60848041-technique-1 (1)

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    1. ADVANTAGES, LIMITS, UNIQUE QUALITIES

    Advantages, limitations, and unique qualities (described in Isaksen, Dorval and

    Treffinger, 1994) is a simple, constructive evaluation technique to appl to an

    potentiall interesting ideas! It can also be used during idea generation to provoke moreideas and is a useful e"ercise in s#itching bet#een mental $sets%!

    1! &elect the idea ou #ant to consider!

    '! rainstorm all the advantages ou can imagine for it everthing that makes it

    attractive or appealing, all its potentials! This is pure enthusiasm * so $+es, but $ is

    not allo#ed-

    .! /o# s#itch mental sets to brainstorm all possible limitations* fla#s, #eaknesses,

    trouble spots!

    4! 0inall, s#itch again to find all the qualities of this idea that are new, unique or

    unusual, or an unique connections it suggests! hat is special about this idea or the

    possibilities it suggests2

    3 thorough, evaluative use of this process could take anthing from a fe# minutes to as

    much as an hour per ideas, so it is normall reserved for a shortlist of preselected ideas,

    perhaps 5ust the final t#o or three that 5ustif this investment of time!

    6o#ever, if it is used for idea generation as a #a of building on other ideas, ou #ould

    use it ver briefl, both to avoid disrupting the flo# and to avoid the $limitations% phasecreating a negative atmosphere! In effect, ou are simpl asking $7an I think of an

    advantage8limitation8unique feature of this idea that can suggest more ideas to me2%

    &ee also closel related techniquesPluses,potentials and concerns, andReceptivity to

    ideas!

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    2. ANALYSIS OF INTERACTIVE DECISION AREAS (AIDA)

    3ID3 (Analysis of interactive decision areas* uckman, 19:;< 0riend and 6ickling,

    19=;) is for use #here there are several problems that are interconnected so that the

    solution choices for one #ill affect the solution choices for another! +ou therefore need

    to evaluate the solutions asa group, but the number of different group combinations

    ma be large! 3ID3 identifies combinations that cannot coe"ist and can therefore be

    eliminated, so substantiall reducing the number of combinations ou need to compare!

    3ID3 assumes that (b an suitable method) ou have alread got a list of problems,

    and have identified some possible solutions for each! Then

    1! Identify any problems that do not interact Dra# a matri" #ith the problem names

    on each a"is (e!g! five problems need a > " > matri")< delete the diagonal and the

    bottom triangle, to leave one cell for each different problem pair! ?ark each cell %@%

    if anyof the solutions in the pair of problems the cell represents cannot coe"ist!

    Aemove from 3ID3 an problems #ith a blank ro# in this matri"< these have no

    interactions, and ou can #ork #ith them independentl!

    '! Identify incompatible pairs of solutions rite each remaining problem #ith its

    solutions, on a large BostitT?slip (e!g! five problems give five slips)! &tick them on

    a large #orking area (e!g! a #hiteboard)! Co through each solution on each slip,

    checking it against ever solution on all the other slips to identif an pairs of

    solutions that cannot coe"ist! Dra# a $barline% linking the t#o members of eachsuch incompatiblepair of solutions! Then all solutions in different problems that are

    not barred are free to be combined!

    .! Create a solution tree 7reate a tree diagram that displas all compatible

    combinations of solution options! The ver simple e"ample belo# sho#s three

    problems B1 has t#o possible solutions (3 and ), B' has three (7, D, ) and B.

    has t#o (0, C)! If all the solutions #ere compatible, there #ould 1' possible solution

    combinations, sho#n on the diagram as the t#elve different $routes% from the $trunk%

    of the tree to the $t#igs%! 6o#ever, imagine that 38, 87, and 78C areincompatible pairs of solutions (sho#n on the diagram b E F)! The diagram

    sho#s that #hen ou take into account the incompatible pairs, there are onl seven

    possible composite solutions (3 G 7 G 0, 3 G D G 0, 3 G D G C, G D G 0, G D G

    C, G G 0 and G G C)! These seven composite solutions can no# be

    compared against agreed criteria like an other set of solutions!

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    "ample&uppose ou face a compan $image% problem, a $#astedisposal% problem, and a need

    to choose one of several landsites ou o#n for a ne# head office! Though apparentl

    independent, these ma become interdependant! 0or instance, if ou $solve% our

    compan identit problem b adopting an $environmentall friendl% polic, ou ma

    no longer be able to $solve% our #astedisposal problem b dumping, and instead have

    to build a #astedisposal facilit on a landsite that ou might have used for the headoffice- The public sector often faces such heterogeneous interactions!

    The combinatorial problemIf ou have / problems, each #ith ? plausible solutions, then there are in theor up to

    ?/different combinations to compare, e!g! five problems, each #ith four solutions,

    #ould give over 1HHH possible combinations (a tpe of problem share b idea

    generating techniques such asAttribute listingandMorphological analysis)! 6ence the

    need to eliminate unneeded combinations! ?anual 3ID3 becomes un#ield #ith muchmore than, sa, five or si" problems each #ith, sa, t#o or three possible solutions! ith

    computer support to help ou keep track of all the combinations, man more can be

    managed!

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    3. ALTERNATIVE SCENARIOS

    &cenarios are qualitativel different descriptions of plausible futures! The give ou a

    deeper understanding of potential environments in #hich ou might have to operate and

    #hat ou ma need to do in the present! &cenario analsis helps ou to identif #hat

    environmental factors to monitor over time, so that #hen the environment shifts, ou

    can recognie #here it is shifting to!

    Thinking through several scenarios is a less risk, more conservative approach to

    planning than reling on single forecasts and trend analses! It can thus free up

    management to take more innovative actions!

    &cenarios are developed specificall for a particular problem! To begin developing

    scenarios

    1! &tate the specific decision that needs to be made!

    '! Identif the ma5or environmental forces that impact on the decision! 0or e"ample,

    suppose ou need to decide ho# to invest AJD funds in order to be positioned for

    opportunities that might emerge b the ear 'H1H! The ma5or environmental forces

    might include social values, economic gro#th #orld #ide and international trade

    access (tariffs, etc!)!

    .! uild four scenarios based on the principal forces! To do this, use information

    available to ou to identif four plausible and qualitativel different possibilities foreach force! 3ssemble the alternatives for each force into internall consistent

    $stories%, #ith both a narrative and a table of forces and scenarios! uild our

    scenarios around these forces! 0or instance, a mid#estern bank used scenarios to

    stimulate ne# ideas for maintaining a strong consumerlending business in

    upcoming deregulation! &cenario stor lines emerged for $3s at present%, $6eated%,

    $elt tightening% and $Isolation%!

    4! ith the scenarios in hand, identif business opportunities #ithin each scenario!

    >! "amine the links and snergies of opportunities across the range of scenarios! This#ould help ou to formulate a more realistic strateg for investment!

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    4. ANALOGIES

    3n analog is saing that something is like something else (in some respects but not in

    others)! &o a 5umbo 5et is

    Liean albatross in that the both fl, the both have #ings, the can both travel for

    a long #a #ithout landing, and both can sense #here the are going

    but the are unliein that the have different means of propulsion, are made of

    different materials, etc!

    3nalogies are ke feature of man approaches to creativit, e!g!

    The #ere central to the earlier forms of!ynectics(q!v!)

    The are an important element in various tpes of"#cursion(q!v!)

    ionics #as the sstematic use of biological and botanical analogies to solve novel

    engineering problems!

    Kften analogies are used ver informall $This problem makes me think of @ (analog)

    * that suggests to me that mabe #e could tr + (idea dra#n from analog @)!% ut the

    underling logic #ill be along these lines

    1! Identif #hat it is ou #ant ideas for, and tr to find a core verb phrase that captures

    the essential functional nature of #hat ou are looking for, e!g! $6o# to mae@%!

    $6o# toprevent+%, $6o# tospeed upL%, $6o# tobecome betterat 3%!

    '! 0or each verb phrase generate a list of items (people, situations, ob5ects, processes,actions, places, etc!) that is $like% it in some #a, e!g! analogies to $making @%

    (having a bab, making a pudding, the Cnesis creation stor, a robot car factor, )!

    .! Bick one of these analogies that seems interesting * preferabl #here the verb

    phrase and analog are from different domains * e!g! a biological analog for a

    mechanical problem!

    4! Describe the analogue, including active aspects (such as ho# it #orks, #hat it does,

    #hat effects it has, ho# it is used) as #ell as passive aspects (sie, position, etc!)!

    >! Mse this description to suggest ideas relevant to our problem! Does the analoguehave features ou can use directl2 Do the differences suggest other #as of looking

    at our problem2

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    3nalogies can be

    Close and$or predictable $&elling sprockets% is like $&elling tiddl#inks%! These

    analogies are usuall better for locating e"isting e"pertise and for conventional

    information searching! The identif our issue as belonging to a recogniable

    categor * e!g! %selling things%!

    Remote and$or surprising%$&elling sprockets% is like $&teering an elephant%! These

    analogies are more likel to challenge assumptions and lead to ne# insights and

    ideas * but the parallels the suggest are unlikel to have much $rational% status! In

    the e"treme, the merge into the use ofRandom stimuli(q!v!)

    The earl form of snectics devised b Cordon identified four tpes of analog

    &irect analogy 3 straight functional parallel (e!g! a door hinge is like a clam shell

    hinge)!

