u t i o n(Maes a n d C r e m e r s , 1 97 9; S i l l e n a nd M a r t e l l , 1 9 6 4 ) . F o r e n

    ( = e t h y l e n e d i a m i n e ) a nd C u ( I 1 ) t h e dOOl d i s t a n c e of 1.2751111-

    ( Ve l g h e , S c h o o n h e y dt , U y t t e r h o e v e n , P e i g n e u r a n d L u n s f o r d , 1 9 7 7 , Maes

    ( i d e a l i z e d sy mm et ry = D 4 h ) i n t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a r s p a c e . T h i s s u g g e s t s

    t h e removal o f t h e l o o s e l y b ou n d a x i a l w a t e r m o l e c u l e s u p o n

    a d s o r p t i o n :

    a n d C r e m e r s , 1 9 7 9 ) i s i n d i c a t i v e f o r a p l a n a r c om ple x C u e n ) 2 +

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    [ C u ( e n ) H20

    The d-d band

    20200cm-1 a s

    S c h o o n h e y d t ,

    +[ C u ( e n ) 2 ] - c l a y + 2 N a + + 2 H 2 0 ( 7 )] 2 + + 2 N a - c l a y

    s y st em o f [ C u ( e n ) 2 1 - c l a y i s i n t h e r a n g e 1 9 4 0 0 -com pared t o 1 8 2 0 0 ~ m - ~ n a qu eo us s o l u t i o n ( Ve la h e ,

    U y t t e r h o e v en , P e i g n e u r a n d L u n s f o r d , 1 9 7 7 ) .

    F i g . 7 . 1 shows how t h e i n c r e a s e d t e t r a g o n a l d i s t o r t i o n , d ue t o t h e

    r ep la c em e n t o f t h e a x i a l w a t e r m o l e c u l e s by t h e s u r f a c e o x y ge n s ,

    a c c o u n t s f o r t h e h yp so ch ro mi c s h i f t . The e x p e r i n e n t a l b an d p r o f i l e s

    a r e s l i g h t l y a sy m m e t ri c t o w a r d s l o w e r w av en ur rb er s, b e c a u s e o f t h e

    t r a n s i t i o n s 2B-2B = lODq and 2B -2P t h e m a in b a n d

    b e i n g 2B -2E

    The c om p le te r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n s by G au s si an c u r v e

    a n a l y s i s i s shown i n F i g . 7 . 2 t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o r r e s p c n d i n g

    c r y s t a l f i e l d s t a b i l i z a t i o n e n e r g i e s ( C. F. F .E .) . T he r e i s a

    p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw ee n lODq, t h e i n - p la n e l i g a n d f i e l d s t r e n g t h ,

    t h e C .F .S .E ., and t h e a v e r a g e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e d e n s i t y

    o f t h e m i n e ra l . P s i m i l a r c o r r e l a t i o n w a s f o un d b et w ee n t h e a v e r a g e

    n e g a t i v e c h a r g e d e n s i t y an d t h e f r e e e n e r g y c ha ng e o f e x c h an g e ,

    AGO (Maes and C r e m e r s , 1 9 7 9 ) . I n f a c t , t h e v a l u e s of A G O a r e

    - w i t h in e x p e r i m e n t a l e r r o r - e q u a l t o A(C.F.S.E.1 = C.F.F.E. ons u r f a c e - C.F.S.E. i n a qu eo us s o l u t i o n . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t AGO i sg o v e r n e d b y e n e r g y t e rms .

    19 2 9 1 9 1 9 '( M a e s , S c h o o n h e y d t , C r e m e r s a n d U y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 8 0 ) .

    19 9

    The h e te r o g e n e o u s c h a r g e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r r i n e r a l s ( F t u l and

    M o r t i e r , 1 9 7 4 ) i s e x p e r i m e n t a l l y shown by t h e h yp s oc h ro m ic s h i f t of

    t h e d-d b a n d maximum w i t h d e c r e a s i n g e x c h a n g e l e v e l s (Maes,

    f c h o o n h e y d t , C r e m e r s a nd U y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h us , m i c r o c r y s t a l s

    w i t h t h e h i g h e s t c h a r g e d e n s i t y a r e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y e x ch an ge d i n

    c o n d i t i o n s o f p a r t i a l e x c h a n g e . I n t h e s e c r y s t a l s t h e s t r o n g e s t

    e l e c t r o s t a t i c i n t e r a c t i o n s ur f ac e- co m p le x e x i s t s . Bo th e f f e c t s ,

    r em o va l o f a x i a l H 2 0 and e l e c t r o s t a t i c i n t e r a c t i o n , a r e c o r r e l a t e d

    a s t h e f or m e r o c c u r s more e a s i l y on t h e m i n e r a l s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t

    a v e r a g e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e d e n s i t y (M aes a nd C r e n e r s , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h a t t h e

    a x i a l H 2 0 r e m o v a l i s a co ns e q ue nc e o f t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c i n t e r a c t i o n s

    i s a t p r e s e n t a u s e f u l w o rk in g h y p o th e s i s f o r w hic h no d i r e c t

    e x p e r i m e n ta l e v i d e n c e e x i s t s .

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    1 7 3

    9d :CU

    / ~ D s - DtOh

    8d : Ni

    dxy : b2g

    increasing tetr ago nal distortion

    Fig. 7.1 d-orbital splitting under D4h symmetry

    *I

    -

    -

    21421

    20.1

    m

    -

    -

    -

    217

    2417.4

    8In?

    -

    -

    -

    2071414

    198 193 CFSE(kJmoi )

    1 2 A Go (kJrnol- )5 A FSE

    2 +Fig. 7.2 d-d transitions, C.F.S.E. and AGO exchange) of Cu en)2

    on hectorite hect.) Otay and Camp Berteau montmorillonites

    Otay, Camp B.); 0.75 C.B. and 0.65 C.B. = Camp Berteau with

    respectively 75 and 6 5 of the original C.E.C.

