543 counsels and maxims schopenauer
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Title:CounselsandMaximsFromTheEssaysOfArthurSchopenhauer
Author:ArthurSchopenhauer
ReleaseDate:January14,2004[EBook#10715]
Language:English
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THEESSAYS
OF
ARTHURSCHOPENHAUER
TRANSLATEDBY
T.BAILEYSAUNDERS,M.A.
COUNSELSANDMAXIMS.
_Lebonheurn'estpaschoseaisée:ilesttrèsdifficiledeletrouverennous,etimpossibledeletrouverailleurs_.
CHAMFORT.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
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INTRODUCTIONI.GENERALRULESII.OURRELATIONTOOURSELVESIII.OURRELATIONTOOTHERSIV.WORLDLYFORTUNEV.THEAGESOFLIFE
INTRODUCTION.
Ifmyobjectinthesepagesweretopresentacompleteschemeofcounselsandmaximsfortheguidanceoflife,Ishouldhavetorepeatthenumerousrules--someofthemexcellent--whichhavebeendrawnupbythinkersofallages,fromTheognisandSolomon[1]downtoLaRochefoucauld;and,insodoing,Ishouldinevitablyentailuponthereaderavastamountofwell-worncommonplace.ButthefactisthatinthisworkImakestilllessclaimtoexhaustmysubjectthaninanyotherofmywritings.
[Footnote1:Irefertotheproverbsandmaximsascribed,intheOldTestament,tothekingofthatname.]
Anauthorwhomakesnoclaimstocompletenessmustalso,inagreatmeasure,abandonanyattemptatsystematicarrangement.Forhisdoublelossinthisrespect,thereadermayconsolehimselfbyreflectingthatacompleteandsystematictreatmentofsuchasubjectastheguidanceoflifecouldhardlyfailtobeaverywearisomebusiness.Ihavesimplyputdownthoseofmythoughtswhichappeartobeworthcommunicating--thoughtswhich,asfarasIknow,havenotbeenuttered,or,atanyrate,notjustinthesameform,byanyoneelse;sothatmyremarksmaybetakenasasupplementtowhathasbeenalreadyachievedintheimmensefield.
However,bywayofintroducingsomesortoforderintothegreatvarietyofmattersuponwhichadvicewillbegiveninthefollowing
pages,IshalldistributewhatIhavetosayunderthefollowingheads:(1)generalrules;(2)ourrelationtoourselves;(3)ourrelationtoothers;andfinally,(4)ruleswhichconcernourmanneroflifeandourworldlycircumstances.Ishallconcludewithsomeremarksonthechangeswhichthevariousperiodsoflifeproduceinus.
CHAPTERI.
GENERALRULES.--SECTION1.
ThefirstandforemostruleforthewiseconductoflifeseemstometobecontainedinaviewtowhichAristotleparentheticallyrefersinthe_NichomacheanEthics_:[1][Greek:ophronimoztoalupondiokeeoutoaedu]or,asitmayberendered,_notpleasure,butfreedomfrompain,iswhatthewisemanwillaimat_.
[Footnote1:vii.(12)12.]
Thetruthofthisremarkturnsuponthenegativecharacterof
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happiness,--thefactthatpleasureisonlythenegationofpain,andthatpainisthepositiveelementinlife.ThoughIhavegivenadetailedproofofthispropositioninmychiefwork,[1]Imaysupplyonemoreillustrationofithere,drawnfromacircumstanceofdailyoccurrence.Supposethat,withtheexceptionofsomesoreorpainfulspot,wearephysicallyinasoundandhealthycondition:thesoreofthisonespot,willcompletelyabsorbourattention,causingustolosethesenseofgeneralwell-being,anddestroyingallourcomfortinlife.Inthesameway,whenallouraffairsbutoneturnoutaswewish,thesingleinstanceinwhichouraimsarefrustratedisaconstanttroubletous,eventhoughitbesomethingquitetrivial.Wethinkagreatdealaboutit,andverylittleaboutthoseotherandmoreimportantmattersinwhichwehavebeensuccessful.Inboththesecaseswhathasmetwithresistanceis_thewill_;intheonecase,asitisobjectifiedintheorganism,intheother,asitpresentsitselfinthestruggleoflife;andinboth,itisplainthatthesatisfactionofthewillconsistsinnothingelsethanthatitmeetswithnoresistance.Itis,therefore,asatisfactionwhichisnotdirectlyfelt;atmost,wecanbecomeconsciousofitonlywhenwereflectuponourcondition.Butthatwhichchecksorarreststhewillissomethingpositive;itproclaimsitsownpresence.Allpleasureconsistsinmerelyremovingthischeck--inotherwords,infreeingusfromitsaction;andhencepleasureisastatewhichcanneverlastverylong.
[Footnote1:_WeltalsWilleundVorstellung_.Vol.I.,p.58.]
ThisisthetruebasisoftheaboveexcellentrulequotedfromAristotle,whichbidsusdirectouraim,nottowardsecuringwhatispleasurableandagreeableinlife,buttowardavoiding,asfaraspossible,itsinnumerableevils.Ifthiswerenottherightcoursetotake,thatsayingofVoltaire's,_Happinessisbutadreamandsorrowisreal_,wouldbeasfalseasitis,infact,true.Amanwhodesirestomakeupthebookofhislifeanddeterminewherethebalanceofhappinesslies,mustputdowninhisaccounts,notthepleasureswhichhehasenjoyed,buttheevilswhichhehasescaped.Thatisthetruemethodofeudaemonology;foralleudaemonologymustbeginby
recognizingthatitsverynameisaeuphemism,andthat_tolivehappily_onlymeans_tolivelessunhappily_--toliveatolerablelife.Thereisnodoubtthatlifeisgivenus,nottobeenjoyed,buttobeovercome--tobegotover.Therearenumerousexpressionsillustratingthis--suchas_degerevitam,vitadefungi_;orinItalian,_siscampacosi_;orinGerman,_manmusssuchendurchzukommen;erwirdschondurchdieWeltkommen_,andsoon.Inoldageitisindeedaconsolationtothinkthattheworkoflifeisoveranddonewith.Thehappiestlotisnottohaveexperiencedthekeenestdelightsorthegreatestpleasures,buttohavebroughtlifetoaclosewithoutanyverygreatpain,bodilyormental.Tomeasurethehappinessofalifebyitsdelightsorpleasures,istoapplyafalsestandard.Forpleasuresareandremainsomethingnegative;that
theyproducehappinessisadelusion,cherishedbyenvytoitsownpunishment.Painisfelttobesomethingpositive,andhenceitsabsenceisthetruestandardofhappiness.Andif,overandabovefreedomfrompain,thereisalsoanabsenceofboredom,theessentialconditionsofearthlyhappinessareattained;forallelseischimerical.
Itfollowsfromthisthatamanshouldnevertrytopurchasepleasureatthecostofpain,orevenattheriskofincurringit;todosoistopaywhatispositiveandreal,forwhatisnegativeandillusory;
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whilethereisanetprofitinsacrificingpleasureforthesakeofavoidingpain.Ineithercaseitisamatterofindifferencewhetherthepainfollowsthepleasureorprecedesit.Whileitisacompleteinversionofthenaturalordertotryandturnthissceneofmiseryintoagardenofpleasure,toaimatjoyandpleasureratherthanatthegreatestpossiblefreedomfrompain--andyethowmanydoit!--thereissomewisdomintakingagloomyview,inlookingupontheworldasakindofHell,andinconfiningone'seffortstosecuringalittleroomthatshallnotbeexposedtothefire.Thefoolrushesafterthepleasuresoflifeandfindshimselftheirdupe;thewisemanavoidsitsevils;andevenif,notwithstandinghisprecautions,hefallsintomisfortunes,thatisthefaultoffate,notofhisownfolly.Asfarasheissuccessfulinhisendeavors,hecannotbesaidtohavelivedalifeofillusion;fortheevilswhichheshunsareveryreal.Evenifhegoestoofaroutofhiswaytoavoidevils,andmakesanunnecessarysacrificeofpleasure,heis,inreality,nottheworseoffforthat;forallpleasuresarechimerical,andtomournforhavinglostanyofthemisafrivolous,andevenridiculousproceeding.
Thefailuretorecognizethistruth--afailurepromotedbyoptimisticideas--isthesourceofmuchunhappiness.Inmomentsfreefrompain,ourrestlesswishespresent,asitwereinamirror,theimageofahappinessthathasnocounterpartinreality,seducingustofollow
it;indoingsowebringpainuponourselves,andthatissomethingundeniablyreal.Afterwards,wecometolookwithregretuponthatloststateofpainlessness;itisaparadisewhichwehavegambledaway;itisnolongerwithus,andwelonginvaintoundowhathasbeendone.
Onemightwellfancythatthesevisionsofwishesfulfilledweretheworkofsomeevilspirit,conjuredupinordertoenticeusawayfromthatpainlessstatewhichformsourhighesthappiness.
Acarelessyouthmaythinkthattheworldismeanttobeenjoyed,asthoughitweretheabodeofsomerealorpositivehappiness,whichonlythosefailtoattainwhoarenotcleverenoughtoovercomethe
difficultiesthatlieintheway.Thisfalsenotiontakesastrongerholdonhimwhenhecomestoreadpoetryandromance,andtobedeceivedbyoutwardshow--thehypocrisythatcharacterizestheworldfrombeginningtoend;onwhichIshallhavesomethingtosaypresently.Theresultisthathislifeisthemoreorlessdeliberatepursuitofpositivehappiness;andhappinesshetakestobeequivalenttoaseriesofdefinitepleasures.Inseekingforthesepleasuresheencountersdanger--afactwhichshouldnotbeforgotten.Hehuntsforgamethatdoesnotexist;andsoheendsbysufferingsomeveryrealandpositivemisfortune--pain,distress,sickness,loss,care,poverty,shame,andallthethousandillsoflife.Toolatehediscoversthetrickthathasbeenplayeduponhim.
ButiftheruleIhavementionedisobserved,andaplanoflifeisadoptedwhichproceedsbyavoidingpain--inotherwords,bytakingmeasuresofprecautionagainstwant,sickness,anddistressinallitsforms,theaimisarealone,andsomethingmaybeachievedwhichwillbegreatinproportionastheplanisnotdisturbedbystrivingafterthechimeraofpositivehappiness.ThisagreeswiththeopinionexpressedbyGoetheinthe_ElectiveAffinities_,andthereputintothemouthofMittler--themanwhoisalwaystryingtomakeotherpeoplehappy:_Todesiretogetridofanevilisadefiniteobject,buttodesireabetterfortunethanonehasisblindfolly_.Thesame
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truthiscontainedinthatfineFrenchproverb:_lemieuxestl'ennemidubien_--leavewellalone.And,asIhaveremarkedinmychiefwork,[1]thisistheleadingthoughtunderlyingthephilosophicalsystemoftheCynics.ForwhatwasitledtheCynicstorepudiatepleasureineveryform,ifitwasnotthefactthatpainis,inagreaterorlessdegree,alwaysboundupwithpleasure?Togooutofthewayofpainseemedtothemsomucheasierthantosecurepleasure.Deeplyimpressedastheywerebythenegativenatureofpleasureandthepositivenatureofpain,theyconsistentlydevotedalltheireffortstotheavoidanceofpain.Thefirststeptothatendwas,intheiropinion,acompleteanddeliberaterepudiationofpleasure,assomethingwhichservedonlytoentrapthevictiminorderthathemightbedeliveredovertopain.
[Footnote1:_WeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,vol.ii.,ch.16.]