    !ymbolic analogy 3 more poetic or literar parallel, but still fairl ob5ective and

    impersonal! 0or e"ample, #hen asked to design a car 5ack that could fit in a small

    bo", but e"tend to several feet holding a heav load, Cordon describes using the

    analog of the Indian rope trick!

    'antasy analogy hat is the image that comes to ou if ou ask ho# ou #ould

    solve our problem in our #ildest fantas #ish or desire2

    Personal analogy 6ere ou, ourself, become the analogue! +ou tr to imagine

    (and ideall activel rolepla) #hat it #ould be like to be the thing or situation ouare tring to invent or solve! $I am this door hinge #e are tring to invent this is

    ho# I am this is ho# the #orld looks and feels from here ! hat I feel I need

    is it #ould reall help if I had a $, and so on!

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    5. ANONYMOUS VOTING

    The function of anonmit in creativit methods is to encourage participants to feel safe

    enough to take creative risks! It can be useful in groups #ith significant intermember

    pressures or an"ieties, it is a basic feature of all nominal group methods and is an

    e"cellent #a of protecting people against accidental or unintentional interpersonal

    pressures, in climates #here there is basic good#ill to#ards differences of vie#point,

    and a commitment to respecting them!

    ut methods such as that described belo# cannot offer a particularl robust form of

    anonmit, and in climates #here there is a serious risk of $bulling% or significant

    levels of paranoid an"iet, this method could lead naNve participants to e"pose

    themselves to unacceptable risks, particularl #hen the return to the $outside #orld%!

    0acilitators need to be clear that the levels of risk the are asking participants to take are

    realistic!

    The method belo# assumes that ou start #ith a publicl visible list of perhaps .H1HH

    seriall numbered ideas from some idea generation process!

    1! The leader indicates

    The length of the shortlist each member is to produce (ca! 1H1> per cent of the

    number of ideas on the list * usuall about five to nine items)

    The ranking convention (e!g! $3% is most preferred, follo#ed b $%, $7%, etc!)!'! ?embers privatel select their o#n shortlist of ideas! The #rite each idea the

    select on a card #ith its serial list number!

    .! The decide ho# the #ant to order the ideas on their shortlist, and #rite the

    appropriate rank letter ($3%, $%, $7%, ) on each card!

    4! The cards are handed in face do#n to the leader, #ho gathers everbod%s cards,

    shuffles them, and tallies the votes on a flipchart b idea number! In this #a, the

    vote remains anonmous!

    /otice that using numbersfor serial list position and lettersfor rank order avoids the

    risk of confusing a list position #ith a rank, as might happen if numbers #ere used for

    the rank! If ou prefer to use numbers for the rank order, ou could avoid confusion b

    using different number ranges! 0or instance, if ou use 19 for ranks and start our

    serial numbering from 1H, there can be no confusion!

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    6. ASSUMPTION SURFACING

    This technique (?ason and ?itroff, 19=1) is concerned #ith making underling

    assumptions more visible!

    1! Identif a particular choice ou have made, and ask ourself #hat assumptions

    guide this choice * #h ou feel it is the best choice!

    '! ist the assumptions, and beside each #rite a counterassumption not necessaril

    its negation, but the opposite pole of the construct it represents!

    "#ample &uppose ou choose to #ear informal clothes to #ork #h do ou do this,

    and #hat assumptions are ou making2 0or instance

    Assumption ( I assume that m colleagues don%t mind ho# I dress ()pposite pole

    Berhaps the actuall find m clothes stle offensive2)

    Assumption * I assume that informalit conves rela"ed values ()pposite pole

    Berhaps it conves that I am scruff and disorganied2)

    .! ork do#n the list and delete an assumption8counterassumption pairs #here it

    #ould make little difference to our choice #hether the assumption or the counter

    assumption #ere actuall the case!

    4! 3ssess each of the remaining assumptions in terms of

    +igh vs low potential impact 6o# critical is its truth to 5ustifing our pattern ofbehaviour2

    +igh vs low plausibility 6o# confident are ou that it is, in fact, true2

    >! Blot the assumptions on a ' " ' matri" (high8lo# impact 8 high8lo# plausibilit)!

    0or e"ample, in m #ork setting, 3ssumption I above #ould be high potential

    impact (if m dress stle reall did upset colleagues, I #ould do something about

    it), but lo# plausibilit (I don%t think it does upset them)!

    6igh impact8high plausibilit assumptions are clearl the most crucial, but highimpact8lo# plausibilit assumptions need to be taken seriousl, in case the turn out to

    be true, so check them out if ou can!

    The assumptions in the $high impact% cells are those ou see as largel 5ustifing our

    actions! 3re ou overestimating them2 hat could change these assumptions2 hat

    benefits #ould there be and for #hom2

    The assumptions in the $lo# impact% cells are seen as less critical, but it might be #orth

    checking this out * are the being underestimated2

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    7. ATTRIUTE LISTING (AND VARIANTS)

    This ver earl creativit technique (developed b Aobert 7ra#ford in the 19.Hs) takes

    an e"isting product or sstem, breaks it into parts, identifies various #as of achieving

    each part, and then recombines these to identif ne# forms of the product or sstem, in

    much the same #a as the classic children%s game called $6eads, bodies and legs%!

    It has man variants, and is an important precursor to techniques such asMorphological

    analysisand -alue engineering!

    3 ne# kind of toothbrush or pro5ect management method probabl has much the same

    ma5or functional elements as an other kind of toothbrush or pro5ect management

    method, but #ith some important difference in the #a the elements are achieved or put

    together! &o to generate a ne# #a of doing something, ou could list all the ke

    attributes of current approaches, and tr to improve on some of them! &o

    1! Identif the product or process ou are dissatisfied #ith or #ish to improve

    '! ist its attributes! 0or a simple phsical ob5ect like a toothbrush, this might include

    name, parts, functions, methods of use, target market, materials, shape, colours,

    te"tures, etc! 3 toothbrush for small children might end up #ith a table like this

    .ame Toothbrush

    Parts 6andle, neck, head, bristles, hole, cartoon character!

    'unctions Aemove trapped food particles< polishing teeth< massaging gums! 7ombine one or more of these alternative #as of achieving the required attributes,

    and see if ou can come up #ith a ne# approach to the product or process ou

    #ere #orking on!

    Mnfortunatel, classic attribute listing offered no advice about the $combinatorial

    e"plosion% that occurs as the number of attributes and alternatives increases! If ou have

    / attributes and each could be achieved in ? alternative #as, there are ?/

    combinations * so even #ith onl five attributes, each #ith onl four alternatives, ou

    alread have over 1HHH logicall different combinations- The designer is left to e"plore

    different possible combinations using imagination and intuition!

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    /sing randomly chosen combinations to stimulate ideas If ou prefer a more

    mechanical and less intuitive #a of using this arra of alternatives, ou could generate

    provocative combinations b #orking through each attribute in turn and picking one of

    the #as of achieving that attribute at random (e!g! #ith dice)! 0or instance, this might

    give ou a rather #eird toothbrush #ith a #ooden handle, designer logo, plastic neck,

    large head, metal bristles, etc!- +ou can then use this chimera either as a random

    stimulus to trigger more ideas (cf! Random stimuli) or ou can attempt a form of

    constructive evaluation b identifing #hat #ould be good about it, and #hat problems

    it #ould create (e!g! Pluses, potentials and concerns or Receptivity to ideas)! This

    process of generating random combinations and then using them to stimulate ideas can

    be repeated ad lib!

    The combinatorial problem is e"plored more full in later developments such as

    Morphological analysis!

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    !. OUNDARY E"AMINATION

    Defining a problem gives a clear task to focus on! The definition highlights some

    features of the situation as being particularl relevant, and plas do#n others as largel

    irrelevant! The problem boundar is the notional $container% #hich separates highl

    relevant features (inside the boundar) from less relevant ones (outside the boundar)!

    +our perception of #hat is relevant or not ma #ell evolve as our understanding of the

    situation develops! If the boundar has been provided for ou (e!g! because someone

    else has defined the problem for ou) it #ill reflect their biases and concerns as #ell as

    our o#n, and the boundar setting ma itself be part of the problem! It is eas for the

    area outside the boundar to become ignored $background%!

    This simple method from de ono (19=') is designed to bring potentiall relevant

    aspects back into a#areness!

    1! rite do#n an initial statement of the problem!

    '! Mnderline ke #ords

    .! "amine each ke #ord for hidden assumptions! 3 good #a to do this is to see

    ho# the meaning of the statement changes if ou replace a ke #ord b a snonm

    or near snonm!

    4! 6aving e"plored ho# the particular choice of ke #ords affects the meaning of the

    statement, see if ou can redefine the problem in a better #a!

    The aim is not necessaril to change the position of the boundar but rather to

    understand more clearl ho# the #ording of the problem is affecting our assumptions

    about the boundar!

    "#ample $In #hat #as might #e encourage consumers to purchase @% ?ust #e

    encourage* #ould $re#ard% or $punish them if the don%t% do as #ell2 ?ust it be the

    consumers#e are after * #hat about those #ho bu on behalf of consumers2 ?ust it beapurchase* #ould $use% or $value% do2

    &imilar toParaphrasing ey words, but offered in a problem definition conte"t! &ee

    also0oundary rela#ation!

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    #. OUNDARY RELA"ATION

    3 problem boundar is the imaginar line bet#een #hat a problem is, must be, should

    be, or could be, and #hat it isn%t, mustn%t be, shouldn%t be or couldn%t be! This approach

    #orks in t#o stages first, bringing elements of the boundar into a#areness< then

    seeing ho# far the can be loosened! 6ere are some #as of making a boundar more

    visible!