    The Cu-N bonding of [Cu en)2]2+ on the surface is essentially the

    same as in solution Schoonheydt, 1978). This and the surface

    not being a ligand -or a weak one- suggests that the

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    1 7 4

    c l a y s u r f a c e i s a r i g i d a n i o n i c s o l v e n t t o w a r d s [ C ~ ( e n ) ~ ] ~ + .

    t h e LMCT ( l ig a n d - t o -m e t a l c h a r g e t r a n s f e r ) b an d on t h e c l a y s i s

    i n t h e r an ge 4 0 7 0 0 - 4 1 9 0 0 ~ m - ~ 4 0 0 5 0 ~ m - ~ o r CF30F

    a n d 43860cm -1 i n w a t e r.o f e n i n Cu (e n ); + on c l a y s i s 1 . 3 2 + 0 . 0 4 a u a i n s t 1 . 18 i n a qu eo us

    s o l u t i o n ( M a e s , S c h o o n h e y d t , C r e m e r s a nd U y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 8 0 ) .

    P h y s i c a l l y , t h i s i n c r e a s e means t h a t e n on c l a y s i s s l i u h t l y m ore

    b a s i c t h a n i n a qu eo us s o l u t i o n . Such a b e h a v i o r r e r i n d s u s o f t h e

    f a c t t h a t t h e f r e e e n e r g i e s o f e xc h an g e o f N a f o r a lk yl am m on iu m

    i o n s f o l l o w t h e g a s ph a s e b a s i c i t y s e q u e n c e (M ae s, Ya r i n e n a n d

    C r e m e r s , 1 9 7 7 ) . T hu s, t h e " s c r e e n i n g " power o f t h e s o l v e n t

    " h y d r a t e d c l a y " i s l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e s o l v e n t " w ate r " , b o t h f o r

    a lk yl am m on iu m i o n s a n d f o r C u ( e n ) 2 .

    I n d e e d ,

    a n d a t a b o u t

    F sa r e s u l t t h e o p t i c a l e l e c t r o n e u a t i v i t y

    +

    2 +

    A l l t h e s e r e s u l t s f o r Cu ( e n ) a p p l y t o N i 11) T h e b i s - c o r r p l e x

    i s e x ch a ng e d w i t h r em o v al o f t h e 2 a x i a l w a t e r m o l e cu l e s a nd

    [ N i ( e n ) 2 ] 2 + on t h e c l a y i s d i a m a g n e t i c ( Ve l g h e , S c h o o n h e y d t a n dU y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 7 9 ) . The d i am a g n e ti s m c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h

    r e f e r e n c e t o F i g . 7 . 2 . T h e r e m o v a l of 2 a x i a l F 2 0 m o l e c u l e s i n c r e a s e s

    t h e t e t r a g o n a l d i s t o r t i o n t o s u ch a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e e n e r g y d i f f e r e n c e

    b e t w e e n d 2 2 a nd d Z2 o r d e x c e e d s t h e s p i n p a i r i n g e n er gy . The

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b a n d of N i ( e n ) 2 - c l a y a t 2 1500crrf o l l o w i n g 3 t r a n s i t i o n s A- -1~

    T h i s c a n b e se e n fr om t h e en e r g y d i a q r a r o f F i g . 7 . 3 , c o n s t r u c t e d

    w i t h t h e e n e r g y m a t r i c e s o f a p p e n d i x 7 . 7 . Frorr a f i t o f t h e

    o b se rv ed s p e c t r u m w i t h t h i s l i g a n d f i e l d c a l c u l a t i o n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t

    R ac ah 's i n t e r e l e c t r o n i c r e p u l s i o n p a r a m et e r i s B = 788 - 995~117 andl O D q = 22800 - 2 4 0 0 0 ~ m - ~ .11200cm-I f o r t h e p a r a m a g n e t ic [ N i ( e n ) ( F2 0 ) 2 1Two e f f e c t s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s d i f f e r e n c e : t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e

    e f f e c t i v e n u c l e a r c h a r g e on N i and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e N i - N bond

    d i s t a n c e . I f t h e f or m e r i s s u p p o s e d t o b e c o n s t a n t , a maximurr v a l u e

    f o r t h e l a t t e r c an b e c a l c u l a t e d f ro m ( L e v e r , 1 96 8) :

    x -Y XY -1c o n t a i n s t h e

    'A -B a n d A-lE .2 9 ' 19 1g 19 g9

    -1

    The l a t t e r i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h e2+

    ( L e v e r , 1 9 6 8 ) .

    10 z e f f e 2 r 4lODq =

    a 5

    w h e r e Z e f f i s t h e e f f e c t i v e n u c l e a r c h a r g e an d a t h e N i - N bond

    d i s t a n c e . W i t h N i - N = 0.2124nm f o r t h e p a r a m a g n e t i c co mp le x

    ( M a r t i n , S p e r a t i a nd B u sc h, 1 9 7 7 ) o ne o b t a i n s f o r t h e d i a m a g n e t i c

    complex a v a l u e o f 0 . 1 8 3 n m .

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    1 7 5

    A , = 3 4 8

    8C

    -

    6

    40

    2

    A, = 3 0 B

    A, = 2 8

    e : m..---

    /

    .... ................. .> :_ _ _ . - - -............. _ic ........- - - /. +

    2Fig.7.3 Energy level diagrams for Ni(en)2 on clays

    Octahedral complexes do not undergo significant band shifts

    on the surface.

