?????

A History of Anatomy Briefs?

A Brief History of Human Anatomyby

John Cornell

I. The Influence of the Ancient GreeksII. The Roman Empire, 50 to 1050III. Arabian Medicine, 800 to 1100IV. The Middle Ages and Renaissance, 1050 to 1543V. Modern Anatomy, 1543 to PresentVI. The Problem of Not Enough Cadavers VII. Anatomy TodayVIII. Conclusions

I. The Influence of the Ancient Greeks

A. Apollo and Asclepius B. The Staff of Asclepius versus the Caduceus of Hermes C. Hippocrates: Plato and Aristotle D. Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria

Apollo Belvedere(Apollo, n.d.)

Asclepius(Asclepius, 2000; Picture Gallery, 2009; Inner journeys mythic, 2009)

Dracunculis sp., the guinea worm, is found in the middle east, Africa, and India. (Luvken, n.d.)

RAAMC RCAMC

RAMC

Hippocrates

(ca. 460 - 377 B.C.E.)“... anatomy is the foundation of medicine ... and should be based on the form of the human body.”

(Hippocrates 2009 and Persaud, 1984, p.33)

Example of a Hippocratic OathI swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Health, and All-heal, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this Oath and this stipulation- to reckon him who taught me this Art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart knowledge of the Art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my Art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice or not, in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot!

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer, 1668

Historia animalium, De partibus animalium, De generatione animalium. Translated into Latin by Theodore of Gaza in the 15th Century. (“Medicine and Biology”)

Erasistratus (ca. 250 B.C.E.)

(“Erasistratus, 2010)

Antiochus et Stratonice, 1774, by Jacques-Louis David

II. The Roman Empire, 50 to 1050 A.D.

A. Claudius Galen (130 to 201 A.D.)

Claudius Galen(131-201)

(Persaud, 1984, p.58)

(Singer, 1957, p.61)

III. Arabian Medicine, 800 to 1100 A.D.

A. Avicenna

Avicenna (980-1037)ALI AL-HUSAYN IBN 'ABD

ALLAH IBN SINA

A page from The Cannon of Medicine

(Avicenna, n.d.)(Cannon on Medicine, n.d.)

IV. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, 1050 to 1543

A. Uroscopy B. Blood Letting C. Surgery D. Dissection of Animals and Cadavers E. Leonardo da Vinci

A university classroom in 14th Century Germany

(University classroom, n.d.)

Collection of samples for uroscopy(Uroscopy, 2010)

England, 1364Germany, ca. 1350(Urine wheel, complete, 1364)(Urine flasks in text, 1350)

Blood letting Points

England, 1364

(Bloodletting figure or phlebotomy man, 1364)

The Blessings of Surgery from Practica chiurgiae (c. 1170): hot water to soften broken ribs, removal of arrows, opening the chest and abdomen, a lung operation, an operation on the intestines, and a man suffering from a phlegmatic abscess. (Blessings of surgery, 1170)

Dissection scene from Mondino’s Anathomia, Venice, c. 1493

(Dissection scene, 1493)

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1518)(Leonardo da vinci, n.d.)

(Leonardo da vinci drawings, 2010)

Leonardo da Vinci, from the Anatomical Notebooks, c. 1510

Gerssdorf’s Feldtbuch der Wundtartzney, 1517(Persaud, 1984, p.146)

Michelangelo studied anatomy

(Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam, n.d.)

Some bielieve that Michelangelo was reavealing his knowledge of the brain when he painted the Creation of Adam

(Michelangelo’s brain, n.d.)

V. Modern Anatomy, 1543 to present

A. Andreas Vesalius B. Other well know modern anatomists include Fallopius, Fabricus, Harvey, and Cheseldon

Andreas Vesalius

(1514-1564)

(Vesalius, 1973, p.2)

The title page of the 1543 edition of De Humani Corporis Fabrica by Andreas Vesalius

(Vesalius, 1973, p. 45)

(Title page to the special edition of the Fabrica, n.d.)

(Vesalius, 1973, pp. 85 & 87)

First Plate

Eleventh Plate(Vesalius, 1973, pp. 93 & 113)

The Fifth Plate(Vesalius, 1973, p. 101)

(Vesalius, 1973, pp. 105, 103, 101, 99, 97, 95, 93, 119, 117, 115, 113, 111, 109 & 107)

A panorama of Padua may be seen in the background of the Muscle Men.

Vesalius Da Vinci

Netter

Vesalius, 1973; Netter, 1998 & Leonardo da Vinci drawings, 2010)

Table 3 of the Tabulae Sex shows the where the natural spirit is sweated through to the left ventricle. Pneuma from the lungs combines with natural spirits to produce vital spirits. The vital spirits are converted by the rete mirabile into animal spirits.

(Vesalius, 1973, p. 241)

Galen’s Dissection of a Pig (Dissection of a pig. n.d.)

University of Padua in 1654(University of Padua, 2010)

(Anatomical theater, n.d.)

This 20th century painting of Vesalius by an unknown artist was auctioned by Christies and sold to an American Medical School. Note the colors.

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, painted in 1632 by Rembrandt

(Teatro anatomico, 2010)

The anatomical theater at the University of Padua

Gabriele Fallopius (1523 - 1562)

(Portrait of Gabriello Fallopio, n.d.)

Hieronymous Fabricius(1533-1619)

(Hieronymus Fabricius, ab Aquapendente, n.d.)

(Fabricus of Aquapendente, Hieronymus, 1967)

William Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood was probably based on Fabricius’ description of the valves in the veins.

(Valves in arm, n.d.)

