www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 68

SociologyFactsheet

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Social Construction of ChildhoodThis Factsheet considers the history of childhood and the numerousfactors that have informed our thinking on childhood today. Usingthese ideas it is possible to identify how the nature of childhood isrelevent to time and culture.

What is childhood?In contemporary Britain, childhood is consideredto be a distinctive stage in life that is experiencedbefore becoming ‘an adult’. It is the ‘commonsense’ belief that childhood is defined by ourbiology and various stages of physiological andpsychological development.

Sociologists challenge this view and suggest that ‘childhood’ is asocial construct that reflects age related norms, rights andresponsibilities. These norms and values correspond to time, placeand culture. From a sociological viewpoint, the nature of childhoodhas evolved as the needs of society have changed. By studyinghistory, sociologists have identified how the concept of childhoodreflect centuries of change.

Exam Hint:- You need to define the term social construct toearn marks for knowledge and understanding. Highlight thesignificance of time, place and culture on social life.

British History – the changing social structureIn the book ‘Centuries of Childhood’ PhillipeAries considered the role of the child during theMiddle Ages. Aries used secondary sourcessuch as paintings and documents to understandwhat growing up was like in medieval times. Inthe middle ages he found the absence ofchildhood in comparison to modern day thinking.

During this period there was no primary education. Communicationwas based on oral culture and there were no laws of segregationfor children. With a high child mortality rate, children were treatedas adults from as young as 7 years old!

Aries suggests that childhood as a concept really began to emergeafter the medieval era (15-16th Century). From this period the firstportraits of children appeared and the first children’s toys can betraced to this time. Religious attitudes from church leaders alsobegan to see children as ‘creatures of god’ and a vulnerable groupof people in society in need of protection.

Exam Hint:- Aries theory has been criticised on the basis ofhis research methodology. To pick up marks for evaluation(AO2) you could highlight the problems with the use ofsecondary sources for research in terms of reliability andrepresentative data.

In ‘The Disappearance of Childhood’ by NeilPostman (1982), Postman suggests that the changesin communication technology in the 16th Centurysignificantly altered the community in terms of sharedinterests, symbols and culture. Importantly, theimpact of the first printing press (1476), led to thebirth of the information age.

As printed books became available in the 16-17th century a sense of‘new adult’ was constructed and literacy became more highly valued.In essence, the young became adults by learning to read. Whereliteracy was highly valued, childhood was therefore defined by thelack of reading skill.

During the eighteenth century new ideas aboutscience and reasoning began to emerge. This periodof time in history is referred to as the Age ofEnlightenment. Developments in westernphilosophical thinking developed romantic ideasof childhood where the focus became the needs ofthe child. Writers such as John Locke began to consider the stagesof reasoning that children experience in the early years. Jean JacquesRousseau in his book ‘Emile’ suggested that children were bornwith innocence and ‘joie de vivre’ and childhood was a time fornurture and the right input from adults. It was these philosophicaldebates that began to question the best ways to raise children.

Developments in science and medicine in theeighteenth/nineteenth century brought about advancedknowledge about bacteria, viruses and surgery. The useof vaccinations (first introduced 1796) meant that certainlife threatening diseases could be prevented fromspreading. With a better understanding of public healththe child mortality rate began to decrease. Therefore, achild was much more likely to survive the early years in comparisonto earlier times in history. Census records (1881) show the statisticsrelating to the first children’s hospitals and the growth of paediatricmedicine. With a more specialised understanding of child healthand biology young people were more likely to live longer lives.

Advances in the field of Psychology during thenineteenth century began to advance ideas about themind, personality and development. Psychologistsbegan to identify childhood as a significant period oftime for emotional and cognitive change. During thistime, many writers were inspired by their own experienceof growing up! Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 was particularly influentialin developing psychoanalytical theory, resolving unconsciousconflict and mental distress. Carl Jung (1875-1961) developedanalytical theories in psychology that considered a spiritualdimension to psychological development. Significant work by JeanPiaget (1896-1980) influenced the birth of developmental psychology,which began to identify the stages of development in a child’s life.