    [Ni en) H20) 12 disproportionate on the surface into bis-corplexes

    and aquo-complexes (Velghe, Schoonheydt, Lunsford, 1977; Velghe,

    Schoonheydt, Uytterhoeven, Peigneur and Lunsford, 1977; Velghe,

    Schoonheydt and Uytterhoeven, 1979). The stepwise adsorption

    of gaseous en on hydrated clays proceeds over the bis-complex :

    Mono-complexes such as [Cu(en) H20)412+ and

    [ M ( H 2 0 ) 6 1 2 + + 2en + [M(en)2]2+ + 6H20 V(en), (M=Ni , Cu) (9)

    With ligands such as dien(die thy1enetr iamine) and tetren(tetra-

    ethylenepentamine) an important amount of protonated 1igand.s is

    exchanged together with the complexes (Schoonheydt, Velghe, Baerts

    and Uytterhoeven, 1979). Dependkng on the water content thefollowing equilibria are observed :

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    +t e t r e n H + [ N i ( t e t r e n ) H 2 0 ) ] 2 + s 2 0 t e t r e n + [ I > t r e n H ) 3 + ( 1 0 )

    P l a d i a m a g n e t i c

    11 )

    - H Z O

    2dienH + + [ N i ( d i e n I 2 l + --H 2 0 2 d i e n + [ N i ( d i e n H ) 2 ]

    - H 2 0 p l a n a r , d i a m a g n e

    S i m i l a r r e a c t i o n s c a n b e w r i t t e n f o r Cu.

    P 1 1 t h e s e d a t a d e m o n s t ra te t h e l a r g e a f f i n i t y of t h e b i d i i on -

    a 1 s u r f a c e o f c l a y s f o r " b i d i m e ns i o na l " ( = p l a n a r ) . c o m p l e x e s .

    7 . 3 . 3 A r o m a t i c m o l e c u l e s

    I n t h e e a r l y 7 0 ' s t h e mo st p o p u l a r s y s te m w a s Cu2+ + b e n z e n e ,f or m in g on t h e s u r f a c e g r e e n , t y p e I , c o m p l e x e s a n d r e d , t y p e 11,

    c o m p l e x e s : g r e e n r t y p e r e d , t y p e I1 ( P i n n a v a i a a nd M o r t l a n d ,

    1 9 7 1 , M o r t la n d , 1 9 7 3 ) . A u ( I I 1 ) i s a l s o a b l e t o form t y p e s I and

    I 1 c o m p l e x e s ( Va n d e p o e l , 1 9 7 5 ) . N a , C a , F 1 3 + , C r , Fe , Fe ,Mn2+, Zn , Ag , N i 2 + a n d Co o n l y f o r m t y p e I c o m p l e x e s . A r o m a t i cl i g a n d s ca n b e d i v i d e d i n 2 g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f orm

    t y p e I o r b o t h t y p e s o f c o m pl e xe s w i t h Cu . The l a t t e r g r o u p c o n t a i n sb en ze ne , d i p h e n y l , n a p h t a l e n e , a n t h r a c e n e and a n i s o l e , t h e f or m ert o l u e n e , x y l e n e s , p h e n o l , h e xa m et h yl b en z en e an d 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 -t e t r a c h l o r o b e n z e n e . Va n d e p o e l e t a l . ( 1 97 3 ) a l s o f o un d a brown

    complex. T a b l e 7 . 3 s um ma r iz es t h e s p e c t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e

    c o m pl e xe s. T he a s s i g n m e n t s g i v e n i n Ta b l e 7 . 3 a r e t h o s e of Vande

    P o e l e t a l . ( 1 9 7 3 ) a n d m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as w o r ki n g h y p o t h e s e s . P tp r e s e n t t h e r e i s n o f i r m e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s e s p e c t r a .

    +H 0

    -3

    + 2+ 3+ 2+ 3+2+ + 2 +

    2+

    Complexes wi th 2 , ' - b i p y r i d i n e ( b i p ) and 1 l o - p h e n a n t h r o l i n e ( p h e n )a r e e xc h an g e d w i t h e x t r e m e l y h i g h s e l e c t i v i t i e s and w i t h p r e c i p i t a t i o n

    o f s a l t s i n t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a r s p a ce ( S ch oo nh ey dt , P e l g r i m s , Heroes a n d

    U y t t e r h o e v e n , 1 9 7 7 ; B e r k h e i s e r a n d M o r t l a n d , 1 9 7 7 ) . E p a c i n n s a r e

    a b o u t 1.8nm a nd e ve n a f t e r c a l c i n a t i o n i n t e r e s t i n g a d s o r p t i v e p r op e r -

    t i e s a r e e v i d e n t ( T r a y n o r , M o r t la n d an d P i n n a v a i a , 1 97 8; L o e p p e r t ,

    M o r t l a n d a n d P i n n a v a i a , 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e s p e c t r u m of [ R u ( b i p )d o m i n a t e d b y a ~ C Ta nd a r ou n d 460nm a nd a n i n t r a l i w n d

    b a n d a r o u n d 280nm ( F e r g i s o n a n d H a r r i s , 1 9 6 6 ; LY t l e and

    1 2 i s

    ~ + n

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    1 7 7

    1 9 6 9 ; C r o sb y a n d K l a s s e n , 1 9 6 5 ) .

    TABLE 7 . 3

    A b s o r p t i o n b a n d s a n d t e n t a t i v e a s s i g n m e n t s f o r Cu 2+ -b en ze ne c om pl ex es

    S p e c i e s a s s i g n m e n t comp 1 x

    b e n z e n e

    255 (39200) TI - iT::

    p h y s i s o r b e d b e n z e n e

    284 (35200) 71 T I : :

    t y p e I ( g r e e n )

    c ha rg e t r a n s f e r H2°\ ; + / O H 2

    H20’ O H 2

    390 (25640)

    686 (145 77) d -d cu\

    t y p e I1 ( r e d )

    510 ( 19 60 8) c h a r g e t r a n s f e r

    900-5900 11000-1700) d-p

    brown P H355 (28169) c ha rg e t r a n s f e r

    825 ( 1 2 1 2 1 ) d-d

    On t h e c l a y t h e l a t t e r i s r ed uc ed i n i n t e n s i t y a n d a s h o u l d e r a p p e a r s

    ar ou nd 320nm (K re ns ke , Abdo, Van Damme, Cruz an d F r i p i a t , 1 9 8 0 ) .