Weareallborn,asSchillersays,inArcadia.Inotherwords,wecomeintotheworldfullofclaimstohappinessandpleasure,andwecherishthefondhopeofmakingthemgood.But,asarule,Fatesoonteachesus,inaroughandreadywaythatwereallypossessnothingatall,butthateverythingintheworldisatitscommand,invirtueofanunassailableright,notonlytoallwehaveoracquire,towifeorchild,buteventoourverylimbs,ourarms,legs,_eyes_andears,nay,eventothenoseinthemiddleofourface.Andinanycase,
aftersomelittletime,welearnbyexperiencethathappinessandpleasurearea_fatamorgana_,which,visiblefromafar,vanishasweapproach;that,ontheotherhand,sufferingandpainareareality,whichmakesitspresencefeltwithoutanyintermediary,andforitseffect,standsinnoneedofillusionortheplayoffalsehope.
Iftheteachingofexperiencebearsfruitinus,wesoongiveupthepursuitofpleasureandhappiness,andthinkmuchmoreaboutmakingourselvessecureagainsttheattacksofpainandsuffering.Weseethatthebesttheworldhastoofferisanexistencefreefrompain--aquiet,tolerablelife;andweconfineourclaimstothis,astosomethingwecanmoresurelyhopetoachieve.Forthesafestwayofnotbeingverymiserableisnottoexpecttobeveryhappy.Merck,the
friendofGoethe'syouth,wasconsciousofthistruthwhenhewrote:_Itisthewretchedwaypeoplehaveofsettingupaclaimtohappiness_--_and,thatto,inameasurecorrespondingwiththeirdesires_--_thatruinseverythinginthisworld.Amanwillmakeprogressifhecangetridofthisclaim,[1]anddesirenothingbutwhatheseesbeforehim_.Accordinglyitisadvisabletoputverymoderatelimitsuponourexpectationsofpleasure,possessions,rank,honorandsoon;becauseitisjustthisstrivingandstrugglingtobehappy,todazzletheworld,toleadalifefullofpleasure,whichentailgreatmisfortune.Itisprudentandwise,Isay,toreduceone'sclaims,ifonlyforthereasonthatitisextremelyeasytobeveryunhappy;whiletobeveryhappyisnotindeeddifficult,butquiteimpossible.Withjusticesingsthepoetoflife'swisdom:
_AureamquisquismediocritatemDiligit,tutuscaretobsoletiSordibustecti,caretinvidendaSobriusaula.SaviusventisagitaturingensPinus:etcelsaegravioricasuDeciduntturres;feriuntquesummosFulguramonies.[2]_
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--thegoldenmeanisbest--tolivefreefromthesqualorofameanabode,andyetnotbeamarkforenvy.Itisthetallpinewhichiscruellyshakenbythewind,thehighestsummitsthatarestruckinthestorm,andtheloftytowersthatfallsoheavily.
[Footnote1:LetterstoandfromMerck.]
[Footnote2:Horace.OdesII.x.]
Hewhohastakentohearttheteachingofmyphilosophy--whoknows,therefore,thatourwholeexistenceissomethingwhichhadbetternothavebeen,andthattodisownanddisclaimitisthehighestwisdom--hewillhavenogreatexpectationsfromanythingoranyconditioninlife:hewillspendpassionuponnothingintheworld,norlamentover-muchifhefailsinanyofhisundertakings.HewillfeelthedeeptruthofwhatPlato[1]says:[Greek:outetitonanthropinonhaxiononmegalaesspondaes]--nothinginhumanaffairsisworthanygreatanxiety;or,asthePersianpoethasit,
_Thoughfromthygraspallworldlythingsshouldflee,Grievenotforthem,fortheyarenothingworth:Andthoughaworldinthypossessionbe,Joynot,forworthlessarethethingsofearth.Sincetothatbetterworld'tisgiventothee
Topass,speedon,forthisisnothingworth._[2]
[Footnote1:_Republic_,x.604.]
[Footnote2:_Translator'sNote_.FromtheAnvár-iSuhailí--_TheLightsofCanopus_--beingthePersianversionofthe_TableofBidpai_.TranslatedbyE.B.Eastwick,ch.iii.Storyvi.,p.289.]
ThechiefobstacletoourarrivingatthesesalutaryviewsisthathypocrisyoftheworldtowhichIhavealreadyalluded--anhypocrisywhichshouldbeearlyrevealedtotheyoung.Mostofthegloriesoftheworldaremereoutwardshow,likethescenesonastage:thereisnothingrealaboutthem.Shipsfestoonedandhungwithpennants,
firingofcannon,illuminations,beatingofdrumsandblowingoftrumpets,shoutingandapplauding--thesearealltheoutwardsign,thepretenceandsuggestion,--asitwerethehieroglyphic,--of_joy_:butjustthere,joyis,asarule,nottobefound;itistheonlyguestwhohasdeclinedtobepresentatthefestival.Wherethisguestmayreallybefound,hecomesgenerallywithoutinvitation;heisnotformerlyannounced,butslipsinquietlybyhimself_sansfacon_;oftenmakinghisappearanceunderthemostunimportantandtrivialcircumstances,andinthecommonestcompany--anywhere,inshort,butwherethesocietyisbrilliantanddistinguished.JoyislikethegoldintheAustralianmines--foundonlynowandthen,asitwere,bythecapriceofchance,andaccordingtonoruleorlaw;oftenestinverylittlegrains,andveryseldominheaps.AllthatoutwardshowwhichI
havedescribed,isonlyanattempttomakepeoplebelievethatitisreallyjoywhichhascometothefestival;andtoproducethisimpressionuponthespectatorsis,infact,thewholeobjectofit.
With_mourning_itisjustthesame.Thatlongfuneralprocession,movingupsoslowly;howmelancholyitlooks!whatanendlessrowofcarriages!Butlookintothem--theyareallempty;thecoachmenofthewholetownarethesoleescortthedeadmanhastohisgrave.Eloquentpictureofthefriendshipandesteemoftheworld!Thisisthefalsehood,thehollowness,thehypocrisyofhumanaffairs!
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Takeanotherexample--aroomfulofguestsinfulldress,beingreceivedwithgreatceremony.Youcouldalmostbelievethatthisisanobleanddistinguishedcompany;but,asamatteroffact,itiscompulsion,painandboredomwhoaretherealguests.Forwheremanyareinvited,itisarabble--eveniftheyallwearstars.Reallygoodsocietyiseverywhereofnecessityverysmall.Inbrilliantfestivalsandnoisyentertainments,thereisalways,atbottom,asenseofemptinessprevalent.Afalsetoneisthere:suchgatheringsareinstrangecontrastwiththemiseryandbarrennessofourexistence.Thecontrastbringsthetrueconditionintogreaterrelief.Still,thesegatheringsareeffectivefromtheoutside;andthatisjusttheirpurpose.Chamfort[1]makestheexcellentremarkthat_society_--_lescercles,lessalons,cequ'onappellelemonde_--islikeamiserableplay,orabadopera,withoutanyinterestinitself,butsupportedforatimebymechanicalaid,costumesandscenery.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.Nicholas"Chamfort"(1741-94),aFrenchmiscellaneouswriter,whosebrilliantconversation,powerofsarcasm,andepigrammicforce,coupledwithanextraordinarycareer,renderhimoneofthemostinterestingandremarkablemenofhistime.Schopenhauerundoubtedlyowedmuchtothiswriter,towhomheconstantlyrefers.]
Andso,too,withacademiesandchairsofphilosophy.Youhaveakindofsign-boardhungouttoshowtheapparentabodeof_wisdom_:butwisdomisanotherguestwhodeclinestheinvitation;sheistobefoundelsewhere.Thechimingofbells,ecclesiasticalmillinery,attitudesofdevotion,insaneantics--thesearethepretence,thefalseshowof_piety_.Andsoon.Everythingintheworldislikeahollownut;thereislittlekernelanywhere,andwhenitdoesexist,itisstillmoreraretofinditintheshell.Youmaylookforitelsewhere,andfindit,asarule,onlybychance.
SECTION2.Toestimateaman'sconditioninregardtohappiness,itisnecessarytoask,notwhatthingspleasehim,butwhatthingstroublehim;andthemoretrivialthesethingsareinthemselves,thehappier
themanwillbe.Tobeirritatedbytrifles,amanmustbewelloff;forinmisfortunestriflesareunfelt.
SECTION3.Careshouldbetakennottobuildthehappinessoflifeupona_broadfoundation_--nottorequireagreatmanythingsinordertobehappy.Forhappinessonsuchafoundationisthemosteasilyundermined;itoffersmanymoreopportunitiesforaccidents;andaccidentsarealwayshappening.Thearchitectureofhappinessfollowsaplaninthisrespectjusttheoppositeofthatadoptedineveryothercase,wherethebroadestfoundationoffersthegreatestsecurity.Accordingly,toreduceyourclaimstothelowestpossibledegree,incomparisonwithyourmeans,--ofwhateverkindthesemaybe--isthesurestwayofavoidingextrememisfortune.
Tomakeextensivepreparationsforlife--nomatterwhatformtheymaytake--isoneofthegreatestandcommonestoffollies.Suchpreparationspresuppose,inthefirstplace,alonglife,thefullandcompletetermofyearsappointedtoman--andhowfewreachit!andevenifitbereached,itisstilltooshortforalltheplansthathavebeenmade;fortocarrythemoutrequitesmoretimethanwasthoughtnecessaryatthebeginning.Andthenhowmanymischancesandobstaclesstandintheway!howseldomthegoaliseverreachedinhumanaffairs!
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Andlastly,eventhoughthegoalshouldbereached,thechangeswhichTimeworksinushavebeenleftoutofthereckoning:weforgetthatthecapacitywhetherforachievementorforenjoymentdoesnotlastawholelifetime.Soweoftentoilforthingswhicharenolongersuitedtouswhenweattainthem;andagain,theyearswespendinpreparingforsomework,unconsciouslyrobusofthepowerforcarryingitout.
Howoftenithappensthatamanisunabletoenjoythewealthwhichheacquiredatsomuchtroubleandrisk,andthatthefruitsofhislaborarereservedforothers;orthatheisincapableoffillingthepositionwhichhehaswonaftersomanyyearsoftoilandstruggle.Fortunehascometoolateforhim;or,contrarily,hehascometoolateforfortune,--when,forinstance,hewantstoachievegreatthings,say,inartorliterature:thepopulartastehaschanged,itmaybe;anewgenerationhasgrownup,whichtakesnointerestinhiswork;othershavegoneashorterwayandgotthestartofhim.ThesearethefactsoflifewhichHoracemusthavehadinview,whenhelamentedtheuselessnessofalladvice:--
_quideternisminoremConsiliisanimumfatigas?_[1]
[Footnote1:OdesII.xi.]
Thecauseofthiscommonestofallfolliesisthatopticalillusionofthemindfromwhicheveryonesuffers,makinglife,atitsbeginning,seemoflongduration;andatitsend,whenonelooksbackoverthecourseofit,howshortatimeitseems!Thereissomeadvantageintheillusion;butforit,nogreatworkwouldeverbedone.
Ourlifeislikeajourneyonwhich,asweadvance,thelandscapetakesadifferentviewfromthatwhichitpresentedatfirst,andchangesagain,aswecomenearer.Thisisjustwhathappens--especiallywithourwishes.Weoftenfindsomethingelse,nay,somethingbetterthanwhatwearelookingfor;andwhatwelookfor,weoftenfindonaverydifferentpathfromthatonwhichwe
beganavainsearch.Insteadoffinding,asweexpected,pleasure,happiness,joy,wegetexperience,insight,knowledge--arealandpermanentblessing,insteadofafleetingandillusoryone.