William Cheseldon (1688 - 1752)

(Rare anatomical texts – 18th century, 2010)

VI. The Problem of Finding Enough Cadavers

Histriated initial from the Fabrica showing cupids at a resurrection party.

(Singer, 1957, p.118)

Anatomical models on display at La Specola in Florence

La Specola, 2013

William Burke and William Hare, Edinburgh, 1828

(Burke & Hare, 2009)

VII. Anatomy Today

(Netter, 1998)

Adam Interactive A Computerized Atlas

The Visible HumanA Computerized Cadaver

(Adam interactive, 2010)(Sawday, 1996. p. 329)

Clockwise from upper left, High Resolution Doppler, MRI, MR Angiography with Gadolinium, and CAT scan

(High resolution doppler, 2010; Magnetic resonance imaging , 2010; CAT scan, 2010)

Adam interactive. (2010) Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.adameducation.com/aiaonline_student.aspx

Anatomical theater, (n.d.) Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://www.sio-triveneto.it/endocannabinoids/teatroanatomico.jpg

Apollo, n.d. Retrieved May 26, 2010 from http://www.thegioioto.com.vn/Autos/Data/Images/News/02-06/apollo-belvedere.jpg

Aristotle contemplating the bust of homer, 1668. Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://funandmagic.com/funnyphotos40.html

Asclepius.(2000, January 31) Encyclopedia Mythica. Retrieved May 26, 2010, from http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/asclepius.html

Avicenna. (n.d.) Copy number M0000768. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://images.wellcome.ac.uk/

Blessings of surgery. (1170) Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.ujaen.es/investiga/cts380/historia/epoca_medieval.htm

Bloodletting figure or phlebotomy man. (1364). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0000ztbn

Burke and Hare, (2009, June 1). The midgie. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://midgie.list.co.uk/article/17996-burke-and-hare/

CAT scan. (2010) Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.depressionsimplified.com/TestFactsheet.aspx?id=14#

Canon on medicine. (June 12, 2008) In Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine. Retireved May 25, 2010 from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/E8.html

Dissection of a pig. (n.d.) Copy number L0020565. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://images.wellcome.ac.uk/ (Original work published in 1565).

Dissection scene. ( 1493). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/images/r128-6-k4-1493_00001.shtml

Erasistratus. (2010, May 19) In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus

Citations

Fabricus of Aquapendente, Hieronymus. (1967). The formation of the egg and of the chick & The formed fetus. (Howard B. Adelmann, editor and translator). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. (Original work published in the 16th Century).

Hieronymus Fabricius, ab Aquapendente. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2010 http://ar.utmb.edu/ar/Default.aspx?tabid=260

High resolution doppler. (2010) Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.rsna.org/media/pressreleases/pr_target.cfm?id=162

Hippocrates, 2009. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/artifacts/antiqua/hippocrates.cfm

Inner journeys mythic (2009). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://funkman.org/innerjourney/journeys/mythic/asclepius.html

Leonardo da vinci. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.semantic.co.uk/inside_semantic/jobs.asp

Leonardo da vinci drawings. (2010, Feb. 3). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://womh.truth.travel/2010/02/leonardo-da-vinci-drawings-in-vancouver.html

Luvken, J. (Artist). (n.d.). A Surgeon extracting a guinea worm from a man's leg. Copy number V0016741. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://images.wellcome.ac.uk/

Magnetic resonance imaging. (2010, May 27) In Wikepedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging

Medicine and biology Retrieved May 26, 2010 from http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/f-medicine_bio/Medicine_bio.html

Michelangelo’s Brain (n.d.) Retrieved October 23, 2013 from http://theartinscience.blogspot.com/2010/09/michelangelo-secret-scientist.html

Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam. (n.d..) Retrieved October 23, 2013 from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/The-Measure-of-Genius-Michelangelos-Sistine-Chapel-at-500.html

Netter, Frank (1998). Atlas of human anatomy. (2nd edition). East Hanover, NJ: Novartis.

Oath of hippocrates. In: Harvard Classics, Volume 38. Boston: P.F. Collier and Son, 1910.

Persaud, T. V. N. (1984). Early history of human anatomy. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher.

Picture gallery (2009). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.classicsunveiled.com/mythnet/html/pics10.html

Portrait of gabriello fallopio. (n.d.) Copy number M002609. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://images.wellcome.ac.uk/

Rare anatomical texts – 18th century. (2010). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.mayo.edu/library/anatomical-18th-century.html

Rifkin, Benjamin A., Ackerman, Michael J. & Folkenberg, Judith. (2006). Human anatomy: From the renaissance to the digital age. New York, NY: Abrams.

Sawday, Johnathan. (1996). The body emblazoned: Dissection and the human body in renaissance culture. London and New York: Routledge.

Singer, C. (1957). A Short history of anatomy from greeks to harvey. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.

Teatro anatomico. (2009). Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://mediko.sveznadar.info/10PoceciMedicine/55/055-SkolastikaMedicina.html

Title page to the special edition of the fabrica, (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://codex99.com/anatomy/images/fabrica_color_lg.jpg

University classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://stredoveka-univerzita.navajo.cz/

University of Padua. (2010, May 20) In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved May 24, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratus

Urine flasks in text. (1350). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0000zth7

Urine wheel, complete. (1364). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0000ztc5

Uroscopy. (2010). Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://www.jccornell.net/anatomy/uroscopy.htm digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0000zth7

Valves in arm. (n.d.) Copy number L0019695. Retrieved May 25, 2010 from http://images.wellcome.ac.uk/. (Original work published in 1658).

Vesalius, Andreas. (1973). The Illustrations from the works of Andreas Vesalius of brussels. (Saunders, J.B. deC. M. & O'Malley, C. D. (1973). New York, NY: Dover Publications.

The End