    The f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e t i c a l r e a c t i o n was p r o p o s e d t o a c c o u n t f o r

    t h i s new b a n d :

    R e a c t i o n ( 1 2 ) r e s u l t s i n a l o s s of a romat i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h el i g a n d . A b l u e s h i f t o f t h e n + n ’ : b a n d i s e x p e c t e d ( P l b e r t , 1 9 6 7 ) .

    T h i s i s o p p o s i t e t o t h e e x p e r i m en t a l o b s e r v a t i o n . A t p r e s e n t ,

    however , n o a l t e r n a t i v e i s a v a i l a b l e .

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    The LMCT b a n d i s a t 463nm on t h e h y d r a t e d h e c t o r i t e , a t 455nm ont h e d e h y d r a t e d c l a y a nd a t 452nm i n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n ( K r e n s k e , ?&do

    Van Damme, C ru z a nd F r i p i a t , 1 9 8 0 ) . Two e f f e c t s g o v e r n t h e s e

    s h i f t s :

    and i i ) d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e c om plex i n t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a r s p a c e . The

    l a t t e r i s e a s y t o i m ag in e f o r 2 r e a s o n s : t h e " k e y i n u i n " p hen om en on

    and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a f l a t s u r f a c e w i t h a corrplex o f d i f f e r e n t

    g eo me tr y. The e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t o r t i o n i s unknown a t p r e s e n t .

    However d i s t o r t i o n s h a ve be en i nv ok ed t o e x p l a i n s i r i l a r ban d s h i f t s

    ( F e l i x , F e r g u s o n , G iidel an d L u d i , 1 9 8 0 ) .

    The l um in es ce nc e p r o p e r t i e s o f R u ( b i p ) on h e c t o r i t e a r e a l s o

    i ) h e c ha ng e o f t h e s o l v e n t H20 t o t h e s o l v e n t " c la y "

    H 0 - d e p e n d e n t .

    t o c a . 15 H20 ( 0 . 0 4 - 0 . 0 9 ) .i n i t s d-d b a n d , h a s a q uan tu m y i e l d d e c r e a s i n g from ca . 0 . 0 8 t oc a . 0 . 0 0 2 w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c o n t e n t ( K r e ns k e , P bd o, Van D a m e ,

    C r uz , an d F r i p i a t , 1 9 8 0 ) . F o r b o t h c o m pl ex es t h e l u m i n es c e nc e i s

    q ue nc he d i n a d i f f u s i o n - c o n t r o l l e d way b y 0 2 . Qu enc h in g by Eu

    o r F e3 +

    o c t a h e d r a l l a y e r s o f t h e l a t t i c e t h a n when t h e y a r e i n i o n ex ch an ge

    p o s i t i o n s .

    The qu an tu m y i e l d i n c r e a s e s by a b o u t 2 f ro m c a . 3% H202C r( b ip ): + on h e c t o r i t e , i r r a d i a t e d

    3+ 3+, C ri s more e f f e c t i v e w i t h t h e s e c a t i o n s s u b s t i t u t e d i n t h e

    T h e se r e s u l t s o pe n new r e s e a r c h a r e a s b u t many p ro b l e m s m u stb e s o l v e d b e f o r e t h e s p e c t r a o f t h e s e c o mp le xe s a r e u n d er s t o o d an d

    r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p e c u l i a r i o n e xc ha ng e b e h a v i o r . The i m p or ta n ce o f

    a c o m p l et e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s p e c t r o s c o p i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e

    m on ol ay er co mp le xe s r e a c h e s f u r t h e r t h a n t h a t . I n d e e d , t h e p ho to -

    c he m ic al s u b s t i t u t i o n o f 2 H 2 0 m o l e c ul e s on C r (b i p) : + o n t h e s u r f a c e

    i s i n c i s - p o s i t i o n s , w he r e a s t h e r e a c t i o n i n s o l u t i o n g i v e s

    t r a n s - p r o d u c t s ( C r u z , P b d o, Van Damme a nd F r i p i a t , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h i s i s

    an e xam ple o f a s t e r e o s p e c i f i c , p ho to ch er r i ca l s u b s t i t u t i o n r e a c t i o n ,

    t h e s t e r e o s p e c i f i c i t y b e i n g i nd uc ed by t h e s u r f a c e . M on ola yer

    a r r a n g e m e n t s of Ru ( b i p ) h a ve b e en p r o p os e d f o r p h o t o c a t a l y t i c

    d i s s o c i a t i o n o f H 2 0 .

    c an b e pe rf or m ed on t h e c l a y s u r f a c e r o c c u p i e d by c a t i o n i c c or rp le xe s

    w i t h c a t a l y t i c a c t i v i t y .

    I t i s e xp e c te d t h a t s t e r e o s p e c i f i c r e a c t i o n s

    7 . 4 L AT T I C E TRFNSITION METAL IONS

    U . v - vi s . - n . i . r . s p e c t r o s co p y o f t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l i o n s i n

    l a t t i c e s i t e s i s m a i n ly c o n c e r n e d w i t h F e . The d-d ban ds of Fea r e f o r b i d d e n and u s u a l l y n o t s e e n a t t h e low Fe c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

    of k a o l i n i t e and s m e c t i t e m a t e r i a l s . They have 2 weak bands

    a t 240-5nm and a t 190-5nmr due t o an 0 + e ( I I 1 ) c h a r a e t r a n s f e r