    1! .ot1ing the problem statement Take each significant term in a problem statement

    and define it more clearl b saing #hat it is not, for e"ample

    +ow develop (not replace, alter, reduce )

    the motorway (not other roads, airlines, ships, )

    networ (not piecemeal)

    to allow for (not compel)

    the gradual (neither imperceptible nor rapid)

    replacement (not augmentation)

    of rail (not air, ships, )

    transport (not pleasure use, prestige use)

    '! 'inding out oundar conditions not mentioned in the problem statement ma

    often be found b looking through departmental budgets, operational targets,

    polic statements, market analses, etc!, and generall $asking around%! &ometimes

    ou ma need to $read bet#een the lines%!

    .! Checlists of common boundary dimensions &imilar problems often share similarboundaries, so checklists can be helpful! 0or instance, most managerial problem

    solving has to #ork #ithin upper (and sometimes lo#er) lines of

    approval (authoriation, legalit, regulations, due process, )

    resources (mone, skill, people, time, equipment, )

    prior investments (established structures, plant, suppliers, markets, image, )

    acceptabilit (tolerable levels of intrusion, change, spread of information, )

    involvement (and nonalienation) of people (staff, customers, etc!)!

    4! 0oundary brainstorming +ou can use the usual brainstorming and nominal groupmethods to generate lists of issues or components that might be inside the problem

    boundar, outside it but in the near environment, and remoter from it! 7heck them

    #ith people involved in the problem, and define the boundar b sorting these

    items into those definitel insidethe boundar, definitel outsideit and possibl

    negotiable!

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    Aela"ing the boundariesKnce a boundar feature has been identified clearl, then it is usuall relativel simple

    to ask ourself and8or others involved

    $ould it make the problem an easier to solve if this part of the boundar

    could be altered in some #a2%

    $If so, under #hat circumstances could it be altered or ignored2%

    It ma be easier to get temporar lee#a around a boundar b discreetl $bending% it

    and making sure nothing goes #rong, than b tring to get formal permission to alter it!

    3s Bichot puts it in his $Intrapreneur%s Ten 7ommandments% $Commandment 2%

    Remember it is easier to as for forgiveness than for permission%

    &ee alsoMultiple redefinitionand0oundary e#amination!

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    1$. RAIN S%ETC&ING

    This technique (Oangund, 19==) is a variant on Pin cardsbrain#riting (q!v!), but ou

    pass evolving sketches rather than gro#ing lists of ideas around the group!

    3s usual #ith most brain#riting techniques, it doesn%t need a skilled facilitator!

    1! 3 group of four to eight people sit around a table, or in a circle of chairs! The

    need to be far enough apart to have some privac! The problem statement is agreed,

    and discussed until understood!

    '! ach participant privatel dra#s one or more sketches (each on separate sheets of

    paper) of ho# it might be solved, passing each sketch on to the person on their

    right #hen it is finished! The facilitator suggests that sketches should not take more

    than five minutes or so to dra#!

    .! Barticipants take the sketches passed on to them and either develop or annotate

    them, or use them to stimulate ne# sketches of their o#n, passing the amended

    original and8or an ne# sketches on to the neighbour on their right #hen read!

    4! 3fter the process has been running for a suitable period and8or energ is running

    lo#er, the sketches are collected!

    >! It #ill probabl help to displa all the sketches and to discuss them in turn for

    clarification and comment!

    :! Then move on to an appropriate categoriation, evaluation and selection process!

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    11. RAIN'RTING 635

    $:.>% (arfield et al!, 19;>) #as one of the earliest brain#riting methods to be devised,

    and is closel related to0rainwriting poolandPin cards(q!v!) * indeed ou could think

    of it as a tightl specified version of Bincards! It takes .H minutes (si" rounds of five

    minutes) and should generate 1H= ideas! Though it needs a timekeeper and organier, it

    doesn%t require skilled facilitation!

    1! &i" people sit round a table, each #ith a sheet of paper and pen! The group leader

    describes the problem to be #orked on!

    '! ach person #rites do#n three ideas in five minutes on the paper in front of them!

    3fter the first round, these ideas ma be either ne# ideas or developments of other

    ideas on the sheet!

    .! Barticipants then pass their papers to the person on their right! 3lternativel, to give

    some more $pschological space% bet#een the person #ho generates the ideas and

    the person the are passed to, ou could agree to pass our ideas, not to our

    immediate neighbour, but perhaps to the second person on our right, or in some

    other more comple" prearranged pattern!

    4! &teps '. are repeated until the papers return to their original authors, #hen the

    group leader collects the papers! The ideas can then be sorted and developed in an

    standard #a!

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    12. RAIN'RITING GAME

    This method (oods, 19;9) is set in the form of a lighthearted competitive game (see

    also'orce1fit game)!

    7reativit methods normall avoid competition because it tends to be divisive!

    6o#ever, there is evidence that creativit ma be increased under modest levels of

    pressure, so if the game atmosphere is fun rather than overl competitive, and the

    facilitator ensures that there are no significant losers, the game format might be useful,

    particularl in training conte"ts #here #inning and losing are likel to be less of an

    issue and both can be used to provide teaching material!

    The game #ill take a little longer than some other brain#riting techniques! Oer little

    facilitation skill is needed! The structure is as follo#s

    1! Displa the problem statement, and e"plain that the #inner of the game is the one

    #ho devises the most improbable solution!

    '! The facilitator sells each group member an agreed number (sa ten) of blank,

    seriall numbered cards at, sa, >p each, pooling the mone to form the prie! ach

    group member signs a receipt that records the serial numbers of their set of cards!

    .! ?embers tr to think of utterl implausible solutions, #riting one per card! The

    cards are then put up on a displa board!

    4! ?embers no# have, sa, 'H minutes to read silentl all the solutions, and toappend to them (on further unnumbered cards or BostitT?slips) #as in #hich

    the could be converted into a more practical #a of solving the problem (so

    reducing that ideas% chances of #inning)!

    >! ach member then has t#o votes (e!g! t#o stick stars) to vote for #hat he or she

    nowconsiders to be the most improbable idea on the numbered cards! The idea that

    attracts most votes #ins the pooled mone!

    :! 0orm t#o subgroups, give half the cards to each, and give each group (sa) 'H

    minutes to develop si" viable solutions from their cards!;! ach subgroup tries to $sell% their ideas to the other subgroup!

    =! verone comes together and agrees on the best ideas overall

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    13. RAIN'RITING POOL

    This method (Ceschka et al!, 19;.) is closel related to various other forms of

    brain#riting such as0rainwriting 345andPin cards(q!v!)! Ideas are normall listed on

    sheets of paper shared periodicall via a central pool (though cards or BostitT? slips

    could be used)! There is no turntaking mechanism, and participants #ork at their o#n

    speed! The central pool is anonmous, but a participant determined to break the

    anonmit can, of course, check hand#riting, or #atch #ho submits #hich sheet to the

    pool!

    Though it #ill help to have an organier8convenor, the technique does not require

    skilled facilitation!

    1! 0ive to eight participants sit round a table, each #ith pen and paper!

    '! The group leader presents a problem to the group, and #rites the problem

    statement #here everone can see it! The group discuss it to make sure that all

    participants understand it! &ee Constrained brainwriting for #as in #hich the

    leader can also provide more focused guidance!

    .! If the pool has not alread been primed, it is created b each person #riting four

    ideas on their piece of paper, and then placing it, face do#n, in the centre of the

    table!

    4! Barticipants then take a sheet out of the pool and add ideas (or comments) to it!

    >! henever the #ish, the put that sheet back in the pool (face do#n), take another,and add further ideas to the ne# sheet!

    :! 3t an point, if the prefer, a participant can start a ne# sheet from their o#n pad,

    and in due course add it to the pool!

    ;! 3fter 'H.H minutes, the process terminates, and the idea sheets are collected for

    later evaluation!

    Kbvious variants are to use separate cards or BostitT?slips, one per idea (cf!Pin card

    technique) instead of sheets! The sheet approach ma provide better stimulation forideas, but the card8BostitT?approach #ill simplif subsequent idea sorting, clustering,

    etc!

    This technique has also been adapted as the basis of some forms of group#are

    computerbased brainstorming (e!g! 6roup!ystems, q!v!)

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    14. RO'SING

    This item is about creative bro#sing in a librar conte"t! 6o#ever see /sing e#perts for

    a ver different approach to information acquisition!

    Tpes of bro#singThe creative use of literature ver often amounts to bro#sing! 3lthough the importance

    of bro#sing is generall recognied, its nature appears to be little understood! 3t least

    three kinds of bro#sing have been recognied

    1! Purposivebro#sing, the deliberate seeking for ne# information in a defined (albeit

    broad) sub5ect area

    '! Capriciousbro#sing, random e"amination of materials #ithout a definite goal

    .! "#ploratorybro#sing, consciousl looking for inspiration!

    0actors that ma support creative bro#singittle is kno#n of the success rate of this sort of information seeking, and still less of

    those factors #hich are likel to make it more productive! 6o#ever, the follo#ing

    probabl help

    &election of material over #ide sub5ect areas!

    Oaried presentation of information!