Thisisthethoughtthatrunsthrough_WilkelmMeister_,likethebassinapieceofmusic.InthisworkofGoethe's,wehaveanovelofthe _intellectual_kind,and,therefore,superiortoallothers,eventoSirWalterScott's,whichare,oneandall,_ethical_;inotherwords,theytreatofhumannatureonlyfromthesideofthewill.So,too,inthe_Zauberflöte_--thatgrotesque,butstillsignificant,andevenhieroglyphic--thesamethoughtissymbolized,butingreat,coarselines,muchinthewayinwhichsceneryispainted.HerethesymbolwouldbecompleteifTaminowereintheendtobecuredofhisdesire
topossessTainina,andreceived,inherstead,initiationintothemysteriesoftheTempleofWisdom.ItisquiterightforPapageno,hisnecessarycontrast,tosucceedingettinghisPapagena.
MenofanyworthorvaluesooncometoseethattheyareinthehandsofFate,andgratefullysubmittobemouldedbyitsteachings.Theyrecognizethatthefruitoflifeisexperience,andnothappiness;theybecomeaccustomedandcontenttoexchangehopeforinsight;and,intheend,theycansay,withPetrarch,thatalltheycareforistolearn:--
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_Altrodilettoche'mparar,nonprovo_.
Itmayevenbethattheytosomeextentstillfollowtheiroldwishesandaims,triflingwiththem,asitwere,forthesakeofappearances;allthewhilereallyandseriouslylookingfornothingbutinstruction;aprocesswhichlendsthemanairofgenius,atraitofsomethingcontemplativeandsublime.
Intheirsearchforgold,thealchemistsdiscoveredotherthings--gunpowder,china,medicines,thelawsofnature.Thereisasenseinwhichweareallalchemists.
CHAPTERII.
OURRELATIONTOOURSELVES.--SECTION4.
Themasonemployedonthebuildingofahousemaybequiteignorantofitsgeneraldesign;oratanyrate,hemaynotkeepitconstantlyinmind.Soitiswithman:inworkingthroughthedaysandhoursofhis
life,hetakeslittlethoughtofitscharacterasawhole.
Ifthereisanymeritorimportanceattachingtoaman'scareer,ifhelayshimselfoutcarefullyforsomespecialwork,itisallthemorenecessaryandadvisableforhimtoturnhisattentionnowandthentoits_plan_,thatistosay,theminiaturesketchofitsgeneraloutlines.Ofcourse,todothat,hemusthaveappliedthemaxim[Greek:Gnothiseauton];hemusthavemadesomelittleprogressintheartofunderstandinghimself.Hemustknowwhatishisreal,chief,andforemostobjectinlife,--whatitisthathemostwantsinordertobehappy;andthen,afterthat,whatoccupiesthesecondandthirdplaceinhisthoughts;hemustfindoutwhat,onthewhole,hisvocationreallyis--theparthehastoplay,hisgeneralrelationto
theworld.Ifhemapsoutimportantworkforhimselfongreatlines,aglanceatthisminiatureplanofhislifewill,morethananythingelsestimulate,rouseandennoblehim,urgehimontoactionandkeephimfromfalsepaths.
Again,justasthetraveler,onreachingaheight,getsaconnectedviewovertheroadhehastaken,withitsmanyturnsandwindings;soitisonlywhenwehavecompletedaperiodinourlife,orapproachtheendofitaltogether,thatwerecognizethetrueconnectionbetweenallouractions,--whatitiswehaveachieved,whatworkwehavedone.Itisonlythenthatweseetheprecisechainofcauseandeffect,andtheexactvalueofallourefforts.Foraslongasweareactuallyengagedintheworkoflife,wealwaysactinaccordancewith
thenatureofourcharacter,undertheinfluenceofmotive,andwithinthelimitsofourcapacity,--inaword,frombeginningtoend,underalawof_necessity_;ateverymomentwedojustwhatappearstousrightandproper.Itisonlyafterwards,whenwecometolookbackatthewholecourseofourlifeanditsgeneralresult,thatweseethewhyandwhereforeofitall.
Whenweareactuallydoingsomegreatdeed,orcreatingsomeimmortalwork,wearenotconsciousofitassuch;wethinkonlyofsatisfyingpresentaims,offulfillingtheintentionswehappentohaveatthe
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time,ofdoingtherightthingatthemoment.Itisonlywhenwecometoviewourlifeasaconnectedwholethatourcharacterandcapacitiesshowthemselvesintheirtruelight;thatweseehow,inparticularinstances,somehappyinspiration,asitwere,ledustochoosetheonlytruepathoutofathousandwhichmighthavebroughtustoruin.Itwasourgeniusthatguidedus,aforcefeltintheaffairsoftheintellectualasinthoseoftheworld;andworkingbyitsdefectjustinthesamewayinregardtoevilanddisaster.
SECTION5.Anotherimportantelementinthewiseconductoflifeistopreserveaproperproportionbetweenourthoughtforthepresentandourthoughtforthefuture;inordernottospoiltheonebypayingover-greatattentiontotheother.Manylivetoolonginthepresent--frivolouspeople,Imean;others,toomuchinthefuture,everanxiousandfullofcare.Itisseldomthatamanholdstherightbalancebetweenthetwoextremes.Thosewhostriveandhopeandliveonlyinthefuture,alwayslookingaheadandimpatientlyanticipatingwhatiscoming,assomethingwhichwillmakethemhappywhentheygetit,are,inspiteoftheirverycleverairs,exactlylikethosedonkeysoneseesinItaly,whosepacemaybehurriedbyfixingastickontheirheadswithawispofhayattheendofit;thisisalwaysjustinfrontofthem,andtheykeepontryingtogetit.Suchpeopleareinaconstantstateofillusionastotheirwholeexistence;theygoonliving_adinterim_,untilatlasttheydie.
Instead,therefore,ofalwaysthinkingaboutourplansandanxiouslylookingtothefuture,orofgivingourselvesuptoregretforthepast,weshouldneverforgetthatthepresentistheonlyreality,theonlycertainty;thatthefuturealmostalwaysturnsoutcontrarytoourexpectations;thatthepast,too,wasverydifferentfromwhatwesupposeittohavebeen.Butthepastandthefutureare,onthewhole,oflessconsequencethanwethink.Distance,whichmakesobjectslooksmalltotheoutwardeye,makesthemlookbigtotheeyeofthought.Thepresentaloneistrueandactual;itistheonlytimewhichpossessesfullreality,andourexistenceliesinitexclusively.Thereforeweshouldalwaysbegladofit,andgiveitthewelcomeitdeserves,andenjoyeveryhourthatisbearableby
itsfreedomfrompainandannoyancewithafullconsciousnessofitsvalue.Weshallhardlybeabletodothisifwemakeawryfaceoverthefailureofourhopesinthepastoroverouranxietyforthefuture.Itistheheightoffollytorefusethepresenthourofhappiness,orwantonlytospoilitbyvexationatby-gonesoruneasinessaboutwhatistocome.Thereisatime,ofcourse,forforethought,nay,evenforrepentance;butwhenitisoverletusthinkofwhatispastasofsomethingtowhichwehavesaidfarewell,ofnecessitysubduingourhearts--
[Greek:allatamenprotuchthaieasomenachnumenoipertumhonenistaethessiphilondamasnteshanankae],[1]
andofthefutureasofthatwhichliesbeyondourpower,inthelapofthegods--
[Greek:allaetoimentautatheonengounasikeitai.][2]
[Footnote1:_Iliad_,xix,65.]
[Footnote2:_Ibid_,xvii,514]
ButinregardtothepresentletusrememberSeneca'sadvice,andlive
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eachdayasifitwereourwholelife,--_singulasdiessingulasvitasputa_:letusmakeitasagreeableaspossible,itistheonlyrealtimewehave.
Onlythoseevilswhicharesuretocomeatadefinitedatehaveanyrighttodisturbus;andhowfewtherearewhichfulfillthisdescription.Forevilsareoftwokinds;eithertheyarepossibleonly,atmostprobable;ortheyareinevitable.Eveninthecaseofevilswhicharesuretohappen,thetimeatwhichtheywillhappenisuncertain.Amanwhoisalwayspreparingforeitherclassofevilwillnothaveamomentofpeacelefthim.So,ifwearenottoloseallcomfortinlifethroughthefearofevils,someofwhichareuncertaininthemselves,andothers,inthetimeatwhichtheywilloccur,weshouldlookupontheonekindasneverlikelytohappen,andtheotherasnotlikelytohappenverysoon.
Now,thelessourpeaceofmindisdisturbedbyfear,themorelikelyitistobeagitatedbydesireandexpectation.ThisisthetruemeaningofthatsongofGoethe'swhichissuchafavoritewitheveryone:_Ichhab'mein'Sach'aufnichtsgestellt_.Itisonlyafteramanhasgotridofallpretension,andtakenrefugeinmereunembellishedexistence,thatheisabletoattainthatpeaceofmindwhichisthefoundationofhumanhappiness.Peaceofmind!thatissomethingessentialtoanyenjoymentofthepresentmoment;andunless
itsseparatemomentsareenjoyed,thereisanendoflife'shappinessasawhole.Weshouldalwayscollectthat_To-day_comesonlyonce,andneverreturns.Wefancythatitwillcomeagainto-morrow;but _To-morrow_isanotherday,which,initsturn,comesonceonly.Weareapttoforgetthateverydayisanintegral,andthereforeirreplaceableportionoflife,andtolookuponlifeasthoughitwereacollectiveideaornamewhichdoesnotsufferifoneoftheindividualsitcoversisdestroyed.
Weshouldbemorelikelytoappreciateandenjoythepresent,if,inthosegooddayswhenwearewellandstrong,wedidnotfailtoreflecthow,insicknessandsorrow,everypasthourthatwasfreefrompainandprivationseemedinourmemorysoinfinitelytobe
envied--asitwere,alostparadise,orsomeonewhowasonlythenseentohaveactedasafriend.Butwelivethroughourdaysofhappinesswithoutnoticingthem;itisonlywhenevilcomesuponusthatwewishthemback.Athousandgayandpleasanthoursarewastedinill-humor;weletthemslipbyunenjoyed,andsighfortheminvainwhentheskyisovercast.Thosepresentmomentsthatarebearable,betheyneversotriteandcommon,--passedbyinindifference,or,itmaybe,impatientlypushedaway,--thosearethemomentsweshouldhonor;neverfailingtorememberthattheebbingtideisevenhowhurryingthemintothepast,wherememorywillstorethemtransfiguredandshiningwithanimperishablelight,--insomeafter-time,andaboveall,whenourdaysareevil,toraisetheveilandpresentthemastheobjectofourfondestregret.
SECTION6._Limitationsalwaysmakeforhappiness_.Wearehappyinproportionasourrangeofvision,oursphereofwork,ourpointsofcontactwiththeworld,arerestrictedandcircumscribed.Wearemorelikelytofeelworriedandanxiousiftheselimitsarewide;foritmeansthatourcares,desiresandterrorsareincreasedandintensified.Thatiswhytheblindarenotsounhappyaswemightbeinclinedtosuppose;otherwisetherewouldnotbethatgentleandalmostsereneexpressionofpeaceintheirfaces.
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Anotherreasonwhylimitationmakesforhappinessisthatthesecondhalfoflifeprovesevenmoredrearythatthefirst.Astheyearswearon,thehorizonofouraimsandourpointsofcontactwiththeworldbecomemoreextended.Inchildhoodourhorizonislimitedtothenarrowestsphereaboutus;inyouththereisalreadyaveryconsiderablewideningofourview;inmanhooditcomprisesthewholerangeofouractivity,oftenstretchingoutoveraverydistantsphere,--thecare,forinstance,ofaStateoranation;inoldageitembracesposterity.