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    1 7 9

    t r a n s i t i o n s ( K ar i c h ko f f a n d B a i l e y , 1 9 7 3 ) , w i t h F e ( I I 1 ) i n o c t a h e d r a l

    s i t e s s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r A l ( I I 1 ) . F o r s u s p e n s i o n s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f

    t h e b a n d a t 240nm i s d e p en d e n t on t h e Fe c o n t e n t an d o n t h e t a c t o i d

    s i z e of t h e m i n e r a l s ( Ch en , S ha ke d a nd B a n i n , 1 9 7 9 ) . I n n o n t r o n i t e

    n e a r l y a l l F l ( I I 1 ) i s s u b s t i t u t e d b y F e ( I I 1 ) a n d t h e 2 b a n d s a r e

    f o u n d a t 260nm and a t 200nm. F e ( I I 1 ) s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r M g( I1 ) g i v e s

    the c h a r g e t r a n s f e r b a nd i n t h e r e g i o n 245-250nm w h i l e i t i s a t 215nm

    f o r t e t r a h e d r a l F e ( I I 1 ) ( K ar i c h k o f f a n d B a i l e y , 1 9 7 3 ) . The p o s i t i o n

    o f t h e b an d s i s - p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t - d e t e r p i n e d by t h e F e ( I I 1 ) - 0b o n d l e n g t h s : FeIV-O < FeV1(Al)-O < F e V 1 ( M g ) - O . F o r n o n t r c rn i t e t h e

    s t r o n g l y i n t e r a c t i n g n e i g h b o u r in g F e i o n s may c r e a t e e x c i t o n s t a t e s ,e x p l a i n i n g t h e r e d s h i f t t o 260nm ( K a r i c h k o f f a n d B a i l e y , 1 9 7 3 ) . I na n y c a s e t h e b a n d s o f i m p u r i t y F e o x i d e a r e r e p o r t e d a t 4 5 0 and 530nm,d i a g n o s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e l a t t i c e b a n d s ( B a r t , F u r r i e s c i ,C a r i a t i , M i c e n e a n d G e s s a , 1 9 8 0 ) .

    The sp e c t r um o f t h e F e - r i c h n o n t r o n i t e s how s a l s o d -d t r a n s i t i o n s .

    They a r e c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e o f V e r m i c u l i t e a nd m u s co v i te i n T a b l e 7 .4

    ( K a r i c h k o f f a nd B a i l e y , 1 97 3) .TABLE 7. 4

    d-d t r a n s i t i o n s (nm) o f F e ( I I 1 ) i n o c t a h e d r a l s i t e s i n c l a y s

    t r a n s i t i o n n o n t r o n i t e v e r m i c u l i t e m u s c o v i t e

    6 A l ( S ) T 2 ( G I 5 2 0 5 4 0 5 2 3 , 5 0 3

    6 P l ( S ) + T 1 ( G ) - 5 7 5 , 6 0 0 5 7 9

    'A1(s) + T2(D)

    6 A l ( S ) + E ( D )

    6 A 1 ( S ) -b 4 P l , 4E ( G ) 445 4 6 0 441

    384 4 00 379

    367 - 3 6 3

    4 4The e n e r g y i n c r e a s e of t h e 6 P l S ) + P1, 4 E ( G ) a n d 6Pl ( S ) + E ( D )t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e s e r i e s v e r m i c u l i t e < n o n t r o n i t e < muscovitef o l l o w s t h e decrease o f t h e F e ( I I 1 ) - 0 b on d l e n g t h s . When Fe3+ i nn o n t r o n i t e i s r e d u c e d t o F e t h e t y p i c a l d-d b a n ds d e c r e a s e a nd a

    F e - e3+ cha rge t r a n s f e r t r a n s i t i o n a p p e a r s a ro u nd 760nr@, m ov ingt o 720nm w i t h h i g h r e d u c t i o n d e g r e e ( P n de r so n a nd F t u c k i , 1 9 7 8 ) .2 +

    2+

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    The band splittings observed for vermiculite and muscovite are

    ascribed to the Jahn-Teller effect (Karichkoff and Bailey, 1973).

    The doublet at l lOOnm and 400nm of Fe(II1) in micas is also

    caused by the Jahn-Teller effect (Faye, 1968) but there is somediscussion about the origin of the band intensity (Smith, 1977).

    Indeed, for chlorite and biotite they increase with decreasing

    temperature, a behavior not expected for symmetry allowed or

    vibronically coupled transitions.

    7.5 ORGANIC MOLECULES

    Spectroscopy of adsorbed organic molecules allows surface acidity

    measurements and -for coloured bases- identification of clays and

    their application in the manufacture of pressure-sensitive,

    carbon-free paper (Thompson, 1977; Lim, 1975). More recent

    interest is found in the adsorption and degradation of pesticides

    and in the luminescence, photochemical and photocatalytic properties

    of surface-immobilized monolayers of these rrolecules.

    The chemistry of these molecules on the surface is well understood

    (Theng, 1974). The recent spectroscopic work is mainly concerned

    with assignment of the observed bands. Thus, the usefulness of

    spectroscopy for surface acidity measurements with Hamet t dyeindicators has been demonstrated (Bailey and Karichkoff, 1973).

    Tarasevich and coworkers studied the acidity of dehydrated H- and

    P1-montmorillonites, cation-exchanged kaolinite and palygorskite

    (Telichkun Tarasevich and Goncharuk, 1976; Telichkun and Tarasevi h,

    1973; Tarasevich and Fedorova, 1979). The indicators used are

    p-dimethylaminoazobenzene ( D W B , pKa = 3.3) , dicinnamalacetoneD C P , pKa = -3.0) , benzo-acetophenone (BAPh, pKa = -5.61,

    triphenylcarbinol (g3COH, pKa = -6.6) and diphenylcarbinol (d2CHOP,pKa = -13.3). Their characteristic bands are smmarized in Table 7.5.

    Very strong Brijnsted and Lewis acidities are found on P- and P1-clays

    (pKa = -6.6).

    interaction with F e 3 + .

    acidities stronger than pKa = -3.7 were found (Frenkel, 1974). This

    is another illustration of the difficulties encountered by comparinu

    different methods of surface acidity measurements (Jacobs, 1977).