    3 broad librar classification scheme!

    etting bro#sers have direct access to information resources themselves< #orkingvia an intermediar removes all possibilit of serendipitous bro#sing! The

    generalist librar information officer, lacking the $prepared mind% of the specialist,

    might not spot a vital link, and #ould certainl fail to follo# a creative information

    gathering trail into apparentl irrelevant areas! Peeping the specialist in direct

    touch #ith the most appropriate resources is one of the kenotes of creative use of

    information and data!

    Brinted material can be more suitable for creative bro#sing than computeried

    information sstems, at least #ith current search soft#are! 6o#ever, once a leadhas been established, interactive computer searching can often allo# ou to follo#

    it up rapidl!

    The development of the eb and of ver e"tensive librar abstract services have

    also provided po#erful creative bro#sing resources!

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    15. UG LISTING

    3 bug list (3dams 19=;) is simpl a list of things that bug ou- It should be personal

    and illuminate specific areas of need! 3dams recommends keeping it fluent and fle"ible,

    remembering humorous and farout bugs as #ell as common ones! 6e suggests that if

    ou run out of bugs in under ten minutes, ou are either suffering from a perceptual or

    emotional block or have life unusuall under control-

    It ma #ell be the most specific thinking ou have ever done about precisel #hat small

    details in life bother ou< if properl done, our bug list should spark ideas in our mind

    for inventions, ideas, possible changes, etc!

    elo# is a simple of bugs from a fe# of 3dam%s students at &tanford Mniversit

    TO dinners umper stickers that cannot be removed Dirt aquariums &tamps that don%t stick Aelatives roken shoelaces /ois clocks 7hairs that #on%t slide on the floor Baperless toilets ID cards that don%t do the 5ob Blastic flo#ers ?iniature poodles ?en%s fashions Bictures that don%t hang straight Instant breakfast Barents deciding a kid%s career Aotten oranges Clar paper

    uttons #hich must be se#n

    &hock absorbers that don%t #ork 6air curlers in bed lunt pencils Brie sho#s on TO urntout light bulbs 7leaning the oven Ditches for pipes that are dug too large Bant hose /o urinals in home bathrooms Kne sock

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    16. ULLET PROOFING

    It can be important to identif areas in #hich our plan might be especiall vulnerable!

    hat might go #rong2 hat are some of the difficulties that might arise2 hat%s the

    #orst imaginable thing that could happen2

    This approach is an informal version of Pepner and Tregoe%s Potential problem

    analysis! It also has some elements of.egative brainstorming! Isaksen and Treffinger

    (19=>) suggest that $hat might happen if % is a useful question to use for e"ploring

    possible challenges!

    1! rainstorm around questions such as $hat might happen if 2 to locate areas in

    our plan of action that might cause problems #hich have not et been considered!

    '! Blace each area identified on a table such as the one belo#, sho#ing ho# lielythe

    event is to occur and if it did occur, ho#seriousit #ould be for our plan!

    .! +our greatest concerns #ill probabl be to#ard the top right of the table * ma5or

    problems that are ver likel to happen! If there are a significant number, ou ma

    first need to prioritise them so that ou can focus our effort on the most important!

    4! Mse an suitable problemsolving method to #ork out #as of dealing #ith them

    6o# likel is it to occurMnlikel Oer likel

    If it did occur, it#ould be

    ?a5or problem ?ost serious?inor problem east serious

    /ecessar though this kind of e"ercise is, looking on the black side can lo#er our

    spirits- If ou feel in need of a bit of cheering u, tr using the same technique in reverse

    hat could go #ell hat pleasant surprises might it deliver hat is the best thing that

    could happen Tr to make these reasonabl plausible * a collection of good things that

    reall might happen-

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    17. UNC&ES OF ANANAS

    ateral thinking techniques are often as much about reducing e#cessive left1brain

    attention(#hich ma be fuelling a mindset) as about introducing particular content!

    ?an people instinctivel liven up stuck meetings b being provocative, or $thro#ing in

    a bunch of bananas%! 6ere are some tips

    1! 3ssess the mood and climate are there an signs of $stuckness%2

    '! Thing about #hat ou might sa or do to help bring the group out of that state of

    $stuckness%! 7reate $bunches of bananas% to suit our o#n personalit and stle!

    .! Aemember that ou are engaging in a $#holebrain% activit! Qust as #ith a

    comedian, it is as much the deliver as the idea #hich produces the effect!

    4! 0or ine"perienced groups, the approach ma have to be appropriatel signaled $I

    kno# this is going to sound a little cra, but bear #ith me a minute or so!

    &ometimes ou can get out of a rut in the most une"pected #as %

    0or instance, a small group #orking on marketing goods from the MP to 3ustralia, had

    e"hausted the obvious possibilities and seemed to be $stuck%!

    $e don%t seem to be getting ver far,% someone said!

    $hat I%d like to do #ould be to find a product that ever 3ustralian sheep #ould beclamoring to bu!%

    This might have been met #ith derision or polite silence! 6e had, ho#ever, timed his

    $bunch or bananas% #ell, and someone picked up the idea!

    $&heep2 Kh, ou mean for us to find large numbers of customers #ho can be influenced

    easil! Berhaps #e have been concentrating too hard on too fe# clients %

    ventuall, a ne# product strateg for marketing to 3ustralia emerged along the lines of

    discussion this idea triggered!

    $unches of bananas% can come in ver different forms * an #ell placed 5oke or image

    that captures attention #hen appropriate! The simple use ofRandom stimuli(q!v!) can

    often have the same effect!

    In man #as, the actual content of the intervention is not important! It is concerned

    more #ith mood than #ith correctness of content! 3nd it does involve some risk and

    uncertaint, as ou can never predict the effect the intervention #ill have!

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    1!. CARD STORYOARDS

    This technique (attributed b Aoth (19=>) to Oance) is an $idea organiing% method

    using tree logic (cf!Mind1mapping, and other hierarchical diagramsand outlines, and

    Oennconvention methods such as !nowball technique, 781method, 0rain0o#,

    Ideabase)! Don%t confuse it #ith the ver different but similarl named Cartoon story1

    board(q!v!)

    It allo#s the facilitator to focus idea generation on particular topics and subtopics much

    more closel than is normall possible in openended methods (cf! Constrained

    brainwritingas another #a to achieve this)!

    It uses a tabular laout * a simple ro# of header cards (or possibl header and sub

    header cards as in the e"ample belo#), each #ith a column of idea cards belo# it,

    perhaps #ith added action or comment notes attached

    The cards could be inde" cards, BostitT?slips, etc! It helps if the header cards are a

    different colour or shape! The semistick adhesive used on restickable notes isavailable in spracan form, so if ou #ant to use nonstick cards, ou can make a re

    stickable displa area b spraing flipchart paper #ith the adhesive< the cards can then

    be put in position or removed and rearranged as ou #ish!

    Kne #a to use this approach is as follo#s

    1! The group leader presents the problem and participants suggest possible categories

    of solutions! These are #ritten on cards and displaed as a ro# of headers!

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    '! The group leader selects a particular header and participants #rite ideas relating to

    that header on cards! These ideacards are displaed under the relevant header! The

    leader ma ask provocative questions to prompt further ideascards under that

    header! This is repeated #ith other headers, until there are sufficient ideas! If

    necessar, return to &tep 1 to generate further headers, and8or add subheader cards

    under a particular header card!

    .! The idea cards under each header (or subheader) are ranked b a suitable voting

    method and rearranged in priorit order! The best three in each categor are

    discussed further, and ranked among themselves!

    &mithers (19=4), of the 7reative Thinking 7entre, adds a preliminar problem

    clarification stage b first posting up a header saing $Burpose% and then getting the

    group to develop ideacards under this header for different aspects of the $Burpose% of

    solving the problem! These are discussed and ranked! The headers for the idea

    generation stage are then created in the light of this process! &mithers also finds it useful

    to appoint one group member to #rite cards for brainstormed ideas and another to pin

    them up, to free the group leader to concentrate on facilitation!

    auer and 3ssociates (19=>) devised a ver fulldeveloped problemsolving process

    the called 03&TTA37P #hich makes e"tensive use of card storboards! The use a

    $h% header (equivalent to &mithers% $Burpose%), a $?iscellaneous% header (for use#here there is disagreement about the categoriing of an idea) and a $ild card% header

    (#here all re5ected ideas are stored)! 0or the evaluation stages, the use a series of

    headers including $7auses%, $7onsequences%, $ssential criteria%, $&olution ideas%,

    $&elected solution(s)%< $3ction steps%, $3ssessment steps%! This provides a ver compact

    summar of the problem and current ideas about dealing #ith it, in a format that is

    easil ad5usted!

    +ou can also use header cards to represent procedural elements or steps (instead of ideacategories) #ith the ideacards listing the results of that step!

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    1#. CARTOON STORYOARD

    This technique (devised b 6enr) is a simple #a to use dra#ings to clarif a goal and

    a route to achieve it, and to identif ke blockages in attaining the goal!

    hile ou can use an ordinar pen and sheet of 34 paper, a range of coloured felt

    tipped pens and a large sheet of paper (e!g! 31 flipchart) are better!

    1! Preparation Blace the paper in the landscape position! Dra# si" square bo"es on it

    (see belo#), and label them 1 to :, leaving enough space under each to #rite a

    short sentence!