Butevenintheaffairsoftheintellect,limitationisnecessaryifwearetobehappy.Forthelessthewillisexcited,thelesswesuffer.Wehaveseenthatsufferingissomethingpositive,andthathappinessisonlyanegativecondition.Tolimitthesphereofoutwardactivityistorelievethewillofexternalstimulus:tolimitthesphereofourintellectualeffortsistorelievethewillofinternalsourcesofexcitement.Thislatterkindoflimitationisattendedbythedisadvantagethatitopensthedoortoboredom,whichisadirectsourceofcountlesssufferings;fortobanishboredom,amanwillhaverecoursetoanymeansthatmaybehandy--dissipation,society,extravagance,gaming,anddrinking,andthelike,whichintheirturnbringmischief,ruinandmiseryintheirtrain._Difficilesinotioquies_--itisdifficulttokeepquietifyouhavenothingtodo.Thatlimitationinthesphereofoutwardactivityisconducive,nay,even
necessarytohumanhappiness,suchasitis,maybeseeninthefactthattheonlykindofpoetrywhichdepictsmeninahappystateoflife--Idyllicpoetry,Imean,--alwaysaims,asanintrinsicpartofitstreatment,atrepresentingtheminverysimpleandrestrictedcircumstances.Itisthisfeeling,too,whichisatthebottomofthepleasurewetakeinwhatarecalled_genre_pictures.
_Simplicity_,therefore,asfarasitcanbeattained,andeven _monotony_,inourmanneroflife,ifitdoesnotmeanthatwearebored,willcontributetohappiness;justbecause,undersuchcircumstances,life,andconsequentlytheburdenwhichistheessentialconcomitantoflife,willbeleastfelt.Ourexistencewillglideonpeacefullylikeastreamwhichnowavesorwhirlpools
disturb.
SECTION7.Whetherweareinapleasantorapainfulstatedepends,ultimately,uponthekindofmatterthatpervadesandengrossesourconsciousness.Inthisrespect,purelyintellectualoccupation,forthemindthatiscapableofit,will,asarule,domuchmoreinthewayofhappinessthananyformofpracticallife,withitsconstantalternationsofsuccessandfailure,andalltheshocksandtormentsitproduces.Butitmustbeconfessedthatforsuchoccupationapre-eminentamountofintellectualcapacityisnecessary.Andinthisconnectionitmaybenotedthat,justasalifedevotedtooutwardactivitywilldistractanddivertamanfromstudy,andalsodeprivehimofthatquietconcentrationofmindwhichisnecessaryforsuch
work;so,ontheotherhand,alongcourseofthoughtwillmakehimmoreorlessunfitforthenoisypursuitsofreallife.Itisadvisable,therefore,tosuspendmentalworkforawhile,ifcircumstanceshappenwhichdemandanydegreeofenergyinaffairsofapracticalnature.
SECTION8.Tolivealifethatshallbeentirelyprudentanddiscreet,andtodrawfromexperiencealltheinstructionitcontains,itisrequisitetobeconstantlythinkingback,--tomakeakindofrecapitulationofwhatwehavedone,ofourimpressionsand
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sensations,tocompareourformerwithourpresentjudgments--whatwesetbeforeusandstruggletoachieve,withtheactualresultandsatisfactionwehaveobtained.Todothisistogetarepetitionoftheprivatelessonsofexperience,--lessonswhicharegiventoeveryone.
Experienceoftheworldmaybelookeduponasakindoftext,towhichreflectionandknowledgeformthecommentary.Wherethereisgreatdealofreflectionandintellectualknowledge,andverylittleexperience,theresultislikethosebookswhichhaveoneachpagetwolinesoftexttofortylinesofcommentary.Agreatdealofexperiencewithlittlereflectionandscantknowledge,givesusbookslikethoseofthe_editioBipontina_[1]wheretherearenonotesandmuchthatisunintelligible.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.AseriesofGreek,LatinandFrenchclassicspublishedatZweibräckeninthePalatinate,fromandaftertheyear1779.Cf.Butter,_UeberdieBipontinerunddieeditionesBipontinae_.]
TheadviceheregivenisonaparwitharulerecommendedbyPythagoras,--toreview,everynightbeforegoingtosleep,whatwehavedoneduringtheday.Toliveatrandom,inthehurly-burlyofbusinessorpleasure,withouteverreflectinguponthepast,--togo
on,asitwere,pullingcottonoffthereeloflife,--istohavenoclearideaofwhatweareabout;andamanwholivesinthisstatewillhavechaosinhisemotionsandcertainconfusioninhisthoughts;asissoonmanifestbytheabruptandfragmentarycharacterofhisconversation,whichbecomesakindofmincemeat.Amanwillbeallthemoreexposedtothisfateinproportionashelivesarestlesslifeintheworld,amidacrowdofvariousimpressionsandwithacorrespondinglysmallamountofactivityonthepartofhisownmind.
Andinthisconnectionitwillbeinplacetoobservethat,wheneventsandcircumstanceswhichhaveinfluenceduspassawayinthecourseoftime,weareunabletobringbackandrenewtheparticularmoodorstateoffeelingwhichtheyarousedinus:butwecanremember
whatwewereledtosayanddoinregardtothem;andthusform,asitwere,theresult,expressionandmeasureofthoseevents.Weshould,therefore,becarefultopreservethememoryofourthoughtsatimportantpointsinourlife;andhereinliesthegreatadvantageofkeepingajournal.
SECTION9.Tobeself-sufficient,tobeallinalltooneself,towantfornothing,tobeabletosay_omniameamecumporto_--thatisassuredlythechiefqualificationforhappiness.HenceAristotle'sremark,[Greek:haeeudaimoniatonautarchonesti][1]--tobehappymeanstobeself-sufficient--cannotbetoooftenrepeated.Itis,atbottom,thesamethoughtasispresentintheverywell-turnedsentencefromChamfort:
_Lebonheurn'estpaschoseaisée:ilesttrèsdifficiledeletrouverennous,etimpossibledeletrouverailleurs_.
[Footnote1:_Eudem.Eth_.VII.ii.37.]
Forwhileamancannotreckonwithcertaintyuponanyonebuthimself,theburdensanddisadvantages,thedangersandannoyances,whicharisefromhavingtodowithothers,arenotonlycountlessbutunavoidable.
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Thereisnomoremistakenpathtohappinessthanworldliness,revelry, _highlife_:forthewholeobjectofitistotransformourmiserableexistenceintoasuccessionofjoys,delightsandpleasures,--aprocesswhichcannotfailtoresultindisappointmentanddelusion;onapar,inthisrespect,withits_obligato_accompaniment,theinterchangeoflies.[1]
[Footnote1:Asourbodyisconcealedbytheclotheswewear,soourmindisveiledinlies.Theveilisalwaysthere,anditisonlythroughitthatwecansometimesguessatwhatamanreallythinks;justasfromhisclotheswearriveatthegeneralshapeofhisbody.]
Allsocietynecessarilyinvolves,asthefirstconditionofitsexistence,mutualaccommodationandrestraintuponthepartofitsmembers.Thismeansthatthelargeritis,themoreinsipidwillbeitstone.Amancanbe_himself_onlysolongasheisalone;andifhedoesnotlovesolitude,hewillnotlovefreedom;foritisonlywhenheisalonethatheisreallyfree.Constraintisalwayspresentinsociety,likeacompanionofwhomthereisnoriddance;andinproportiontothegreatnessofaman'sindividuality,itwillbehardforhimtobearthesacrificeswhichallintercoursewithothersdemands,Solitudewillbewelcomedorenduredoravoided,accordingasaman'spersonalvalueislargeorsmall,--thewretchfeeling,whenheisalone,thewholeburdenofhismisery;thegreatintellect
delightinginitsgreatness;andeveryone,inshort,beingjustwhatheis.
Further,ifamanstandshighinNature'slists,itisnaturalandinevitablethatheshouldfeelsolitary.Itwillbeanadvantagetohimifhissurroundingsdonotinterferewiththisfeeling;forifhehastoseeagreatdealofotherpeoplewhoarenotoflikecharacterwithhimself,theywillexerciseadisturbinginfluenceuponhim,adversetohispeaceofmind;theywillrobhim,infact,ofhimself,andgivehimnothingtocompensatefortheloss.
ButwhileNaturesetsverywidedifferencesbetweenmanandmaninrespectbothofmoralityandofintellect,societydisregardsand
effacesthem;or,rather,itsetsupartificialdifferencesintheirstead,--gradationsofrankandposition,whichareveryoftendiametricallyopposedtothosewhichNatureestablishes.TheresultofthisarrangementistoelevatethosewhomNaturehasplacedlow,andtodepressthefewwhostandhigh.Theselatter,then,usuallywithdrawfromsociety,where,assoonasitisatallnumerous,vulgarityreignssupreme.
Whatoffendsagreatintellectinsocietyistheequalityofrights,leadingtoequalityofpretensions,whicheveryoneenjoys;whileatthesametime,inequalityofcapacitymeansacorrespondingdisparityofsocialpower.So-called_goodsociety_recognizeseverykindofclaimbutthatofintellect,whichisacontrabandarticle;andpeople
areexpectedtoexhibitanunlimitedamountofpatiencetowardseveryformoffollyandstupidity,perversityanddullness;whilstpersonalmerithastobegpardon,asitwere,forbeingpresent,orelseconcealitselfaltogether.Intellectualsuperiorityoffendsbyitsveryexistence,withoutanydesiretodoso.
Theworstofwhatiscalledgoodsocietyisnotonlythatitoffersusthecompanionshipofpeoplewhoareunabletowineitherourpraiseorouraffection,butthatitdoesnotallowofourbeingthatwhichwenaturallyare;itcompelsus,forthesakeofharmony,toshrivelup,
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orevenalterourshapealtogether.Intellectualconversation,whethergraveorhumorous,isonlyfitforintellectualsociety;itisdownrightabhorrenttoordinarypeople,topleasewhomitisabsolutelynecessarytobecommonplaceanddull.Thisdemandsanactofsevereself-denial;wehavetoforfeitthree-fourthsofourselvesinordertobecomelikeotherpeople.Nodoubttheircompanymaybesetdownagainstourlossinthisrespect;butthemoreamanisworth,themorehewillfindthatwhathegainsdoesnotcoverwhatheloses,andthatthebalanceisonthedebitsideoftheaccount;forthepeoplewithwhomhedealsaregenerallybankrupt,--thatistosay,thereisnothingtobegotfromtheirsocietywhichcancompensateeitherforitsboredom,annoyanceanddisagreeableness,orfortheself-denialwhichitrendersnecessary.Accordingly,mostsocietyissoconstitutedastoofferagoodprofittoanyonewhowillexchangeitforsolitude.
Noristhisall.Bywayofprovidingasubstituteforreal--Imeanintellectual--superiority,whichisseldomtobemetwith,andintolerablewhenitisfound,societyhascapriciouslyadoptedafalsekindofsuperiority,conventionalinitscharacter,andrestinguponarbitraryprinciples,--atradition,asitwere,handeddowninthehighercircles,and,likeapassword,subjecttoalteration;Ireferto_bon-ton_fashion.Wheneverthiskindofsuperioritycomesintocollisionwiththerealkind,itsweaknessismanifest.Moreover,the
presenceof_goodtone_meanstheabsenceof_goodsense_.
Nomancanbein_perfectaccord_withanyonebuthimself--notevenwithafriendorthepartnerofhislife;differencesofindividualityandtemperamentarealwaysbringinginsomedegreeofdiscord,thoughitmaybeaveryslightone.Thatgenuine,profoundpeaceofmind,thatperfecttranquillityofsoul,which,nexttohealth,isthehighestblessingtheearthcangive,istobeattainedonlyinsolitude,and,asapermanentmood,onlyincompleteretirement;andthen,ifthereisanythinggreatandrichintheman'sownself,hiswayoflifeisthehappiestthatmaybefoundinthiswretchedworld.