    Radicals Z 3 C o are thought to be generated through

    With the butylamine titration technique no

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    TABLE 7 . 5

    C h a r a c t e r i s t i c b an ds o f i n d i c a t o r s on c l a y m i n e r a l s

    DMPAB

    X ( n m ) a s s ignmen t

    2 40 -3 00 b e n z e n e r i n g

    4 00 chromophore

    325 a N H = N e H M e 2

    4 50 -4 80 c h r o m o p h o r e o n s u r f a c e

    5606 50

    a

    525 =yH-N='=>=NMe2

    on A 1 3 + a t e x c h a n g e s i t e son p13+ a t e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e

    X( n m ) a s s i g n m e n t

    2 30 , 285 p h y s i c a l l y a d s o rb e d

    430, 445 g3 C++4 6 0 g 3 c o n A I ~ +

    3 1 0 , 5 3 0 C o

    DCF

    A ( n m ) a s s i g n m e n t

    350 TI I : :

    490-5 on exc han ge ab l e P 1

    5 3 0 p r o t o n a t e d

    3+

    BaPh

    A ( n n ) a s s i g n m e n t

    305 TI + 1::4 30 p r o t o n a t e d

    4 90 -5 o n e x c h a n g e a b l e P 1

    5 5 0 on l a t t i c e F 1

    3+

    3+

    @ CHOH

    A (nm) ass ignment

    415 , 450 g2 CH+

    Dye m o l e c u l e s a r e ex c ha n ue d on t h e s u r f a c e o r s y n t h e s i z e d i ns i t u ( S i f f e r t , 19-78) . On t h e s u r f a c e t h e y u nd er ao a c i d - b a se r e a c t i o n s ,

    r ed ox r e a c t i o n s , c om p le xa ti on w i t h t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l i o n s an d

    a s s o c i a t i o n s . Th e b e s t known e x am p l e i s b e n z i d i n e ( T h e n g , 1 9 7 4 1 ,

    w hi ch c an un de rg o e l e c t r o n t r a n s f e r t o l a t t i c e Fe3+ by s h o r t r a n ge

    i n t e r a c t i o n b et w ee n r - e l e c t r o n s of b e n z i d i n e a n d s u r f a c e o x yg en s( Ya r i v , 1 9 7 6 ) . T he se s t u d i e s h a v e b e en e x t e n d e d t o more

    c o m p l i c a t e d m o l e c u l e s a nd a summary o f t h e s p e c t r o s c o p i c d a t a i sg iv en i n T a b l e 7 .6 .

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    TABLE 7 . 6

    S p e c t r o s c o p y o f d y e s o n c l a y s

    (nm)s o l u t i o n Na-V Na-M N i - M FeM

    S a f r a n i n e TS 5 2 8

    SH2+ 579

    SHZ+ 6 3 0

    5 0 4 - 1 0 5 0 4 - 5 1 0

    5 5 0 5 5 5 5 46 ( b r o a d )

    5 9 2

    m e t h y l e n e b l u e

    BM+ 6 6 5 6 6 5

    (BM+) 5 9 5 - 6 1 5 5 7 0

    -N i l b l u e

    BN+ 6 4 0 6 4 0

    ( B N + ) 5 8 0 - 6 10 5 6 0 - 5 9 0

    b r i l l i a n t g r e e n

    vB+ 6 2 5 6 4 0 - 5

    4 30 4 4 5 - 5 0

    C h r y s o I d i n e

    CR+ 4 3 5 - 5 5 4 3 5 - 6 0

    V = v e r m i c u l i t e , M = M o n t m o r i l l o n i t e

    I t i s shown t h a t d i m e r i z e d c a t i o n s a b s o r b a t s h o r t e r w a v e l e n g t h s

    t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g monomers an d a f u r t h e r b l u e s h i f t o f 2 2 0 n ~

    i s o bs er ve d f o r t h e d im e rs o n t h e s u r f a c e . N o s uc h u n i f o r m i t y i s

    f ou nd i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e f o r t h e monomers. T hu s , t h e b an ds o f

    r h o d a m i n e B and c h r y s o i d i n e do n o t u n d er go s i g n i f i c a n t f r eq u en c y s h i f t s

    a f t e r ad s o r p t i o n , w h i l e t h o s e o f b r i l l i a n t g r e e n , t h e p e s t i c i d e

    c hl or am b en a nd t h e S o r e t b an d o f p o r p h y r i n s s how r e d s h i f t s ( G h o sa l

    a n d M u k h e r j e e , 1 9 7 3 : B e r k h e i s e r a n d A h l r i c h s , 1 9 7 6 ; Van D a m e , C r e s p i n ,

    O b r e c h t , Cruz and F r i p i a t , 1 9 7 8 ; S a e h r , L e D r e d a n d F o f f n e r , 1 9 7 8 ) . The

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b an ds of s a f r a n i n e an d j a n u s g r e e n a r e r e p o r t e d t o

    u nd er go b l u e s h i f t s (Van D a m e , C r e s p i n , C ruz a nd F r i p i a t , 1 9 7 7 ;

    G h o s a l a n d M u k h e r j e e , 1 9 7 3 ) . An ex tr em e case o f b l u e s h i f t was f o un df o r S on Na-M (Van D a m e , C r e s p i n , C ruz a nd F r i p i a t , 1 9 7 7 ) : t h e