    '! 9here you are going Aela", and get an image in our mind of a goal ou are

    tring to achieve! In our imagination, transport ourself for#ard in time to the

    point #here ou have achieved our goal successfull! hat does it feel like2

    hat is happening2 6o# are ou and others reacting to it2 Dra# in o" : a picture

    that conves toyouthis situation!&on:t label it yet! /o art skills are needed * stick

    figures or coloured splodges are fine< don%t $tr% to dra# * 5ust let our hand dra#!

    .! 9here you are now ring our imagination back to the present 0orm an image of

    the ma5or elements of the present situation, and dra# that in o" 1, much as ou

    did for o" :! Don%t label it et!

    4! Intermediate turning1points Do the same for o"es '>, using them to depict a

    sequence of four ke intermediate steps in successfull moving from the presentsituation to the desired situation * four ke $scenes in the drama%! Don%t label them

    et!

    >! Potential blocs hen ou have finished all si" bo"es, and are happ that the

    conve (to ou) a successful progression from RhereR to $there%, spend some time

    contemplating our picture, and #hen ou feel ou have a good sense of the

    positive progression through the si" bo"es, begin to think of #hat must be

    overcome if ou are to make this progression! rite a #ord or brief phrase under

    each picture to sho# #hat might blocthe progression at that point< these are theke challenges ou must overcome!

    This is a plan our conscious and unconscious have cooperated in producing, so it is an

    e"pression of our current state of mind on this issue! &pend some time contemplating

    #hat ou have produced, both the progression ou #ant and the challenges it implies!

    +ou ma find it helpful to discuss our picture #ith someone, and to put it on our #all

    for a fe# das so that ou can continue to let it #ork in our mind!

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    If after that it still seems sound to ou, then do it! If after though and discussion ou are

    not happ #ith it, then use this representation to help ou identif the problems for

    another round of problem solving!

    The figure belo# is adapted from an actual student%s storboard! 3lthough the e"ample

    clearl sho#s private sketches b someone #ho #ouldn%t claim to have graphic skills,

    nevertheless the images are po#erful, the pictures sho# a ver clear direction and the

    #ords sho# ver real concerns!

    Cartoon story1board produced during a problem1solving session

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    2$. CAT'OE

    $73TK% is a mnemonic associated #ith the issuedefining phase of Beter

    7heckland%s !oft systems method(q!v!) (7heckland and &choles, 199H)! 6o#ever, it is

    also useful in its o#n right as a checklist of features to look for in an problem * or goal

    * definition! /otice, ho#ever, that 73TK is meant to be applied to the definition of

    the*+- that contains the problem, issue or solution,rather than to the problem or

    goal statement itself, i!e! to $3 sstem to %%3 sstem for %< or $3 sstem that %!

    &uch a definition should include

    C The $customers of the sstem%! In this conte"t, $customers% means those #ho are

    on the receiving end of #hatever it is that the sstem does! Is it clear from our

    definition #ho are its victims or beneficiaries2

    A The $actors%, meaning those #ho #ould actuall carr out the activities

    envisaged in the notional sstem being defined!

    T The $transformation process%! That is, #hat the sstem does to its inputs in order

    to transform them into outputs! It is the central activit of the sstem! The

    definition is usuall easier to #ork #ith if there is onl one transformation process

    per root definition!

    ' The $eltanschauung% or $#orld vie#% that lies behind the root definition! The

    relevance of a particular sstem often depends on the #ider sstem of beliefs and

    values in #hich it is embedded! 0or e"ample, the Kpen Mniversit is a sstem

    designed to deliver goodqualit mass education, riding on a cultural belief thatgoodqualit mass education is $a good thing%! It might have a ver different

    character in a strongl hierarchical societ #hich did not share this value! The

    definition ma not state e"plicitl, but the implicit needs to be ackno#ledged!

    O The $o#ner(s)%, i!e! those #ho have sufficient formal po#er over the sstem to

    stop it e"isting if the so #ished (though the #on%t usuall #ant to do this)!

    E The $environmental constraints%! These include things such as ethical limits,

    regulations, financial constraints, resource limitations, limits set b terms of

    reference, and so on!

    If ou 5ust #ork through 73TK and add in each element as ou go, the definition

    tends to get a bit cumbersome! It ma be better seen as a set of searching questions that

    makes ou ask $Does m definition implicitl include 7 (or 3 or T or or K or ) and,

    if not, should it2%! In the case of T, the ans#er to latter should al#as be $es%, but for

    the others the ans#er ma be $no%!

    &ee also Criteria for idea1finding potential and 6oal orientation< related checklists

    such as'ive 9sand+or &imensional analysis< and concepts such as the /B (neuro

    linguistic programming) $#ellformed outcome%!

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    21. CAUSAL MAPPING

    7ausal mapping, sometimes also kno#n as cognitive mapping (den, Qones and &ims,

    19=.< den and &impson, 19=9), helps ou create a discussible, shareable, net#ork

    diagram sho#ing our beliefs about the causes and consequences of a situation!

    &ee e"amples belo#

    The basic elements of the upper diagram (sometimes called a &ign graph) are pairs of

    variables (things that can go up or do#n, can happen or not happen) linked b causal

    arro#s! &o ;uality ?< !ales, i!e! both sides go up and do#n in parallel!

    7onversel,Available cash =1?< Ris of liquidation(notice the $$sign) is a $negative%

    relationship, e!g! ifAvailable cashgoes up,Ris of liquidation#ill go do#n and vice

    versa * it is a seesa#like relationship rather than a parallel one! This is usuall 5ust a

    matter of presentation, because ou can normall convert one into the otherAvailable

    cash =1?< Ris of liquidationhas much the same meaning as !hortage of cash =>?! The final proposals #ere presented before topranking officials, the media and the

    #hole communit, in a climate of strong communit commitment!

    :! 3 report #as produced so that anone could discover #hat happened! ocal

    ne#spapers, TO and radio #ere usuall closel involved!

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    23. CLARIFICATION

    hat people say often gives a ver incomplete picture of #hat the mean * and

    conversel parts of their stor ma be missing #ithout them realiing it! 7larifing it

    #ill help communication to others, and #ill often unlock problems and help the

    problem o#ner as #ell! anguage analsis is an important thread in /B (neuro

    linguistic programming) as sho#n in the material belo#, adapted from ankton (19=H)!

    Kn the left are some common forms of language fuiness, and on the right are some

    questions for clarifing them! The questions call for specific ans#ers, not onl

    clarifing the speaker%s o#n thinking, but also preventing questioners imposing their

    o#n (possibl incorrect) interpretations on it! /otice that these are po#erful questions,

    and used insensitivel the can feel like interrogation rather than help-

    1! &eletion ?aterial has been completel left out of the sentence!

    $I%m inadequate!% To do #hat2

    $? thinking is better!% 3bout #hat2 etter than #hat2

    '! Referential inde# deletion 3 person, place or thing is introduced into the sentence

    but not specified!

    $Things get me do#n!% hat things2

    $&omething should be done about it!% hat should be done about #hat2

    .! /nspecified verbs The verb is introduced but is not clarified!

    $I can deal #ith it!% 6o#, specificall2

    $I%m stuck!% 6o# are ou stuck2

    4! .ominalisations 3bstract nouns like $pride%, $respect%, $love%, $confidence%, are

    introduced! Though apparentl important to the speaker, the do not have fi"ed,

    clear meanings!$There is no respect here!% ho is not respecting #hom2

    Aespecting in #hat #a2

    $Pno#ledge is most important!% ho kno#ing #hat and in #hat #a2

    >! ?odal operators Mse of limiting #ords like $can%t and $must%!

    $I can%t do anthing right!% hat prevents ou2

    $+ou must go!% hat might happen if I don%t2

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    :! Lost performatives 3 $should% or $must% statement that doesn%t state #here its

    authorit comes from, e!g! $Beople should kno# better!% (ho, e"actl, sas the

    should2)

    ;! 6eneralisations and universal quantifiers 3ssociating a #hole class of e"perience

    #ith the same meaning, e!g! $&taplers never #ork-%, $I%ll never accept another sales

    trip again-%, $verone hates me!%

    =! Presuppositions lements in the statement #hich must have some e"istence for

    the statement to be true or valid, e!g! $The manager tried to lie to me again%

    presupposes a manger and past ling! ("actl #hen and in #hat circumstances did

    the manager lie to ou in the past2)

    9! Causal modeling 3n cause*effect statement #hich #ill link t#o or more

    situations in a causeeffect fashion, e!g! $The printer breakdo#n #as the reason for

    me being late #ith the draft!% (Is this the onl possible e"planation2)

    1H! Mind reading The speaker claims to be priv to the internal states of others, e!g! $I

    kno# #hat ou are thinking%, $I think he is doing that because he #ants the

    contract!% (hat is the person actuall thinking or #anting2)

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    24. CLASSICAL RAINSTORMING

    These notes describe Ksborn%s Classical brainstormingas it emerged in the late 19.Hs!

    It no# tends to be thought of as the $idea finding% phase of larger processes, such as the

    uffalo Creative problem solving(7B&) method (q!v!) 7lassical brainstorming is based

    on t#o principles

    &eferred @udgement 7reative thinking and 5udgmental thinking are both important,

    but must be kept separate! Ksborn argued that in creative thinking, all 5udgement

    must be postponed!

    ;uantity breeds quality 0irst, a flo# of ideas stimulates more ideas! &econd, an

    idea must be articulated to recognie its merits and the best ideas are rare, so the

    more ou articulate, the greater the statistical chances of finding good ones!