Letmespeakplainly.Howeverclosethebondoffriendship,love,
marriage--aman,ultimately,lookstohimself,tohisownwelfarealone;atmost,tohischild'stoo.Thelessnecessitythereisforyoutocomeintocontactwithmankindingeneral,intherelationswhetherofbusinessorofpersonalintimacy,thebetteroffyouare.Lonelinessandsolitudehavetheirevils,itistrue;butifyoucannotfeelthemallatonce,youcanatleastseewheretheylie;ontheotherhand,societyis_insidious_inthisrespect;asinofferingyouwhatappearstobethepastimeofpleasingsocialintercourse,itworksgreatandoftenirreparablemischief.Theyoungshouldearlybetrainedtobearbeingleftalone;foritisasourceofhappinessandpeaceofmind.
Itfollowsfromthisthatamanisbestoffifhebethrownuponhis
ownresourcesandcanbeallinalltohimself;andCicerogoessofarastosaythatamanwhoisinthisconditioncannotfailtobeveryhappy--_nemopotestnonbeatissimusessequiesttotusaptusexsese,quiqueinseunoponitomnia._[1]Themoreamanhasinhimself,thelessotherscanbetohim.Thefeelingofself-sufficiency!itisthatwhichrestrainsthosewhosepersonalvalueisinitselfgreatriches,fromsuchconsiderablesacrificesasaredemandedbyintercoursewiththeworld,letalone,then,fromactuallypracticingself-denialbygoingoutoftheirwaytoseekit.Ordinarypeoplearesociableandcomplaisantjustfromtheveryoppositefeeling;--tobearothers'
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companyiseasierforthemthantobeartheirown.Moreover,respectisnotpaidinthisworldtothatwhichhasrealmerit;itisreservedforthatwhichhasnone.Soretirementisatonceaproofandaresultofbeingdistinguishedbythepossessionofmeritoriousqualities.Itwillthereforeshowrealwisdomonthepartofanyonewhoisworthanythinginhimself,tolimithisrequirementsasmaybenecessary,inordertopreserveorextendhisfreedom,and,--sinceamanmustcomeintosomerelationswithhisfellow-men--toadmitthemtohisintimacyaslittleaspossible.
[Footnote1:_ParadoxaStoidorum_:II.]
Ihavesaidthatpeoplearerenderedsociablebytheirabilitytoenduresolitude,thatistosay,theirownsociety.Theybecomesickofthemselves.Itisthisvacuityofsoulwhichdrivesthemtointercoursewithothers,--totravelsinforeigncountries.Theirmindiswantinginelasticity;ithasnomovementofitsown,andsotheytrytogiveitsome,--bydrink,forinstance.Howmuchdrunkennessisduetothiscausealone!Theyarealwayslookingforsomeformofexcitement,ofthestrongestkindtheycanbear--theexcitementofbeingwithpeopleoflikenaturewiththemselves;andiftheyfailinthis,theirmindsinksbyitsownweight,andtheyfallintoagrievouslethargy.[1]Suchpeople,itmaybesaid,possessonlyasmallfractionofhumanityinthemselves;anditrequiresagreatmany
ofthemputtogethertomakeupafairamountofit,--toattainanydegreeofconsciousnessasmen.Aman,inthefullsenseoftheword,--aman_parexcellence_--doesnotrepresentafraction,butawholenumber:heiscompleteinhimself.
[Footnote1:Itisawell-knownfact,thatwecanmoreeasilybearupunderevilswhichfalluponagreatmanypeoplebesidesourselves.Asboredomseemstobeanevilofthiskind,peoplebandtogethertoofferitacommonresistance.Theloveoflifeisatbottomonlythefearofdeath;and,inthesameway,thesocialimpulsedoesnotrestdirectlyupontheloveofsociety,butuponthefearofsolitude;itisnotalonethecharmofbeinginothers'companythatpeopleseek,itisthedrearyoppressionofbeingalone--themonotonyoftheirown
consciousness--thattheywouldavoid.Theywilldoanythingtoescapeit,--eventoleratebadcompanions,andputupwiththefeelingofconstraintwhichallsocietyinvolves,inthiscaseaveryburdensomeone.Butifaversiontosuchsocietyconquerstheaversiontobeingalone,theybecomeaccustomedtosolitudeandhardenedtoitsimmediateeffects.Theynolongerfindsolitudetobesuchaverybadthing,andsettledowncomfortablytoitwithoutanyhankeringaftersociety;--andthis,partlybecauseitisonlyindirectlythattheyneedothers'company,andpartlybecausetheyhavebecomeaccustomedtothebenefitsofbeingalone.]
Ordinarysocietyis,inthisrespect,verylikethekindofmusictobeobtainedfromanorchestracomposedofRussianhorns.Eachhornhas
onlyonenote;andthemusicisproducedbyeachnotecominginjustattherightmoment.Inthemonotonoussoundofasinglehorn,youhaveapreciseillustrationoftheeffectofmostpeople'sminds.Howoftenthereseemstobeonlyonethoughtthere!andnoroomforanyother.Itiseasytoseewhypeoplearesobored;andalsowhytheyaresociable,whytheyliketogoaboutincrowds--whymankindisso _gregarious_.Itisthemonotonyofhisownnaturethatmakesamanfindsolitudeintolerable._Omnisstultitialaboratfastidiosui_:follyistrulyitsownburden.Putagreatmanymentogether,andyoumaygetsomeresult--somemusicfromyourhorns!
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Amanofintellectislikeanartistwhogivesaconcertwithoutanyhelpfromanyoneelse,playingonasingleinstrument--apiano,say,whichisalittleorchestrainitself.Suchamanisalittleworldinhimself;andtheeffectproducedbyvariousinstrumentstogether,heproducessingle-handed,intheunityofhisownconsciousness.Likethepiano,hehasnoplaceinasymphony:heisasoloistandperformsbyhimself,--insolitude,itmaybe;or,ifincompanywithotherinstruments,onlyasprincipal;orforsettingthetone,asinsinging.However,thosewhoarefondofsocietyfromtimetotimemayprofitbythissimile,andlayitdownasageneralrulethatdeficiencyofqualityinthosewemeetmaybetosomeextentcompensatedbyanincreaseinquantity.Oneman'scompanymaybequiteenough,ifheisclever;butwhereyouhaveonlyordinarypeopletodealwith,itisadvisabletohaveagreatmanyofthem,sothatsomeadvantagemayaccruebylettingthemallworktogether,--ontheanalogyofthehorns;andmayHeavengrantyoupatienceforyourtask!
ThatmentalvacuityandbarrennessofsoultowhichIhavealluded,isresponsibleforanothermisfortune.Whenmenofthebetterclassformasocietyforpromotingsomenobleoridealaim,theresultalmostalwaysisthattheinnumerablemobofhumanitycomescrowdingintoo,asitalwaysdoeseverywhere,likevermin--theirobjectbeingtotryandgetridofboredom,orsomeotherdefectoftheirnature;and
anythingthatwilleffectthat,theyseizeuponatonce,withouttheslightestdiscrimination.Someofthemwillslipintothatsociety,orpushthemselvesin,andtheneithersoondestroyitaltogether,oralteritsomuchthatintheenditcomestohaveapurposetheexactoppositeofthatwhichithadatfirst.
Thisisnottheonlypointofviewfromwhichthesocialimpulsemayberegarded.Oncolddayspeoplemanagetogetsomewarmthbycrowdingtogether;andyoucanwarmyourmindinthesameway--bybringingitintocontactwithothers.Butamanwhohasagreatdealofintellectualwarmthinhimselfwillstandinnoneedofsuchresources.Ihavewrittenalittlefableillustratingthis:itmaybefoundelsewhere.[1]Asageneralrule,itmaybesaidthataman's
sociabilitystandsverynearlyininverseratiotohisintellectualvalue:tosaythat"soandso"isveryunsociable,isalmosttantamounttosayingthatheisamanofgreatcapacity.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.ThepassagetowhichSchopenhauerrefersis_Parerga_:vol.ii.§413(4thedition).Thefableisofcertainporcupines,whohuddledtogetherforwarmthonacoldday;butastheybegantoprickoneanotherwiththeirquills,theywereobligedtodisperse.Howeverthecolddrovethemtogetheragain,whenjustthesamethinghappened.Atlast,aftermanyturnsofhuddlinganddispersing,theydiscoveredthattheywouldbebestoffbyremainingatalittledistancefromoneanother.Inthesameway,theneedofsocietydrivesthehumanporcupinestogether--onlytobe
mutuallyrepelledbythemanypricklyanddisagreeablequalitiesoftheirnature.Themoderatedistancewhichtheyatlastdiscovertobetheonlytolerableconditionofintercourse,isthecodeofpolitenessandfinemanners;andthosewhotransgressitareroughlytold--intheEnglishphrase--_tokeeptheirdistance_.Bythisarrangementthemutualneedofwarmthisonlyverymoderatelysatisfied,--butthenpeopledonotgetpricked.Amanwhohassomeheatinhimselfpreferstoremainoutside,wherehewillneitherprickotherpeoplenorgetprickedhimself.]
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Solitudeisdoublyadvantageoustosuchaman.Firstly,itallowshimtobewithhimself,and,secondly,itpreventshimbeingwithothers--anadvantageofgreatmoment;forhowmuchconstraint,annoyance,andevendangerthereisinallintercoursewiththeworld. _Toutnotremal_,saysLaBruyère,_vientdenepouvoirêtreseul_.Itisreallyaveryrisky,nay,afatalthing,tobesociable;becauseitmeanscontactwithnatures,thegreatmajorityofwhicharebadmorally,anddullorperverse,intellectually.Tobeunsociableisnottocareaboutsuchpeople;andtohaveenoughinoneselftodispensewiththenecessityoftheircompanyisagreatpieceofgoodfortune;becausealmostalloursufferingsspringfromhavingtodowithotherpeople;andthatdestroysthepeaceofmind,which,asIhavesaid,comesnextafterhealthintheelementsofhappiness.Peaceofmindisimpossiblewithoutaconsiderableamountofsolitude.TheCynicsrenouncedallprivatepropertyinordertoattaintheblissofhavingnothingtotroublethem;andtorenouncesocietywiththesameobjectisthewisestthingamancando.BernardindeSaintPierrehastheveryexcellentandpertinentremarkthattobesparinginregardtofoodisameansofhealth;inregardtosociety,ameansoftranquillity--_ladiètedesailmensnousrendlasantéducorps,etcelledeshommeslatranquillitédel'âme._Tobesoononfriendly,orevenaffectionate,termswithsolitudeislikewinningagoldmine;butthisisnotsomethingwhicheverybodycando.Theprimereasonforsocialintercourseismutualneed;andassoonasthatissatisfied,
boredomdrivespeopletogetheroncemore.Ifitwerenotforthesetworeasons,amanwouldprobablyelecttoremainalone;ifonlybecausesolitudeisthesoleconditionoflifewhichgivesfullplaytothatfeelingofexclusiveimportancewhicheverymanhasinhisowneyes,--asifheweretheonlypersonintheworld!afeelingwhich,inthethrongandpressofreallife,soonshrivelsuptonothing,getting,ateverystep,apainful_démenti_.Fromthispointofviewitmaybesaidthatsolitudeistheoriginalandnaturalstateofman,where,likeanotherAdam,heisashappyashisnaturewillallow.
Butstill,hadAdamnofatherormother?Thereisanothersenseinwhichsolitudeisnotthenaturalstate;for,athisentranceintotheworld,amanfindshimselfwithparents,brothers,sisters,thatisto
say,insociety,andnotalone.Accordinglyitcannotbesaidthattheloveofsolitudeisanoriginalcharacteristicofhumannature;itisrathertheresultofexperienceandreflection,andtheseintheirturndependuponthedevelopmentofintellectualpower,andincreasewiththeyears.