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    b a n d maximum o f 528nm w as a t 468nm i n s u s p e n s i o n . T h i s was a s c r i b e d

    t o t h e d e g r e e o f d i s p e r s i o n : i n o t h e r w or d s t o l i a h t s c a t t e r i n g .L i g h t s c a t t e r i n g i s w a ve le ng th d ep en de n t and f o r g r a i n s i z e s s i m i l a r

    t o t h e w av e l e n g t h t h e s c a t t e r i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s - t o a f i r s t a pproxim a-t i o n - p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e w av el en gt h. C a l c u l a t i o n g i v e s a r e d s h i f t ,

    c o n t r a r y t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n . A l s o t h e r e p o r t e d r e d s h i f t s a r e

    u s u a l l y l a r q e r t h a n e x p e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f l i g h t s c a t t e r i n g a l o n e

    (Kortfim, 1 9 6 9 ) . Many o t h e r f a c t o r s c an c o n t r i b u t e . They a r e : i )

    s t e r i c e f f e c t s i n d uc ed b y t h e r i g i d b i d im e n si o na l s u r f a c e : i i ) o l v e n t

    e f f e c t s , a s t h e h y d r a t e d c l a y h a s a p o l a r i t y d i f f e r e n t f ro m t h e

    s o l v e n t f ro m w h ic h t h e d ye i s a d s o r b e d , n+n:: t r a n s i t i o n s u nd er ao

    b l u e s h i f t s , when t h e p o l a r i t y i n c r e a s e s : T I T : : t r a n s i t i o n s u nd er g o

    r e d s h i f t s ( R a o , 1 9 7 5) . O t h e r f a c t o r s a r e P -b o n d in a t o s u r f a c e

    o xy ge ns , r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o s i t i v e c h a rg e o v e r t h e m ol ec ul e when

    a d s o r b e d ( S a e h r , L e D red an d H o f f n e r , 1 97 8) a n d , f o r p o r p h y r i n s ,

    i n c r e a s e d r e so na nc e i n t e r a c t i o n b et we en ph en y l o r p y r i d y l s u b s t i t u e n t s

    an d t h e p o r p h y r i n n u c l e u s (Van Damme, C r e s p i n , O b r e c h t , C r u z , F r i p i a t ,

    1 9 7 8 ) . I t w i l l b e ve ry d i f f i c u l t t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n t

    c o n t r i b u t i o n s b e c au s e t h e y a lw ay s a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

    7 . 6 CONCLUSIONSI n t h e a r e a of t r a n s i t i o n m et a l i o n s i n t h e i n t e r l a r r e l l a r s p a c e

    o n l y co mp le xes o f h i g h o x i d a t i o n s t a t e m e t a l s ( h a r d a c i d s ) w i t h h a r d

    b a s e s h av e b ee n i n v e s t i g a t e d i n d e t a i l . T hr ee c o n c l u s i o n s c an b e

    drawn : i ) l a n a r c o mp le xe s a r e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y a d so rb ed on t h e

    " b i d im e n s io n a l " s u r f a c e . T h i s a l l o w s t h e e a s y s y n t h e s i s of

    c o m pl ex e s o n t h e s u r f a c e , w hi ch a re d i f f i c u l t t o s y n t h e s i z e i nc l a s s i c a l i n o r g a n i c c h em i s t r y : i i ) h e s u r f a c e o x yg en s do n o t

    e n t e r i n t o t h e f i r s t c o o r d i n a t i o n s p h e r e t o a n y s i g n i f i c a n te x t e n t , i i i ) a d e t a i l e d l i g a n d f i e l d a n a l y s i s of t h e s p e c t r a i s

    n e c e s s a r y t o q u a n t i f y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n l e a d i n g t o t h e 2 p r e v i o u sc o n c l u s i o n s . How f a r t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e e x t e n d e d t o

    co mp lex es o f low o x i d a t i o n s t a t e m e t a l s ( s o f t a c i d s ) w i t h e l e c t r o n

    r i c h l i g a n d ( s o f t b a s e s ) , r e ma in s t o b e i n v e s t i u a t e d .

    An e x c i t i n g new r e s e a r c h a r e a h a s b ee n o p en e d : p h o t o p h y s i c s a n d

    p h o t o c h e m i s t r y o f mo no la ye r c o m pl ex e s. The p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s l oo k

    v e r y p r o m i s i n g a s r e a c t i o n s c an be c o n t r o l l e d s t e r e o s p e c i f i c a l l y on

    t h e s u r f a c e . An e x t e n s i o n t o p h o t o c a t a l y t i c w o r k i s e x p e c t e d . T h ee l e c t r o n i c i n t e r a c t i o n s o f o r g a n i c c a t i o n s w i t h t h e s u r f a c e a r e p o o r l y

    u n d e r s t o o d . T h e i r ( p h o t o ) c h e m i s t r y a nd ( p h o t o ) c a t a l y s i s on t h e

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    s u r f a c e w i l l t h e r e f o r e b e v e r y d i f f i c u l t . A d e t a i l e d s p e c t r o s c o p i c

    a n a l y s i s o f m odel s y s t e m s , e v e n t u a l l y s u p p o r t e d b y qu an tu m m e c h an i c al

    c a l c u l a t i o n s , i s n e c e s sa r y t o i n i t i a t e t h e s e s t u d i e s .

    F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s a l a c k of q u a n t i t a t i v e s p e c t r o s c o p i c s t u d i e s .

    T h i s i s an e x t r em e ly d i f f i c u l t t o p i c b e c a u s e of t h e h e t e r o p e ne o u s

    n a t u r e of t h e s y st em s b u t some a t t e m p t s t o w a r d s s i m p l e m od el s y s t e m s

    s h ou l d b e c a r r i e d o u t .