    These t#o principles led to four practical rules

    .o criticism this is to ensure deferred 5udgement, and is the most important of the

    four rules! It precludes not onl e"plicit criticism, but also an spoken or unspoken

    gestures or actions that can create a critical atmosphere, or that an participant

    feels as critical!

    'reewheel "pression of ideas must be uninhibited! hatever comes to mind is

    #elcomed free associations, random thoughts, images that are funn, taboo, #aout, interesting, boring, apparentl relevant, apparentl irrelevant, etc!, etc!

    6o for quantity The more ideas recorded, the more chances there are of success!

    +itch1hie 3s #ell as contributing our o#n ideas, it is important to build on

    others ideas! This encourages idea improvement and elaboration and enhances

    group interaction!

    In its classical form, the procedure might be as follo#s

    1! ell before the meeting, a suitable problemstatement is developed, and a suitablegroup of five to ten participants are selected and invited!

    '! T#o or three das before the meeting, the receive a note giving the background

    to the problem, a problem statement, ho# the session #ill run and the four

    brainstorming rules!

    .! The room is set up appropriatel! The recorder prepares a good suppl of pre

    numbered blank sheets of flipchart paper (or equivalent)!

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    4! The session starts #ith a revie# of the brainstorming format, the four rules, and a

    #armup session (unrelated to the problem)!

    >! The recorder prepares a ne# set of recording sheets! The problemstatement is

    displaed prominentl #ith a brief question time for clarification! The four rules

    are repeated!

    :! Barticipants call out ideas as the occur to them, and the recorder #rites them

    do#n! The facilitator checks that the four rules are follo#ed! It is important the

    recorder is seen to record everyidea (including quiet asides, 5okes, etc!), in the

    contributor%s #ords, or an agreed rephrase! It helps if the contributors signal each

    idea clearl and ad5ust their pace so that there is time to record each idea! It is

    usuall best that the recorder does not contribute, though in a ver small group

    s8he might do so!

    ;! Terminate the process #hen the idea flo# begins to run dr * it should certainl

    not e"ceed .H4H minutes!

    =! 3s a separate activit, collate, sort and evaluate the ideas generated in an suitable

    #a, providing the original participants #ith copies of the results!

    Though Ksborn%s principles and rules have been a core part of man subsequentcreativit techniques, it doesn%t #ork #ell unless the participants and facilitator are

    skilled and compatible, since adverse group processes can severel reduce its

    effectiveness! &ubsequent developments have tackled this limitation in various #as,

    e!g! see.ominal group technique(/CT) and the various brain#riting methods!

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    25. CLIC&S, PROVERS AND MA"IMS

    This technique (OanCund, 19==) uses the same basic e"cursion process asAnalogiesor

    Random stimuli(q!v!), e"cept that it uses a clich, proverb or ma"im

    1! Identif #hat it is ou #ant ideas for, e!g! ideas for solving a problem or tackling

    some attribute of it, an idea to be built on, an assumption to be e"plored, etc!

    '! &elect at random a clich, proverb or ma"im that seems interesting (e!g! from the

    list belo#)

    .! ithout thinking of the problem, #rite do#n as man implications and

    interpretations of the phrase ou have chosen as ou can think of! Think ho# it is

    normall used< think of people ou kno# #ho #ould use it< tr to recapture #hat it

    must originall have meant, or ho# vivid it must have seemed #hen someone first

    invented it!

    4! 0orcefit some of these back to the problem as ou #ould for an other kind of

    e"cursion!

    >! If it doesn%t #ork, pick another clich and tr again!

    There are various dictionaries of proverbs, idioms, quotations, etc! that could be used

    for this, but OanCund presents '> ver familiar and '> visuall evocative proverbs and

    saings identified in a stud b 6igbee and ?illard! 7ombining the t#o lists and

    removing duplicates, gives the list belo#!

    Kther languages #ill of course have their o#n idioms and saings #hich #ould do 5ust

    as #ell!

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    ist of clichs, proverbs and ma"ims (after 6igbee and ?illard)

    3 man%s home is his castle ike father, like son3 penn saved is a penn earned ook before ou leap

    3 place for everthing and everthing inits place ?ind our o#n business3ctions speak louder than #ords ?onke see, monke do3ll%s #ell that ends #ell /ever bite off more than ou can che#3n apple a da keeps the doctor a#a Kne bad apple spoils a barreleaut is in the ee of the beholder Bractice makes perfecteaut is onl skin deep Bractice #hat ou preacheggars can%t be choosers But on our thinking capetter late than never The bigger the are, the harder the falletter safe than sorr The earl bird catches the #ormirds of a feather flock together Too man cooks spoil the broth7leanliness is ne"t to godliness T#o heads are better than oneDon%t cr over spilt milk T#o #rongs do not make a rightDon%t rock the boat T#o%s compan, three%s a cro#dasier said than done e%re all in the same boatas come, eas go hen it rains, it poursIf at first ou don%t succeed, tr, tr, tragain

    hen the cat%s a#a, the mice #ill pla

    If the shoe fits, #ear it here there%s a #ill, there%s a #aPill t#o birds #ith one stone +ou can lead a horse to #ater, but ou

    can%t make it drink+ou can%t teach an old dog ne# tricks+ou can%t tell a book b its cover

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    26. COLLECTIVE NOTEOO% (CN)6aefele%s original version7/ #as devised b Qohn 6aefele (19:') of Broctor and Camble to encourage idea

    generation #ithin an organiation! 3 ma5or advantage is that since the idea generation is

    spread over a period of #eeks, there is full opportunit for incubation and e"posure to a

    #ide range of stimuli! The #orkload on the participants is ver lo#, but on the co

    ordinator can be high if man people are involved!

    1! The coordinator provides each participant #ith a notebook describing the

    procedure and giving a broad problem statement! The booklet also contains some

    suggestions for generating ideas, such as transformation methods (reverse, e"pand,

    minimise)< e"ploration methods (listing problem characteristics or similar

    problems)< seeking remote associations (random stimuli from all five senses 1

    O9+0;

    R7 > 1> ' 4 > > 1. '96olida camp > '> 1 . 1 ' ' ' 9 .'

    This numerical version uses ratings from 1 to > (the $ra# score% columns), plus a

    numerical $#eight% for each criterion (also 1 to >)! In the final comparison, the

    $#eighted value% of a given option on a given criterion is the raw scorefor that optionon that criterion, multiplied b the weightof that criterion! &o $each holida% gets a

    ra# score of $4% on the $happ kids% criterion! ut since this criterion is highl valued (at

    >) $each holida% gets a weighted valueof 'H (4 " >)!

    3s ou can see from the $Totals% on the right, $&ta at home% #ould #in on $ra# scores%,

    but $6olida camp% #ins once ou allo# for the different #eight of each criterion!

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    6o#ever, the results are still ver sensitive to the e"act values chosen! 0or instance, if

    the criterion $o# cost% is given a #eight of $4% rather than $.%, $&ta at home% #ins

    instead! &uch technicalities can make it quite difficult to see #hat is going on unless one

    option is $head and shoulders% above the rest! This sensitivit to small changes also

    makes this an eas method to $rig% so as to produce an impressivelooking quasi

    ob5ective case that seems to support an option that ou happen to favour-

    The qualitative version presents essentiall the same picture, but reduced to a scatter of

    $G% and $$ signs

    &99* :0(@@@)

    L;

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    2!. COMPONENT DETAILING

    This method (akin, 19=>) is related both toAttribute listing(q!v!) and0rain setching

    (q!v!)! It uses&rawings(q!v!) of the components, in much the same spirit as the old

    children%s% game of 5oining together pictures of heads, bodies and legs taken from

    different people to make a biarre composite person! The method #orks best #hen the

    $problem% is the design of a phsical ob5ect, but it can also #ork #ith problems #hose

    components have a clear logical, rather than phsical, relation to one another!

    It has strong elements of $problem e"ploration% as #ell as $ideageneration%, because it

    often helps detailed understanding and the development of ne# perspectives!

    1! Cet a group of participants to break a problem do#n into as man ma5or

    components (subsstems or subassemblies) as there are group members! The

    group lists the attributes of each component (cf!Attribute listing)!

    '! ach group member is allocated one component and finds a #a to produce a

    sketch of a #a of $solving% it, making their sketch as detailed as possible in the

    time available (cf!0rain setching)!

    .! Aeassemble all the component dra#ings into one large collage that is organied to

    represent a (probabl rather biarre-) composite $solution% of the #hole problem,

    i!e! each component sketch is in the correct position relative to the other sketches

    so that the all fit crudel together (either phsicall or logicall) as a $complete%

    product or solution (like the artificial person created in the $heads, bodies and legs%games)!

    4! This biarre composite is then e"plored and discussed for ne# ideas and

    perspectives on the original problem, or indeed for ideas for completel ne#

    products!

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    2#. CONSENSUS MAPPING

    This technique (6art et al!, 19=>) is used to help a group, #ith a facilitator, reach

    consensus about ho# best to organie a net#ork of up to perhaps 'H.H activities that

    have to be sequenced over time into a coherent action plan (e!g! outlining a 1Hear

    net#ork of sequentiall linked activities to deal #ith a comple" environmental pollution

    issue)! These #ill usuall be activities that could be done in various orders, i!e! the order

    has to be agreed because it is not given b the internal logic of the activities themselves!

    The method has similarities to man of the usual pro5ect planning techniques (and could

    if necessar feed into them) but operates at a purel qualitative, outline level!