Speakinggenerally,sociabilitystandsininverseratiowithage.Alittlechildraisesapiteouscryoffrightifitisleftaloneforonlyafewminutes;andlateron,tobeshutupbyitselfisagreatpunishment.Youngpeoplesoongetonveryfriendlytermswithoneanother;itisonlythefewamongthemofanynobilityofmindwhoaregladnowandthentobealone;--buttospendthewholedaythuswouldbedisagreeable.Agrown-upmancaneasilydoit;itislittletrouble
tohimtobemuchalone,anditbecomeslessandlesstroubleasheadvancesinyears.Anoldmanwhohasoutlivedallhisfriends,andiseitherindifferentordeadtothepleasuresoflife,isinhisproperelementinsolitude;andinindividualcasesthespecialtendencytoretirementandseclusionwillalwaysbeindirectproportiontointellectualcapacity.
Forthistendencyisnot,asIhavesaid,apurelynaturalone;itdoesnotcomeintoexistenceasadirectneedofhumannature;itisrathertheeffectoftheexperiencewegothrough,theproduct
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ofreflectionuponwhatourneedsreallyare;proceeding,moreespecially,fromtheinsightweattainintothewretchedstuffofwhichmostpeoplearemade,whetheryoulookattheirmoralsortheirintellects.Theworstofitallisthat,intheindividual,moralandintellectualshortcomingsarecloselyconnectedandplayintoeachother'shands,sothatallmannerofdisagreeableresultsareobtained,whichmakeintercoursewithmostpeoplenotonlyunpleasantbutintolerable.Hence,thoughtheworldcontainsmanythingswhicharethoroughlybad,theworstthinginitissociety.EvenVoltaire,thatsociableFrenchman,wasobligedtoadmitthatthereareeverywherecrowdsofpeoplenotworthtalkingto:_laterreestcouvertedegensquineméritentpasqu'onleurparle_.AndPetrarchgivesasimilarreasonforwishingtobealone--thattenderspirit!sostrongandconstantinhisloveofseclusion.Thestreams,theplainsandwoodsknowwell,hesays,howhehastriedtoescapetheperverseandstupidpeoplewhohavemissedthewaytoheaven:--
_Cercatohosempresolitariavita(Leriveilsanno,elecampagneeiboschi)Perfuggirquest'ingegnistortieloschiChelastradadelciel'hannosmarrita_.
Hepursuesthesamestraininthatdelightfulbookofhis,_DeVitaSolitaria_,whichseemstohavegivenZimmermantheideaofhis
celebratedworkon_Solitude_.ItisthesecondaryandindirectcharacteroftheloveofseclusiontowhichChamfortalludesinthefollowingpassage,couchedinhissarcasticvein:_Onditquelquefoisd'unhommequivitseul,iln'aimepaslasociété.C'estsouventcommesiondisaitd'unhommequ'iln'aimepaslapromenade,souslepretextequ'ilnesepromènepasvolontierslesoirdansleforêtdeBondy_.
YouwillfindasimilarsentimentexpressedbythePersianpoetSadi,inhis_GardenofRoses.Sincethattime_,hesays,_wehavetakenleaveofsociety,preferringthepathofseclusion;forthereissafetyinsolitude_.AngelusSilesius,[1]averygentleandChristianwriter,confessestothesamefeeling,inhisownmythicallanguage.
Herod,hesays,isthecommonenemy;andwhen,aswithJoseph,Godwarnsusofdanger,weflyfromtheworldtosolitude,fromBethlehemtoEgypt;orelsesufferinganddeathawaitus!--
_HerodesisteinFeind;derJosephderVerstand,DemmachteGottdieGefahrimTraum(inGeist)bekannt;DieWeltistBethlehem,AegyptenEinsamkeit,Fleuch,meineSeele!fleuch,sonststirbestduvorLeid_.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.AngelusSilesius,pseudonymforJohannesScheffler,aphysicianandmysticpoetoftheseventeenthcentury(1624-77).]
GiordanoBrunoalsodeclareshimselfafriendofseclusion._Tantiuomini_,hesays,_cheinterrahannovolutogustarevitaceleste,disseroconunavoce,"ecceelongavifugiensetmansiinsolitudine_"--thosewhointhisworldhavedesiredaforetasteofthedivinelife,havealwaysproclaimedwithonevoice:
_Lo!thenwouldIwanderfaroff;Iwouldlodgeinthewilderness._[1]
[Footnote1:Psalms,lv.7.]
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AndintheworkfromwhichIhavealreadyquoted,Sadisaysofhimself:_IndisgustwithmyfriendsatDamascus,IwithdrewintothedesertaboutJerusalem,toseekthesocietyofthebeastsofthefield_.Inshort,thesamethinghasbeensaidbyallwhomPrometheushasformedoutofbetterclay.Whatpleasurecouldtheyfindinthecompanyofpeoplewithwhomtheironlycommongroundisjustwhatislowestandleastnobleintheirownnature--thepartofthemthatiscommonplace,trivialandvulgar?Whatdotheywantwithpeoplewhocannotrisetoahigherlevel,andforwhomnothingremainsbuttodragothersdowntotheirs?forthisiswhattheyaimat.Itisanaristocraticfeelingthatisatthebottomofthispropensitytoseclusionandsolitude.
Rascalsarealwayssociable--more'sthepity!andthechiefsignthatamanhasanynobilityinhischaracteristhelittlepleasurehetakesinothers'company.Hepreferssolitudemoreandmore,and,incourseoftime,comestoseethat,withfewexceptions,theworldoffersnochoicebeyondsolitudeononesideandvulgarityontheother.Thismaysoundahardthingtosay;butevenAngelusSilesius,withallhisChristianfeelingsofgentlenessandlove,wasobligedtoadmitthetruthofit.Howeverpainfulsolitudemaybe,hesays,becarefulnottobevulgar;forthenyoumayfindadeserteverywhere:--
_DieEinsamkeitistnoth:dochseinurnichtgemein,SokannstduüberallineinerWüstesein_.
Itisnaturalforgreatminds--thetrueteachersofhumanity--tocarelittleabouttheconstantcompanyofothers;justaslittleastheschoolmastercaresforjoininginthegambolsofthenoisycrowdofboyswhichsurroundhim.Themissionofthesegreatmindsistoguidemankindovertheseaoferrortothehavenoftruth--todrawitforthfromthedarkabyssesofabarbarousvulgarityupintothelightofcultureandrefinement.Menofgreatintellectliveintheworldwithoutreallybelongingtoit;andso,fromtheirearliestyears,theyfeelthatthereisaperceptibledifferencebetweenthemandotherpeople.Butitisonlygradually,withthelapseofyears,
thattheycometoaclearunderstandingoftheirposition.Theirintellectualisolationisthenreinforcedbyactualseclusionintheirmanneroflife;theyletnooneapproachwhoisnotinsomedegreeemancipatedfromtheprevailingvulgarity.
Fromwhathasbeensaiditisobviousthattheloveofsolitudeisnotadirect,originalimpulseinhumannature,butrathersomethingsecondaryandofgradualgrowth.Itisthemoredistinguishingfeatureofnoblerminds,developednotwithoutsomeconquestofnaturaldesires,andnowandtheninactualoppositiontothepromptingsofMephistopheles--biddingyouexchangeamoroseandsoul-destroyingsolitudeforlifeamongstmen,forsociety;eventheworst,hesays,willgiveasenseofhumanfellowship:--
_Hör'aufmitdeinemGramzuspielen,Der,wieeinGeier,diramLebenfrisst:DieschlechtesteGesellschaftlässtdichfühlenDassdueinMenschmitMenschenbist.[1]_
[Footnote1:Goethe's_Faust_,PartI.,1281-5.]
Tobealoneisthefateofallgreatminds--afatedeploredattimes,butstillalwayschosenasthelessgrievousoftwoevils.As
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theyearsincrease,italwaysbecomeseasiertosay,Daretobewise--_sapereaude_.Andaftersixty,theinclinationtobealonegrowsintoakindofreal,naturalinstinct;foratthatageeverythingcombinesinfavorofit.Thestrongestimpulse--theloveofwoman'ssociety--haslittleornoeffect;itisthesexlessconditionofoldagewhichlaysthefoundationofacertainself-sufficiency,andthatgraduallyabsorbsalldesireforothers'company.Athousandillusionsandfolliesareovercome;theactiveyearsoflifeareinmostcasesgone;amanhasnomoreexpectationsorplansorintentions.Thegenerationtowhichhebelongedhaspassedaway,andanewracehassprungupwhichlooksuponhimasessentiallyoutsideitssphereofactivity.Andthentheyearspassmorequicklyaswebecomeolder,andwewanttodevoteourremainingtimetotheintellectualratherthantothepracticalsideoflife.For,providedthatthemindretainsitsfaculties,theamountofknowledgeandexperiencewehaveacquired,togetherwiththefacilitywehavegainedintheuseofourpowers,makesitthenmorethanevereasyandinterestingtoustopursuethestudyofanysubject.Athousandthingsbecomeclearwhichwereformerlyenvelopedinobscurity,andresultsareobtainedwhichgiveafeelingofdifficultiesovercome.Fromlongexperienceofmen,weceasetoexpectmuchfromthem;wefindthat,onthewhole,peopledonotgainbyaneareracquaintance;andthat--apartfromafewrareandfortunateexceptions--wehavecomeacrossnonebutdefectivespecimensofhumannaturewhichitisadvisabletoleaveinpeace.
Wearenomoresubjecttotheordinaryillusionsoflife;andas,inindividualinstances,wesoonseewhatamanismadeof,weseldomfeelanyinclinationtocomeintocloserrelationswithhim.Finally,isolation--ourownsociety--hasbecomeahabit,asitwereasecondnaturetous,moreespeciallyifwehavebeenonfriendlytermswithitfromouryouthup.Theloveofsolitudewhichwasformerlyindulgedonlyattheexpenseofourdesireforsociety,hasnowcometobethesimplequalityofournaturaldisposition--theelementpropertoourlife,aswatertoafish.Thisiswhyanyonewhopossessesauniqueindividuality--unlikeothersandthereforenecessarilyisolated--feelsthat,ashebecomesolder,hispositionisnolongersoburdensomeaswhenhewasyoung.
For,asamatteroffact,thisverygenuineprivilegeofoldageisonewhichcanbeenjoyedonlyifamanispossessedofacertainamountofintellect;itwillbeappreciatedmostofallwherethereisrealmentalpower;butinsomedegreebyeveryone.Itisonlypeopleofverybarrenandvulgarnaturewhowillbejustassociableintheiroldageastheywereintheiryouth.Butthentheybecometroublesometoasocietytowhichtheyarenolongersuited,and,atmost,managetobetolerated;whereas,theywereformerlyingreatrequest.
Thereisanotheraspectofthisinverseproportionbetweenageandsociability--thewayinwhichitconducestoeducation.Theyoungerthatpeopleare,themoreineveryrespecttheyhavetolearn;anditisjustinyouththatNatureprovidesasystemofmutualeducation,
sothatmereintercoursewithothers,atthattimeoflife,carriesinstructionwithit.Humansociety,fromthispointofview,resemblesahugeacademyoflearning,ontheBellandLancastersystem,opposedtothesystemofeducationbymeansofbooksandschools,assomethingartificialandcontrarytotheinstitutionsofNature.Itisthereforeaverysuitablearrangementthat,inhisyoungdays,amanshouldbeaverydiligentstudentattheplaceoflearningprovidedbyNatureherself.