    7.7 EPPENDIX

    7.7.1 S t a t e f u n c t i o n s and e n er g y m a t r i c e s f o r N i ( I 1 ) i n D q h symmetry

    The 5 3d o r b i t a l s a re r e p r e s e n t e d a s u = d,2, v = d 2 - y 2 , I =d = d and n = d x z. O nly t h e u p p e r h a l f o f t h e s y m me tr i c

    m a t r i c e s i s shown. F o r d e t a i l s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s t a t e f u n c t i o n s

    X

    X Y ' Y =

    and c a l c u l a t i o n o f e n e r g y m a t r i c e s I r e f e r t o " M u l t i p l e t s o f t r a n s i -

    t i o n -m e t a l i o n s i n c r y s t a l s " by S . S u g a n o , Y . Tanabe and H . Karrinmra,

    A c a d e m i c P r e s s , N e w York, 1970, 3 3 1 p p . A, B a n d C a r e R a c a h ' s

    i n t e r e l e c t r o n i c r e p u l s i o n p a r a m e t e r s . E i s a common p a r a m e t e r an d

    a r b i t r a r i l y t a k e n 0 . C i s a s s u m e d e q u a l t o 4B. A l l A 2 and A3 a r e

    d e f i n e d i n f i g u r e 7 . 1 .

    1 + - + -- - [ I5 5 \ I n n I 1

    2

    A+4B+3C-E 4B+C C

    2Al+A+4B 4B+C+3C-E

    2 A2+E+4B fi (3B+C)+3C-E

    E = A +F+4B+2C2

    A2+A+4B-E -6B

    2A3+A-5B-E

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    A1+A+2C-E - 2 6 B

    2A 3+A+B +2C-E

    A +A+ B+ZC -E -3/2 B - G / 2 B

    A + A +P+B+ZC-E - 5 ? / 2 B3

    2 3

    A3+A-5B-E 3 B - 3 f i B

    A 2+A 3+A-5B- E 3 0 BA +A +P+ B-E

    2A3+A+B+2C-E 2 f l B

    Al+A2+A+2C-E

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    REFEFENCES

    Fdams, M . J . , K i ng , F .F . a n d K i r k b r i g h t , G .F ., 1 9 76 . A n a l y t i c a lo p t o - a c o u s t i c s p e c t r o m e t r y . I . I n s t r w n e n t a s se m b l y a n d p e r f o r m a n c ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T he P n a l y s t , 101: 73-85 .

    s u b s t a n c e s . Fng ew. Chem. I n t . E d ., 6 : 9 1 9- 9 28 .

    on v i s i b l e a b s o r p t i o n s p e c t r a o f n o n t r o n i t e s u s p e n s i o n s .I n : M . M . M o r t l a n d a n d V. C . F a r m e r ( E d i t o r s ) , D e ve lo p m en t s i nS e m i m e n t o l o g y N o 2 7 , I n t e r n a t i o n a l C l a y C o n f e r e n c e 1 9 78 , p p . 75-83 .

    B a i l e y , G.W. a nd K a r i c k h o f f , S.W., 1 9 73 . An u l t r a v i o l e t s p e c t r o s c o p i cm e th o d f o r m o n i t o r i n g s u r f a c e a c i d i t y o f c l a y m i n e r a l s u n d e r v a r y i n gw a t e r c o n t e n t . C l a y s a nd C l a y M i n . , 2 1 : 471-477 .

    B a r t , J . C . , B u r r i e s c i , N . , C a r i a t i , F . , Micera , G . a n d G e s s a , C . , 1 9 8 0 .S p e c t r o s c o p i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f i r c n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n some b e n t o n i t e sf r o m S a r d i n i a . C l a y s a nd C l a y M i n . , 2 8 : 23 3- 23 6.

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c h l or ar rb en i n s e l e c t e d e n v i r o n s n e n t s .Weed S c i . , 2 4 : 1 07 -1 14 .B e r k h e i s e r , V. E . a n d M o r t l a n d , M . M . , 1 9 7 7 . H e c t o r i t e c o p p l e x e s w i t h

    C u ( 11) a n d F e 11) 1 , l O - p h e n a n th r o l i n e c h e l a t e s . C l a y s and C l ayM i n . , 2 5 : 1 0 5 - 11 2 .

    Chen , Y . , S h a k e d , D . a n d B a n i n , F . , 1 9 7 9 . T he r o l e o f s t r u c t u r a li r o n ( I I 1 ) i n t h e UV a b s o r p t i o n b y s m e c t i t e s . C l ay P i n . , 1 4 : 43-1 0 2 .

    C l e m e n t z , D . H . , P i n n a v a i a , T . J . a n d M o r t l a n d , M . P . , 1 9 7 3 . S t e r e o -c h e m i s t r y o f h y d r a t e d c o p p e r 11) i o n s on t h e i n t e r l a m e l l a rs u r f a c e s of l a y e r s i l i c a t e s . An e l e c t r o n s p i n r e s o n a n c e s t u d y .J . Phys . Chem. , 77 : 196 -200 .

    v e r w i j d e r e n v a n m e t a l e n u i t o p l o s s i n g e n . B e l g i a n P a t e n tN o 0 8 3 9 6 3 7 .

    C r o s b y , G . P . , P e r k i n s , W. G . a n d K l a s s e n , D . M . , 1 9 6 5 . L u m i n e s c e n c ef rom t r a n s i t i o n - m e t a l c om pl ex es : t r i s ( 2 , 2 ' - b i p y r i d i n e ) - a ndt r i s (1 , lO-phenanthrol ine) r u t h e n i u m ( I 1 ) . J . Chem. Phys . ,

    C r u z , M . I . , Abdo, S . , Van D a m e , H . a n d F r i p i a t , J . J . , 1 9 8 0 .

    A l b e r t , P . , 1 96 7. H y d r a t i o n of C=N b on ds i n h e t e r o - a r o m a t i c

    A n d e r s o n , W.L. a n d S t u c k i , J . W . , 1 9 7 8 . E f f e c t of s t r u c t u r a l F e 2-1-

    B e r k h e i s e r , V. E . a nd P h l r i c h s , J . L . , 1 97 6. UV a n d I R s p e c t r a l

    C r e m e r s , F . , P e i g n e u r , P. a nd Maes, F . , 1 9 79 . We r k w i jz e voor h e t

    43 : 1498 -1503 .

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