    It combines elements of standard clustering techniques such as 781method and

    !nowball #ith elements of sequential mapping (cf! Cognitive mapping) incorporated

    into a #ider consensusseeking procedure quite closel related to den%s &KD3

    method! 6ere is the suggested procedure

    1! Present the ideas 7reate a master list, b an suitable means, of all the ideas to be

    used in the single coherent action plan to be produced, e!g! brainstorm the activities

    needed to implement some idea or pro5ect! verone copies the master list on to

    BostitT?slips, or equivalent, one idea per slip!

    '! 'orm groups and identify clusters The facilitator forms t#o to four task groups,

    each of five to nine people

    ach group member makes their o#n private attempt to group the ideas into

    related clusters or categories!

    Cet together in pairs or trios #ithin each task group to describe one another%s

    clusters!

    ach task group #orks together to tr to merge their private clustering into a

    shared clustering the can all accept! In the light of this process, the clarif the original ideas, reevaluate them,

    etc!

    The task groups hand their group clusters to the facilitator and take a break!

    .! Create and present a strawman map: During the break, staff members consolidate

    the group cluster maps into a single overall cluster map, containing all the ideas,

    categories, and relationships generated b the groups! This $stra#man map% is

    presented to the group as a #hole #hen the reconvene!

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    3$. CONSTRAINED RAIN'RITING

    &ometimes ou #ant ideas to be constrained round a predetermined focus, rather than

    ranging freel! The t#o variants described here use standard brain#riting, but bias the

    idea generation b using brain#riting sheets prepared in advance!

    1! Present starter ideas The leader initiates the process b placing several prepared

    sheets of paper in the centre of the table

    Cued brainewriting 0or mild constraint, the sheets are simpl primed #ith

    one or more starting ideas (e!g! &KTs, issues) in the required area!

    !tructured brainwriting 0or a stronger constraint the sheets can be formall

    headed, each sheet relating to a particular issue or theme, #ith participants

    being asked to keep the ideas the contribute on each sheet relevant to the

    issue in the heading on that sheet!

    '! Private brainwriting ach group member takes a sheet, reads it, and silentl adds

    his or her ideas!

    .! Change sheet hen a member runs out of ideas or #ants to have the stimulation

    of another%s ideas, he or she puts one list back in the centre of the table and takes

    one returned b another member! 3fter revie#ing this ne# list he or she has 5ust

    selected, he or she adds more ideas!

    4! Repeatuntil ideas are e"hausted! /o discussion at an stage!

    &ee Card story1board, for another #a of directing idea generation!

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    31. CONTROLLING IMAGERY

    9arning 3s #ith all imagerbased methods, be a#are that ou ma

    occasionall e"perience imager relating to une"pected matters *

    perhaps to past hurts or fears! If this #ould concern ou, don%t use

    imagerbased methods, or use them #ith appropriate support!

    This set of techniques is intended to help ou to e"ercise more control over our

    imager, both in the positive sense of doing more #ith it, and in the negative sense of

    kno#ing ho# to stop it or defuse it!

    Developing our skill in changing our imager

    Tr making the change in stages! &uppose ou can%t imagine ourself floating up to the

    ceiling! 0irst imagine a floating balloon, then a floating cup, a briefcase, a chair, and

    eventuall ourself! &uppose ou have difficult changing a blue hat into a red one!

    0irst add one red button to the hat, then t#o, and so on until the hat is red!

    Tackling a frightening image in stages

    1! rite do#n a description of the image, and devise a progressive series from

    images that are eas to imagine, through more difficult ones, to the frighteningimage itself! It ma help to have a partner to talk ou through &teps '4!

    '! Aela"! Imagine the easiest image on our list! If ou e"perience an"iet, put the

    image a#a from our mind%s ee, and rela" once more! Then tr again!

    .! Aepeat the ccle of imagining and then rela"ing until ou are able to vie# the first

    image easil! Indirection ma help, e!g! imagine #atching a film about the image,

    or a film about someone making a film about it!

    4! hen comfortable #ith the $eas$ image, go to the ne"t, repeating the process until

    ou can vie# this ne# image #ithout an"iet! 7ontinue through the series ofimages! Take several sessions if necessar! /ever force the pace!

    &topping compulsive trains of un#anted images Kpen our ees, s#itch attention to thinking about something ver prosaic

    like #hat ou had for breakfast, and discontinue the fantas!

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    Kr tr putting the images into #ords, then snap our fingers and order them to

    $stop-% (or get someone to shout $&top-% for ou, or even 5ust sa it to ourself,

    though that is not so effective)! Then take a deep breath, and let it out slo#l,

    rela"ing our face, neck, shoulders and arms as ou do so! Then take a second

    deep breaths, and again let it out slo#l, rela"ing our front and back and legs

    right do#n to the ground as ou do so! Then take t#o normal breaths, shorter and

    shallo#er!

    Kr tr creating more images of the same kind * flooding ourself #ith them,

    to reduce the demand! 0or e"ample, move closer to and further from the imager,

    e"amining it in detail and from ever angle, until the mind is e"hausted! If going

    close feels uncomfortable, imagine a telescope, so that ou can see the detail from

    a safe distance!

    To remove a passive #orr, imagine its pleasurable opposite! If #orring

    about a deadline, fantasise about the en5oable e"perience of meeting it-

    Dissipating fearful images If ou feel able to do so, e"amine the image closel and describe it in detail!

    If there is one figure #hich is threatening, real or unreal, engage the figure in

    dialogue and ask it #hat it #ants! Talk to it!

    If it is some sort of creature, look in its ees! 0ind out #hat it likes to eat! 0eed it!

    If ou are #ith it in a dark place, visualise ourself taking the threatening creatureinto the sunlight! &ee if it changes in an #a!

    Imagine ou are the threatening figure! 6o# does this creature feel2

    If ou #ould like a companion, bring someone into our fantas to help ou or to

    be #ith ou, or find a competent guide in our imagination #hom ou trust and

    #ho can go #ith ou!

    Aemember that in fantas anthing is possible! Cive ourself of a magic #and or

    magic po#er! 7all on religious or supernatural po#er for help (e!g! 7hrist, uddha,

    Cod, )! Imagine the figure or the #hole scene suffused in #hite light!

    Do not kill! ecause the imager is all part of ou, it can often be transformed

    successfull, but $killing% it doesn%t usuall #ork and the $killed% feelings are likel

    to return in another form!

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    32. CRA'FORD SLIP 'RITING

    This method #as developed b 7ra#ford in the M&3 in the 19'Hs, for gathering ideas

    from large groups (even up to >HHH people, though much easier to handle #ith, sa, >H

    'HH), and has been subsequentl adapted b 7lark! It is in effect one of the earliest

    forms of brain#riting, and for small groups it reduces to a simple $private idea

    generation% phase! It is used #ith large gatherings of people in, sa, a lecture theatre or

    hall! It is in man respects the te"t predecessor of a modern radio or TO $phonein%!

    1! ach person is given a stack or notepad of at least '> small slips of, paper (e!g! 3:

    paper)! &ometimes the pads have been preprepared to include idea5ogging

    graphics, etc! 0or larger groups, the timeandmotion of handling the pads in &tep >

    becomes critical, so the pad needs to be designed so that the ideas can be separated

    and sorted easil!

    '! 3t appropriate points in the general proceedings, problem statements are read out

    to the group using an of the #ellestablished formulae such as $6o# to % or $In

    #hat #as might #e %! /ormall ou are looking for ideas for solutions, but in

    some cases ou might #ant to get ideas for alternative problems statements, or

    related issues, etc!

    .! Barticipants are told to #rite ideas of the required kind one per sheet, in an order!&ometimes it ma be appropriate to displa images or #ords to the #hole meeting

    to act as triggers! 3 variant is to get participants to #ork in t#os or threes (e!g! #ith

    others sitting near to them), one person #riting do#n the ideas for t#o or three

    people!

    4! hen #riting has begun to slo# do#n (usuall five to ten minutes) the notepads

    are collected!

    >! If rapid feedback is being attempted, the booklets are immediatel divided up

    bet#een the members of a team of helpers #ho each begin to sort their o#n sample

    (e!g! b frequenc of occurrence and8or feasibilit)! If more sophisticated

    categoriation is needed, then the categories #ill probabl have to be pre

    determined (e!g! from an earlier pilot), so that each team member can #ork to the

    same categories! 0or a ver large meeting, it ma be best to present the earl

    feedback as e"amples dra#n from a limited random sample of booklets!

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    :! 0eedback during the same meeting is difficult to achieve! 6o#ever, for an event

    lasting several das (such as a conference) quite sophisticated feedback #ithin the

    duration of the conference ma #ell be possible if the logistics are #ell planned!

    Aapid feedback from a large e"ercise can be quite a coup de thBtre if organied

    successfull!

    ;! 3fter the earl feedback, analsis and evaluation can continue at a steadier pace to

    identif the most useful ideas, and develop them into #orkable proposals!

    =! 3 final feedback report is often valuable!

    This technique can provide an effective #a of generating large numbers of ideas ver

    quickl, and of creating a sense of democratic responsiveness to $grassroots% ideas!

    6o#ever, particularl if the group is ver large, the mass dnamics of timing, mood,

    image, $#armup%, cultural acceptabilit, etc! can be crucial! Mnder the #rong

    conditions, people ma feel embarrassed, angr or resentful at being asked to

    participate! 7onversel, if ou create a ver positive cro#d mood, people ma develop

    e"aggerated e"pectations about our capacit to follo# up their ideas, and become

    disillusioned #hen ver fe# ideas are taken up!