Butthereisnothinginlifewhichhasnotsomedrawback--_nihilest
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abomnipartebeatum_,asHoracesays;or,inthewordsofanIndianproverb,_nolotuswithoutastalk_.Seclusion,whichhassomanyadvantages,hasalsoitslittleannoyancesanddrawbacks,whicharesmall,however,incomparisonwiththoseofsociety;henceanyonewhoisworthmuchinhimselfwillgetonbetterwithoutotherpeoplethanwiththem.Butamongstthedisadvantagesofseclusionthereisonewhichisnotsoeasytoseeastherest.Itisthis:whenpeopleremainindoorsallday,theybecomephysicallyverysensitivetoatmosphericchanges,sothateverylittledraughtisenoughtomakethemill;sowithourtemper;alongcourseofseclusionmakesitsosensitivethatthemosttrivialincidents,words,orevenlooks,aresufficienttodisturbortovexandoffendus--littlethingswhichareunnoticedbythosewholiveintheturmoiloflife.
Whenyoufindhumansocietydisagreeableandfeelyourselfjustifiedinflyingtosolitude,youcanbesoconstitutedastobeunabletobearthedepressionofitforanylengthoftime,whichwillprobablybethecaseifyouareyoung.Letmeadviseyou,then,toformthehabitoftakingsomeofyoursolitudewithyouintosociety,tolearntobetosomeextentaloneeventhoughyouareincompany;nottosayatoncewhatyouthink,and,ontheotherhand,nottoattachtoopreciseameaningtowhatotherssay;rather,nottoexpectmuchofthem,eithermorallyorintellectually,andtostrengthenyourselfinthefeelingofindifferencetotheiropinion,whichisthesurestway
ofalwayspracticingapraiseworthytoleration.Ifyoudothat,youwillnotlivesomuchwithotherpeople,thoughyoumayappeartomoveamongstthem:yourrelationtothemwillbeofapurelyobjectivecharacter.Thisprecautionwillkeepyoufromtooclosecontactwithsociety,andthereforesecureyouagainstbeingcontaminatedorevenoutragedbyit.[1]Societyisinthisrespectlikeafire--thewisemanwarminghimselfataproperdistancefromit;notcomingtooclose,likethefool,who,ongettingscorched,runsawayandshiversinsolitude,loudinhiscomplaintthatthefireburns.
[Footnote1:Thisrestricted,or,asitwere,entrenchedkindofsociabilityhasbeendramaticallyillustratedinaplay--wellworthreading--ofMoratin's,entitled_ElCaféosealaComediaNuova_(The
CafeortheNewComedy),chieflybyoneofthecharacters,DonPedroandespeciallyinthesecondandthirdscenesofthefirstact.]
SECTION10._Envy_isnaturaltoman;andstill,itisatonceaviceandasourceofmisery.[1]Weshouldtreatitastheenemyofourhappiness,andstifleitlikeanevilthought.ThisistheadvicegivenbySeneca;ashewellputsit,weshallbepleasedwithwhatwehave,ifweavoidtheself-tortureofcomparingourownlotwithsomeotherandhappierone--_nostranossinecomparationedelectent;nunquameritfelixquemtorquebitfelicior.[2]_Andagain,_quumadspexerisquotteantecedent,cogitaquotsequantur_[3]--ifagreatmanypeopleappeartobebetteroffthanyourself,thinkhowmanythereareinaworseposition.Itisafactthatifrealcalamity
comesuponus,themosteffectiveconsolation--thoughitspringsfromthesamesourceasenvy--isjustthethoughtofgreatermisfortunesthanours;andthenextbestisthesocietyofthosewhoareinthesameluckaswe--thepartnersofoursorrows.
[Footnote1:Envyshowshowunhappypeopleare;andtheirconstantattentiontowhatothersdoandleaveundone,howmuchtheyarebored.]
[Footnote2:_DeIra_:iii.,30.]
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[Footnote3:Epist.xv.]
Somuchfortheenvywhichwemayfeeltowardsothers.Asregardstheenvywhichwemayexciteinthem,itshouldalwaysberememberedthatnoformofhatredissoimplacableasthehatredthatcomesfromenvy;andthereforeweshouldalwayscarefullyrefrainfromdoinganythingtorouseit;nay,aswithmanyanotherformofvice,itisbetteraltogethertorenounceanypleasuretheremaybeinit,becauseoftheseriousnatureofitsconsequences.
Aristocraciesareofthreekinds:(1)ofbirthandrank;(2)ofwealth;and(3)ofintellect.Thelastisreallythemostdistinguishedofthethree,anditsclaimtooccupythefirstpositioncomestoberecognized,ifitisonlyallowedtimetowork.SoeminentakingasFredericktheGreatadmittedit--_lesâmesprivilegiéesrangentàl'égaldessouverains_,ashesaidtohischamberlain,whenthelatterexpressedhissurprisethatVoltaireshouldhaveaseatatthetablereservedforkingsandprinces,whilstministersandgeneralswererelegatedtothechamberlain's.
Everyoneofthesearistocraciesissurroundedbyahostofenviouspersons.Ifyoubelongtooneofthem,theywillbesecretlyembitteredagainstyou;andunlesstheyarerestrainedbyfear,they
willalwaysbeanxioustoletyouunderstandthat_youarenobetterthanthey_.Itisbytheiranxietytoletyouknowthis,thattheybetrayhowgreatlytheyareconsciousthattheoppositeisthetruth.
Thelineofconducttobepursuedifyouareexposedtoenvy,istokeeptheenviouspersonsatadistance,and,asfaraspossible,avoidallcontactwiththem,sothattheremaybeawidegulffixedbetweenyouandthem;ifthiscannotbedone,tobeartheirattackswiththegreatestcomposure.Inthelattercase,theverythingthatprovokestheattackwillalsoneutralizeit.Thisiswhatappearstobegenerallydone.
Themembersofoneofthesearistocraciesusuallygetonverywell
withthoseofanother,andthereisnocallforenvybetweenthem,becausetheirseveralprivilegeseffectanequipoise.
SECTION11.Givematureandrepeatedconsiderationtoanyplanbeforeyouproceedtocarryitout;andevenafteryouhavethoroughlyturneditoverinyourmind,makesomeconcessiontotheincompetencyofhumanjudgment;foritmayalwayshappenthatcircumstanceswhichcannotbeinvestigatedorforeseen,willcomeinandupsetthewholeofyourcalculation.Thisisareflectionthatwillalwaysinfluencethenegativesideofthebalance--akindofwarningtorefrainfromunnecessaryactioninmattersofimportance--_quietanonmovere._Buthavingoncemadeupyourmindandbegunyourwork,youmustletitrunitscourseandabidetheresult--notworryyourselfbyfresh
reflectionsonwhatisalreadyaccomplished,orbyarenewalofyourscruplesonthescoreofpossibledanger:freeyourmindfromthesubjectaltogether,andrefusetogointoitagain,secureinthethoughtthatyougaveitmatureattentionatthepropertime.ThisisthesameadviceasisgivenbyanItalianproverb--_legalabeneepoilascialaandare_--whichGoethehastranslatedthus:Seewelltoyourgirths,andthenrideonboldly.[1]
[Footnote1:Itmaybeobserved,inpassing,thatagreatmanyofthemaximswhichGoetheputsundertheheadof_Proverbial_,are
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translationsfromtheItalian.]
Andif,notwithstandingthat,youfail,itisbecausehumanaffairsarethesportofchanceanderror.Socrates,thewisestofmen,neededthewarningvoiceofhisgoodgenius,or[Greek:daimonion],toenablehimtodowhatwasrightinregardtohisownpersonalaffairs,oratanyrate,toavoidmistakes;whicharguesthatthehumanintellectisincompetentforthepurpose.Thereisasaying--whichisreportedtohaveoriginatedwithoneofthePopes--thatwhenmisfortunehappenstous,theblameofit,atleastinsomedegree,attachestoourselves.Ifthisisnottrueabsolutelyandineveryinstance,itiscertainlytrueinthegreatmajorityofcases.Itevenlooksasifthistruthhadagreatdealtodowiththeeffortpeoplemakeasfaraspossibletoconcealtheirmisfortunes,andtoputthebestfacetheycanuponthem,forfearlesttheirmisfortunesmayshowhowmuchtheyaretoblame.
SECTION12.
Inthecaseofamisfortunewhichhasalreadyhappenedandthereforecannotbealtered,youshouldnotallowyourselftothinkthatitmighthavebeenotherwise;stillless,thatitmighthavebeenavoidedbysuchandsuchmeans;forreflectionsofthiskindwillonlyaddtoyourdistressandmakeitintolerable,sothatyouwillbecomea
tormentortoyourself--[Greek:heautontimoroumeaeos].ItisbettertofollowtheexampleofKingDavid;who,aslongashissonlayonthebedofsickness,assailedJehovahwithunceasingsupplicationsandentreatiesforhisrecovery;butwhenhewasdead,snappedhisfingersandthoughtnomoreofit.Ifyouarenotlight-heartedenoughforthat,youcantakerefugeinfatalism,andhavethegreattruthrevealedtoyouthateverythingwhichhappensistheresultofnecessity,andthereforeinevitable.
Howevergoodthisadvicemaybe,itisone-sidedandpartial.Inrelievingandquietingusforthemoment,itisnodoubteffectiveenough;butwhenourmisfortuneshaveresulted--asisusuallythecase--fromourowncarelessnessorfolly,or,atanyrate,partlyby
ourownfault,itisagoodthingtoconsiderhowtheymighthavebeenavoided,andtoconsideritofteninspiteofitsbeingatendersubject--asalutaryformofself-discipline,whichwillmakeuswiserandbettermenforthefuture.Ifwehavemadeobviousmistakes,weshouldnottry,aswegenerallydo,toglossthemover,ortofindsomethingtoexcuseorextenuatethem;weshouldadmittoourselvesthatwehavecommittedfaults,andopenoureyeswidetoalltheirenormity,inorderthatwemayfirmlyresolvetoavoidthemintimetocome.Tobesure,thatmeansagreatdealofself-inflictedpain,intheshapeofdiscontent,butitshouldberememberedthattosparetherodistospoilthechild--[Greek:homaedareisanthroposoupaideuetai].[1]
[Footnote1:Menander.Monost:422.]
SECTION13.Inallmattersaffectingourwealorwoe,weshouldbecarefulnottoletourimaginationrunawaywithus,andbuildnocastlesintheair.Inthefirstplace,theyareexpensivetobuild,becausewehavetopullthemdownagainimmediately,andthatisasourceofgrief.Weshouldbestillmoreonourguardagainstdistressingourheartsbydepictingpossiblemisfortunes.Iftheseweremisfortunesofapurelyimaginarykind,orveryremoteandunlikely,weshouldatoncesee,onawakingfromourdream,thatthe
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wholethingwasmereillusion;weshouldrejoiceallthemoreinarealitybetterthanourdreams,oratmost,bewarnedagainstmisfortuneswhich,thoughveryremote,werestillpossible.These,however,arenotthesortofplaythingsinwhichimaginationdelights;itisonlyinidlehoursthatwebuildcastlesintheair,andtheyarealwaysofapleasingdescription.Thematterwhichgoestoformgloomydreamsaremischanceswhichtosomeextentreallythreatenus,thoughitbefromsomedistance;imaginationmakesuslooklargerandnearerandmoreterriblethantheyareinreality.Thisisakindofdreamwhichcannotbesoreadilyshakenoffonawakingasapleasantone;forapleasantdreamissoondispelledbyreality,leaving,atmost,afeeblehopelyinginthelapofpossibility.Oncewehaveabandonedourselvestoafitoftheblues,visionsareconjuredupwhichdonotsoeasilyvanishagain;foritisalwaysjustpossiblethatthevisionsmayberealized.Butwearenotalwaysabletoestimatetheexactdegreeofpossibility:possibilitymayeasilypassintoprobability;andthuswedeliverourselvesuptotorture.Thereforeweshouldbecarefulnottobeover-anxiousonanymatteraffectingourwealorourwoe,nottocarryouranxietytounreasonableorinjudiciouslimits;butcoollyanddispassionatelytodeliberateuponthematter,asthoughitwereanabstractquestionwhichdidnottouchusinparticular.Weshouldgivenoplaytoimaginationhere;forimaginationisnotjudgment--itonlyconjuresupvisions,inducinganunprofitableandoftenverypainfulmood.