Sociology Factsheet68. Social Construction of Childhoodwww.curriculum-press.co.uk

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In Britain, the first system of formalschooling developed as a direct responseto industrialisation and the need for a literateworkforce. The 1870 Forster Education Actintroduced a basic system of primaryeducation with the hope that literateeducated workers would create a skilledworkforce, giving Britain a competitive edge in the growing industrialeconomy. As the needs of the economy grew, elementary schoolingbecame a compulsory requirement and the school leaving age graduallyrose in the pre-war years. These changes essentially extended thelength of time spent in education, identifying young people as ‘pupils’rather than ‘workers’, as was the case in pre-industrial times.

Exam Hint:- The school leaving age is due to rise to eighteenyears in the next few years. If you make reference to this factyou will demonstrate your understanding of social change andsocial construction!

Theorists suggest British society has become more child-centredin the post-war period. With the birth of the Welfare State anduniversal benefits in 1945, children were clearly defined as‘dependants’ and new benefits like Family Allowance scheme(replaced by Child Benefit/ Child Tax Allowance in 1977-9) wereallocated to families with the welfare of children in mind.

The role of the State in defining childhood cannot beunderestimated, as children’s behaviour andlifestyles are increasingly regulated by the law (e.g.education, age of consent). Alongside officialdefinitions of childhood, the twentieth century sawthe birth of a new professionalism in Britain, wheremore rigorous education and training becamenecessary to regulate professional practice in teaching, social work,and health care to further safeguard and protect the lives of children.In the last decade, the Children’s Act 2004 provided the legal structureto transform Children’s Services and to maintain the requirementsstipulated in the document ‘Every Child Matters’ which regulatesbest practice when working with children.

Exam Hint:- To earn marks for evaluation (AO2) you couldpoint out that there is often disagreement about laws relatingto children. This is apparent in recent discourse relating totesting in schools (SATS) and whether or not these tests shouldbe abolished.

Summary

Key Points

Social construct

Middle Ages ‘the absence of childhood’

Birth of the information age

Age of Enlightenment – Westernphilosophy

Medicine

Advances in Psychology

Industrial Revolution

Role of the State

History

Exam Hint:- Don’t just explain the history of childhood. This isnot a history exam! You need to show that you understand thatchildhood has changed over time –therefore what is seen aschildhood is socially constructed

Changing nature of childhoodInteractionist sociologists suggest that ‘children are social actors’,and the roles children play are products of interaction and sharedmeanings. As society has evolved, the nature and position of childrenhas changed. In contemporary British society a child-centredculture has developed in comparison to medieval times wherechildren held low status. This contrasts dramatically to previousdecades where children were treated as young adults and workersfrom an early age (Aries 1963).

Relationships/FamilyThe significance of a good parent/childrelationship is highly valued in contemporaryBritain in comparison to past times (Aries‘Centuries of Childhood’ 1963). As public healthand medicine improved (18th and 19th century)children started to live longer which meant they started to spendmore time with their families, developing closer family units.

Exam Hint:- Whilst a good parent/child relationship is stillparamount, you could point out that in the last few decades thetrend has changed again regarding the amount of time parentand child have to spend together in the early years. As morewomen engage in paid employment either full/part time,children are being placed in nursery care for longer periods oftime.

With a greater understanding of psychology,greater emphasis is placed on individualpsychology and having a happy childhood. Intoday’s society childhood is often influenced bythe experience of family life with concerns aboutfamily breakdown, divorce and reconstituted familyarrangements and the effect these changes mayhave on children.

The issue of childhood or ‘the absence of childhood’ has beengreatly discussed in the Michael Jackson story when trying tounderstand his life and recent untimely death.

Financially dependentSince the introduction of compulsory schooling, the school leavingage has continually risen, extending the period of time now spent ineducation. Since being set at 16 yrs in 1972, the school leaving ageis due to rise again to 18 years by 2013 (directgov.uk). Currenteconomic trends and the collapse of the youth labour market havemeant that young people will be required to spend more time infurther/higher education to gain qualifications. This will make youngpeople financially dependent on parents/carers for longer periodsof time in comparison to past times, where young people (especiallyfrom poorer backgrounds) were required to work.

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Protected by LawIn the last three decades the emphasis on childhood and well-beinghas influenced social policy, with extensive laws to protect children.

ActivityResearch the legal requirements on the followingactivities (UK) using the internet.

* Offiicial school leaving age* Age of consent for heterosexual/homosexual

activity* Tobacco age of sale* Eligibility for Income Support* Restrictions on child employment* Legal age to get married* Rules on anti-social behaviour for children* Rules on smacking children

Note: You could compare your results with laws from adifferent country to further demonstrate the socialconstruction of age!