    ?odern developments of this are automated techniques #here participants have

    electronic voting buttons or (in smaller numbers) each have their o#n net#orked

    computer and keboard (cf! 6roup!ystems)!

    The evidence from computer studies suggests that provided that pace and energ can be

    maintained and that the logistics can be handled (a difficult achievement) there is no

    $optimal group sie% * the larger the group, the more ideas ou #ill get, though

    obviousl there is a la# of diminishing returns!

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    33. CREATIVE PROLEM SOLVING (CPS)

    7B& is rooted directl in Ksborn%s original brainstorming! It #as devised b &iden Q!

    Barnes in the 19>Hs, and has been developed continuousl since then b various authors,

    e!g! Isaksen and Treffinger (19=>), Isaksen, Dorval and Treffinger (1994 and 199=)! It is

    as much a training programme as a method, and has a ver e"tensive track record

    associated particularl #ith the 7enter for &tudies in 7reativit for the &tate Mniversit

    7ollege at uffalo, /e# +ork, the uffalo 7reative Broblem &olving Croup, and #ith

    the 7enter for 7reative earning in &arasota, 0lorida!

    In its ver simplest form, it reduces to the basic .4 stage model sho#n in Table :!1 of

    ='' ook '! In its most e"panded and formalied form it had the si" stages sho#n

    belo#, each #ith a divergent and a convergent phase! 6o#ever, more recent

    publications seem more concerned to focus on process and technique issues, #ith less

    emphasis on the full elaboration of this structure!

    The follo#ing, based on OanCund (19==)%s description, is a ver brief skeleton of a

    ver rich process, sho#ing it in its full $: " ' stages% form

    1! Mess finding &ensitise ourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns, challenges,

    opportunities, etc!) that need to be tackled!

    &ivergent techniques include $ouldn%t it be nice if % (I/I) and$ouldn%t it be a#ful if % (I3I), i!e! brainstorming to identif desirable

    outcomes, and obstacles to be overcome!

    Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots (+ighlighting),

    e"pressed as a list of I?s ($In #hat #as might %), and selection in

    terms of o#nership criteria (e!g! problemo#ner%s motivation and abilit to

    influence it) and outlook criteria (e!g! urgenc, familiarit, stabilit)!

    '! &ata finding Cather information about the problem! &ivergenttechniques include'ive 9s and +(#ho, #h, #hat, #hen, #here

    and ho#) and listing of #ants, sources and data! ist all our information

    $#ants% as a series of questions< for each , list possible sources of ans#ersHs, but are ver similar and no# form the

    basis of man pro5ect planning soft#are packages! The description here is of a highl

    simplified approach!

    7B? assumes that ou can identif the component activities needed to carr out our

    pro5ect, the sequence(s) in #hich the must occur and ho# long each #ill take! Its

    purpose is to allo# ou to identif #hich activities lie on the $critical path%, i!e! those for

    #hich an dela or speeding up #ill affect the overall time for the pro5ect! This helps

    ou to manage the ensemble of tasks to achieve agreed time targets overall! ?ore

    advanced forms of 7B? also kno# about the cost of each activit, so overall costs can

    be managed as #ell as timing!

    The basic elements of a 7ritical path diagram, as illustrated above, are Arrows that

    represent activities* areas of #ork that use time or resources * e!g! $uild #all%, $Train

    personnel%, $Brint 1HHH leaflets%! These start and end in Circlesthat represent events*

    points in time that usuall mark the start or end of an activit (e!g! $&tart #all%, $eaflets

    arrive%)< events do not, themselves, consume time or resources! &ometimes ou also

    need&ashed arrows that indicatesequence(i!e! #here one event must be completed

    before another starts even though the are not directl linked b an activit)!

    1! ist all the activities and subactivities required to achieve our pro5ect and

    identif the events that start or end each of these activities!

    '! 7onstruct the map as above, sho#ing the overall sequences required! /otice that

    /o event can happen until all activities feeding into it are complete and no

    activit can start until the event it follo#s has happened!

    Mnlike flo#chart methods of representing action plans, classic 7B? net#orks

    have no loops, optional routes or decision nodes! ver activit must happen

    in the order sho#n, and once it has happened, it can%t happen again! The

    diagram is dra#n as if ou have made all the decisions in advance and kno#

    e"actl #hat has to happen, in #hat order (but see &tep 4 belo#-)

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    .! 7heck the diagram carefull! 3dd an details needed to make it #ork properl!

    4! ork out the earliest and latest possible start times of each activit, #here there is

    slack, and #here the critical path lies! ooking at the e"ample above, ou can see

    that the start building #alls on the second da, start tiling the roof on the si"th

    da, and complete at the end of the seventh da! The sequence of activities that

    goes through the upper branch is the critical path because an dela an#here in

    this sequence adds to the total time< there is no slack! 6o#ever, the bottom branch

    does have slack in it * it needs onl '!> das #hile the top branch needs four das!

    >! hen, as inevitabl happens, things do not go as planned, ou ad5ust the diagram

    to meet the ne# conditions, but these alternative possibilities are in our head< the

    are not sho#n on the diagram itself!

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    36. DECISION SEMINAR

    This approach (as#ell, 19:H) comes from sociological rather than brainstorming roots,

    and is in some respects a predecessor of the Ehin tansof the 19:Hs and some of the

    !oft systems methodsdeveloped in the 19;Hs and =Hs! It #as essentiall a routinised

    social science research facilit designed to tackle applied social polic issues in an

    efficient #a, focusing on past, present and future developments!

    3 core group of perhaps 1> (5oined as required b e"ternal e"perts, etc!), #orked over

    an e"tended period of time from a permanent chart and map room, using a standardied

    $general purpose% conceptual frame#ork!

    The basic procedure of the group #as contained in thefive intellectual tass

    1! 7larifing goals

    '! Describing trends over time

    .! 3nalsing conditions that affect these trends

    4! Bro5ecting developments * ho# current policies are likel to turn out!

    >! Invention, evaluation and selection of alternatives to achieve desired goals!

    &even broad information1gathering categories(the $social process model%) #ere used

    (cf!'ive 9s and +or Checland:s CAE9)")

    1! Barticipants

    '! Berspectives.! &ituations

    4! asevalues (a &KTlike analsis)

    >! &trategies (ho# basevalue position is used)

    :! Kutcomes (of the strategies)

    ;! ffects (on participants)

    This information #as refined using a value analysis in terms of eight ke values po#er

    people (occasionall up to 1HH) chosen either as e"perts in the topic being investigated

    (if the purpose of the e"ercise is to gather e"pert opinions on some issue) or as people

    directl involved in some issue (if the purpose is to surface social or organiational

    concerns)! 0or e"ample, a business creation agenc used their voluntar steering group

    of local smallbusiness e"perts as a Delphi panel #hen tring to identif the

    pschological barriers inhibiting people from starting up their o#n businesses!

    1! /ominate the panel! &ince the are e"perts the ma #ell be bus people, so the

    ma need to see some clear advantage from accepting the substantial commitment

    involved!

    '! Develop, send out, and get back the opening questionnaire! This normall asks oneor t#o broad openended questions! &ubsequent analsis #ill be easier if the

    responses are in the form of a list of separate sentences or short paragraphs rather

    than continuous te"t! 3 reminder letter ma be needed to encourage late

    responders!

    .! Develop, send out, and get back the opening questionnaire! This is created in the

    light of the replies to the first questionnaire, e!g! b

    7ollating all the first questionnaire responses into a single anonmous list(using the original #ording since participants #ill recognie their o#n

    contributions)!

    3sking the respondents% (a) to add an further items suggested b the

    combined listing, and (b) to rate ever item in the list (e!g! on a five point

    scale of importance, priorit, feasibilit, relevance, validit )!

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    4! 3 brief Delphi might end at this point (5ump to &tep >), but a more

    e"tended Delphi might run to further rounds

    In the classic form, the list of rated items might be sorted into the order

    suggested b the average ratings, and the third questionnaire might ask panel

    members to indicate #here the felt the order needed to be changed! In

    principle this can be repeated for further questionnaires until a stable pattern

    emerges, but fe# e"pert panels have the patience for man further rounds

    unless the issue is ver important to them!

    3lternativel, the third questionnaire could take other forms! 0or instance, ou

    might print all the items rated above a certain threshold on separate cards,

    #ith a request for each panel member to sort the cards into related clusters!

    >! &ince the panel members have been chosen for their e"pertise and8or

    direct involvement, the #ill almost certainl have a strong interest in the

    outcome, so a summar report and letter of thanks is normall sent to each at the

    end of the pro5ect!

    hen the Delphi method is used to address a single, #elldefined, problem (such as its

    original use in estimating likel damage levels from nuclear #ar) the outcome ma be

    easil summaried! ut #hen used to surface and prioritise concerns, the output can be

    quite large (a panel of 'H can easil generate 1>'H concerns each * perhaps 'HH.HHdistinct items) so as in an form of brainstorming or brain#riting, some form of

    convergent postDelphi analsis ma be needed!

    &ee also Collective noteboo(7/)

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    3!. DIALECTICAL APPROAC&ES

    These techniques (?ason and ?itroff, 19=1) use creative conflict #ith the decision

    making process to help identif and challenge assumptions and create ne# perceptions!

    The devil%s advocate approach can e"pose underling assumptions, but tends to

    emphasise the negative! Dialectical inquir t