60 40 20 0 fecakspsialmgnaonch earth’s crust organisms element percent by weight copyright © the...
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60
40
20
0Fe Ca K S P Si Al Mg Na O N C H
Earth’s crustorganisms
Element
Per
cen
t b
y W
eig
ht
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Fig. 2.1
© Gunter Ziesler/Peter Arnold, Inc.
Fig. 2.2-1
c.
Subatomic Particles
= proton
b.a.
Particle
Proton Nucleus+1 1
Atomic Mass Unit(AMU) Location
ElectricCharge
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Fig. 2.2-2
c.
Subatomic Particles
= proton
= neutron
b.a.
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Nucleus
Nucleus
+1
0
1
1
Atomic Mass Unit(AMU) Location
ElectricCharge
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c.
Subatomic Particles
= proton
= neutron
= electron
b.a.
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Nucleus
Nucleus
Electron shell
+1
0
–1
1
1
0
Atomic Mass Unit(AMU) Location
ElectricCharge
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Fig. 2.2
mass number
atomic numberatomic symbol
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Page 23
atomic number
atomic symbol atomic mass
Per
iod
sI
1
1.008
H
2
4.003
He
II III IV V VI VII
3
6.941
Li
4
9.012
Be
5
10.81
B
6
12.01
C
7
14.01
N
8
16.00
O
9
19.00
F
10
20.18
Ne
11
22.99
Na
12
24.31
Mg
13
26.98
Al
14
28.09
Si
15
30.97
P
16
32.07
S
17
35.45
Cl
18
39.95
Ar
19
39.10
K
20
40.08
Ca
31
69.72
Ga
32
72.59
Ge
33
74.92
As
34
78.96
Se
35
79.90
Br
36
83.60
Kr
VIII
Groups
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Fig. 2.3
b.
a.
larynx
thyroid gland
trachea
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a: © Biomed Commun./Custom Medical Stock Photo; b(Right): © Hank Morgan/Rainbow; b(Left): © Mazzlota et al./Photo Researchers, Inc
Fig. 2.4
electron
electron shellnucleus
hydrogen11H
oxygen16
8 O
carbon12
6C
nitrogen14
7 N
sulfur
S3216
phosphorus
P3115
H
P S
C
O
N
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Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.7-1
Na Cl
sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl)
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Fig. 2.7-2
Na Cl
sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl)
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Fig. 2.7-3
+ –
Na Cl
Na Cl
sodium ion (Na+) chloride ion (Cl–)
sodium chloride (NaCl)
sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl)
a.
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O
H H
Oxygen is partially negative ( )
Hydrogens are partially positive ( )
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Page 27
a. Hydrogen gas
b. Oxygen gas
c. Methane
StructuralFormulaElectron Model
H C H
H H
H
H
O O
C
O O
H
H
H H
H H
CH4
O2
H2
MolecularFormula
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HH H
Oxygen attracts the sharedelectrons and is partially negative.
Hydrogens are partially positive.
Ball-and-stick ModelElectron Model Space-filling Model
H
hydrogenbond
HH
H H
a. Water (H2O)
b. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules
O
O
O
O
104.5°
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Fig. 2.9
+
+–
–
++
freezing occurs evaporation occurs
a. Calories lost when 1 g of liquid water freezes andcalories required when 1 g of liquid water evaporates.
b. Bodies of organisms cool when their heat is used to evaporate water.
Gas
Liquid
Solid
0 20 40 8060 100 120
600
800
80calories
Temperature (°C)
Ca
lori
es
of
He
at
En
erg
y /
g
540calories400
200
0
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© Grant Taylor/Getty Images
Fig. 2.10
H
H
H H HH H
H H H
H
An ionic saltdissolves in water.
H H
Cl–Na+
O
O
O OO O
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Page 30
N
O
O
O O
H H
H
H
H
A polar moleculedissolves in water.
H
HH
H H
H
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Water evaporates, pulling the watercolumn from the roots to the leaves.
Water molecules cling together andadhere to sides of vessels in stems.
Water enters a plant at root cells.
H2O
H2O
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ice layer
Protists providefood for fish.
River otters visitice-covered ponds.
Aquatic insects survivein air pockets.
Freshwaterfish takeoxygenfrom water.
0 4 100
1.0
0.9
De
ns
ity
(g
/cm
3 )
Temperature (ºC)
liquid water
ice lattice
Common frogs and pond turtles hibernate.
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hydrogenion
hydroxideion
water
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Page 32
pH value
10–1
10–2
10–3
10–4
10–5
10–6
10–7
10–8
10–9
10–10
10–11
10–12
10–13
10–14
10 0
Examples
hydrochloric acidac
idic
ba
sic
stomach acid, lemon juice
vinegar, cola, beer
tomatoes
black coffee
urine
pure water
seawater
baking soda
Great Salt Lake
household ammonia
household bleach
sodium hydroxide
1
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
H+ IonConcentration
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.Fig. 2.13
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Page 32
[H+] pH
1 10–6 61 10–7 71 10–8 8
(moles per liter)
0.000001 =0.0000001 =0.00000001=
a. b.
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a: © Lionel Delevingue/Phototake; b: © Mauritius, GMBH/Phototake
Fig. 2A
Page 35
H H
H
H
C
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Page 35
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147 NN
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Page 36