Exam Hint:- Showing how childhood is defined in differentcultures shows that childhood is socially constructed

ParticipationIn the last decade, the Children’s Rights movementhas significantly legislated to give children social,economic, cultural and civil or political rights(direct.gov.uk). At the United Nations Conventionon the Rights of the Child (1989) the provision,protection and participation of children’s needs around the worldwere written to take into account the needs of children as a specificvulnerable group, who have continually changing needs (Brooks2006). In 1992 forty specific rights relating to children age 17 andunder were finally made law.

In England, the first Children’s Commissioner (Sir Al Aynsley-Green)was elected in 2005, to promote the views and best interests ofchildren and young people. The purpose of his job is to listen tothe views of young people, giving young people a political voice.Clearly, the trend towards participation and ‘pupil voice’ is visibleon the political agenda as local councils and schools are required tolook at ways to empower children and encourage them to play anactive role in their community.

Question: How are pupils in your school given theopportunity to express their views and opinions?

‘Child as consumer’The birth of the information age openedthe door to new ways of communicatingand led to the development of the massmedia. The growth of the mass media,particularly since the introduction of thetelevision set in Britain in the twentiethcentury, has dramatically altered the cultural landscape and lifestylesof children in Britain today. In fact, many children would find itinconceivable that there was once a world without the internet,computers and television!! Media effects have become a significanttopic of study for Sociologists. For example, the research ‘Cyberkids’by Holloway and Valentine (2003) tracked the nature of internetusage with children from different social groups to identify the roleof new media in children’s everyday lives.

Nowadays, children are an identifiableconsumer group in the marketing world andare subject to advanced marketing techniques,which encourage parents to buy consumablegoods for their children. Since the post warperiod children have become a target groupfor a whole new range of products including, books, comics,holidays, films, games and clothing. A vast amount of marketresearch is also generated on the consumer habits of children(marketresearch.com). Next time you are in the supermarket, look atthe packaging on items of food that may encourage children to buya particular product!

Class, Gender and EthnicitySince the 1950’s the New Sociology of Childhood has tried to accountfor the different ways children live their lives.

Conflict sociologists have suggested that the way society isorganised (social structure) can influence the experience ofchildhood.

ActivityConsider the ways that class, gender and ethnicity mayinfluence childhood. Discuss!

Class Gender Ethnicity

The experience of childhood varies all around theworld. Perhaps the most significant factor that dividesthe experience of children globally is the economicdivision between the Western world and Third Worldcountries. The history and changing roles of childrenin British society demonstrates our society’s ‘focal concerns’ andvalues. How do these norms and values compare to countries in thedeveloping world?

ActivityUsing the internet, create a cross-cultural comparison chart toidentify the different experience of children across the globe.

Global childhood?

British Society Third World

Family

Education

Economy

Health

Mass Media

Sociology Factsheet68. Social Construction of Childhoodwww.curriculum-press.co.uk

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Acknowledgements: This Sociology Factsheet was researched and written by Bethan Jones.Curriculum Press. Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, TF1 1NU. Sociology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheetsmay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136

Childhood – the postmodern moment?Some sociologists argue that assessing children by what they need takes attention away from the diversity of experience. Children are aminority group and can be identified with their own focal concerns and worlds full of meaning. In the book ‘The experience of Childhoodin Modern Britain’ (2006) Libby Brooks captures a snapshot of the lives of nine British children, each with their own story of childhood.Using observation and interview notes, the children become ‘native guides’ talking about their lives, providing insight into the fascinatingworlds of children in Britain today.

Example Exam QuestionExamine the ways in which childhood can be said to be socially constructed.

To answer this question you need to define terms and show the different ways that childhood could be socially constructed e.g. overtime by giving a history of childhood to show how it has changed, between cultures.

Test Yourself:

1. Briefly outline how childhood has changed over time

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......................................................................................................................................................................................................................2. Summarise what this shows about ‘childhood being socially constructed’

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3. Identify and explain two factors that affect the changing nature of childhood

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4. Choose class, gender or ethnicity and explain how it can influence the experience of childhood

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......................................................................................................................................................................................................................5. Summarise what this shows about ‘childhood being socially constructed’

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