TheruleonwhichIamhereinsistingshouldbemostcarefullyobservedtowardsevening.Forasdarknessmakesustimidandapttoseeterrifyingshapeseverywhere,thereissomethingsimilarintheeffectofindistinctthought;anduncertaintyalwaysbringswithitasenseofdanger.Hence,towardsevening,whenourpowersofthoughtandjudgmentarerelaxed,--atthehour,asitwere,ofsubjectivedarkness,--theintellectbecomestired,easilyconfused,andunabletogetatthebottomofthings;andif,inthatstate,wemeditateonmattersofpersonalinteresttoourselves,theysoonassumeadangerousandterrifyingaspect.Thisismostlythecaseatnight,whenweareinbed;forthenthemindisfullyrelaxed,andthepowerofjudgmentquiteunequaltoitsduties;butimaginationisstill
awake.Nightgivesablacklooktoeverything,whateveritmaybe.Thisiswhyourthoughts,justbeforewegotosleep,oraswelieawakethroughthehoursofthenight,areusuallysuchconfusionsandperversionsoffactsasdreamsthemselves;andwhenourthoughtsatthattimeareconcentrateduponourownconcerns,theyaregenerallyasblackandmonstrousaspossible.Inthemorningallsuchnightmaresvanishlikedreams:astheSpanishproverbhasit,_nochetinta,biancoeldia_--thenightiscolored,thedayiswhite.Buteventowardsnightfall,assoonasthecandlesarelit,themind,liketheeye,nolongerseesthingssoclearlyasbyday:itisatimeunsuitedtoseriousmeditation,especiallyonunpleasantsubjects.Themorningisthepropertimeforthat--asindeedforalleffortswithoutexception,whethermentalorbodily.Forthemorningistheyouthof
theday,wheneverythingisbright,fresh,andeasyofattainment;wefeelstrongthen,andallourfacultiesarecompletelyatourdisposal.Donotshortenthemorningbygettinguplate,orwasteitinunworthyoccupationsorintalk;lookuponitasthequintessenceoflife,astoacertainextentsacred.Eveningislikeoldage:wearelanguid,talkative,silly.Eachdayisalittlelife:everywakingandrisingalittlebirth,everyfreshmorningalittleyouth,everygoingtorestandsleepalittledeath.
Butconditionofhealth,sleep,nourishment,temperature,weather,
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surroundings,andmuchelsethatispurelyexternal,have,ingeneral,animportantinfluenceuponourmoodandthereforeuponourthoughts.Hencebothourviewofanymatterandourcapacityforanyworkareverymuchsubjecttotimeandplace.Soitisbesttoprofitbyagoodmood--forhowseldomitcomes!--
_NehmtdieguteStimmungwahr,Dennsiekommtsoselten_.[1]
[Footnote1:Goethe.]
Wearenotalwaysabletoformnewideasabout;oursurroundings,ortocommandoriginalthoughts:theycomeiftheywill,andwhentheywill.Andso,too,wecannotalwayssucceedincompletelyconsideringsomepersonalmatterattheprecisetimeatwhichwehavedeterminedbeforehandtoconsiderit,andjustwhenwesetourselvestodoso.Forthepeculiartrainofthoughtwhichisfavorabletoitmaysuddenlybecomeactivewithoutanyspecialcallbeingmadeuponit,andwemaythenfollowitupwithkeeninterest.Inthiswayreflection,too,choosesitsowntime.
Thisreining-inoftheimaginationwhichIamrecommending,willalsoforbidustosummonupthememoryofthepastmisfortune,topaintadarkpictureoftheinjusticeorharmthathasbeendoneus,the
losseswehavesustained,theinsults,slightsandannoyancestowhichwehavebeenexposed:fortodothatistorouseintofreshlifeallthosehatefulpassionslonglaidasleep--theangerandresentmentwhichdisturbandpolluteournature.Inanexcellentparable,Proclus,theNeoplatonist,pointsouthowineverytownthemobdwellssidebysidewiththosewhoarerichanddistinguished:so,too,ineveryman,beheneversonobleanddignified,thereis,inthedepthofhisnature,amoboflowandvulgardesireswhichconstitutehimananimal.Itwillnotdotoletthismobrevoltorevensomuchaspeepforthfromitshiding-place;itishideousofmien,anditsrebelleadersarethoseflightsofimaginationwhichIhavebeendescribing.Thesmallestannoyance,whetheritcomesfromourfellow-menorfromthethingsaroundus,mayswellupintoamonsterofdreadfulaspect,
puttingusatourwits'end--andallbecausewegoonbroodingoverourtroublesandpaintingtheminthemostglaringcolorsandonthelargestscale.Itismuchbettertotakeaverycalmandprosaicviewofwhatisdisagreeable;forthatistheeasiestwayofbearingit.
Ifyouholdsmallobjectsclosetoyoureyes,youlimityourfieldofvisionandshutouttheworld.And,inthesameway,thepeopleorthethingswhichstandnearest,eventhoughtheyareoftheverysmallestconsequence,areapttoclaimanamountofattentionmuchbeyondtheirdue,occupyingusdisagreeably,andleavingnoroomforseriousthoughtsandaffairsofimportance.Weoughttoworkagainstthistendency.
SECTION14.Thesightofthingswhichdonotbelongtousisveryapttoraisethethought:_Ah,ifthatwereonlymine_!makingussensibleofourprivation.Insteadofthatweshoulddobetterbymorefrequentlyputtingtoourselvestheoppositecase:_Ah,ifthatwerenotmine_.WhatImeanisthatweshouldsometimestrytolookuponourpossessionsinthelightinwhichtheywouldappearifwehadlostthem;whatevertheymaybe,property,health,friends,awifeorchildorsomeoneelsewelove,ourhorseorourdog--itisusuallyonlywhenwehavelostthemthatwebegintofindouttheirvalue.ButifwecometolookatthingsinthewayIrecommend,weshallbedoublythe
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gainers;weshallatoncegetmorepleasureoutofthemthanwedidbefore,andweshalldoeverythinginourpowertopreventthelossofthem;forinstance,bynotriskingourproperty,orangeringourfriends,orexposingourwivestotemptation,orbeingcarelessaboutourchildren'shealth,andsoon.
Weoftentrytobanishthegloomanddespondencyofthepresentbyspeculatinguponourchancesofsuccessinthefuture;aprocesswhichleadsustoinventagreatmanychimericalhopes.Everyoneofthemcontainsthegermofillusion,anddisappointmentisinevitablewhenourhopesareshatteredbythehardfactsoflife.
Itislesshurtfultotakethechancesofmisfortuneasathemeforspeculation;because,indoingso,weprovideourselvesatoncewithmeasuresofprecautionagainstit,andapleasantsurprisewhenitfailstomakeitsappearance.Isitnotafactthatwealwaysfeelamarkedimprovementinourspiritswhenwebegintogetoveraperiodofanxiety?Imaygofurtherandsaythatthereissomeuseinoccasionallylookinguponterriblemisfortunes--suchasmighthappentous--asthoughtheyhadactuallyhappened,forthenthetrivialreverseswhichsubsequentlycomeinreality,aremucheasiertobear.Itisasourceofconsolationtolookbackuponthosegreatmisfortuneswhichneverhappened.Butinfollowingoutthisrule,caremustbetakennottoneglectwhatIhavesaidinthepreceding
section.
SECTION15.Thethingswhichengageourattention--whethertheyaremattersofbusinessorordinaryevents--areofsuchdiversekinds,that,iftakenquiteseparatelyandinnofixedorderorrelation,theypresentamedleyofthemostglaringcontrasts,withnothingincommon,exceptthattheyoneandallaffectusinparticular.Theremustbeacorrespondingabruptnessinthethoughtsandanxietieswhichthesevariousmattersarouseinus,ifourthoughtsaretobeinkeepingwiththeirvarioussubjects.Therefore,insettingaboutanything,thefirststepistowithdrawourattentionfromeverythingelse:thiswillenableustoattendtoeachmatteratitsowntime,andtoenjoyorputupwithit,quiteapartfromanythoughtofour
remaininginterests.Ourthoughtsmustbearranged,asitwere,inlittledrawers,sothatwemayopenonewithoutdisturbinganyoftheothers.
Inthiswaywecankeeptheheavyburdenofanxietyfromweighinguponussomuchastospoilthelittlepleasuresofthepresent,orfromrobbingusofourrest;otherwisetheconsiderationofonematterwillinterferewitheveryother,andattentiontosomeimportantbusinessmayleadustoneglectmanyaffairswhichhappentobeoflessmoment.Itismostimportantforeveryonewhoiscapableofhigherandnoblerthoughtstokeeptheirmindfrombeingsocompletelyengrossedwithprivateaffairsandvulgartroublesastoletthemtakeupallhisattentionandcrowdoutworthiermatter;forthatis,inaveryreal
sense,tolosesightofthetrueendoflife--_proptervitamvivendiperderecausas_.
Ofcourseforthis--asforsomuchelse--self-controlisnecessary;withoutit,wecannotmanageourselvesinthewayIhavedescribed.Andself-controlmaynotappearsoverydifficult,ifweconsiderthateverymanhastosubmittoagreatdealofveryseverecontrolonthepartofhissurroundings,andthatwithoutitnoformofexistenceispossible.Further,alittleself-controlattherightmomentmaypreventmuchsubsequentcompulsionatthehandsofothers;justasa
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verysmallsectionofacircleclosetothecentremaycorrespondtoapartnearthecircumferenceahundredtimesaslarge.Nothingwillprotectusfromexternalcompulsionsomuchasthecontrolofourselves;and,asSenecasays,tosubmityourselftoreasonisthewaytomakeeverythingelsesubmittoyou--_sitibivisomniasubjicere,tesubjicerationi_.Self-control,too,issomethingwhichwehaveinourownpower;andiftheworstcomestotheworst,andittouchesusinaverysensitivepart,wecanalwaysrelaxitsseverity.Butotherpeoplewillpaynoregardtoourfeelings,iftheyhavetousecompulsion,andweshallbetreatedwithoutpityormercy.Thereforeitwillbeprudenttoanticipatecompulsionbyself-control.
SECTION16.Wemustsetlimitstoourwishes,curbourdesires,moderateouranger,alwaysrememberingthatanindividualcanattainonlyaninfinitesimalshareinanythingthatisworthhaving;andthat,ontheotherhand,everyonemustincurmanyoftheillsoflife;inaword,wemustbearandforbear--_abstinereetsustinere_;andifwefailtoobservethisrule,nopositionofwealthorpowerwillpreventusfromfeelingwretched.ThisiswhatHoracemeanswhenherecommendsustostudycarefullyandinquirediligentlywhatwillbestpromoteatranquillife--nottobealwaysagitatedbyfruitlessdesiresandfearsandhopesforthings,which,afterall,arenotworthverymuch:--
_IntercunctalegesetpercontaberedoctosQuarationequeastraducereleniteraevum;Netesemperinopsagitetvexetquecupido,Nepavor,etrerummediocriterutiliumspes.[1]_
[Footnote1:Epist.I.xviii.97.]
SECTION17.Lifeconsistsinmovement,saysAristotle;andheisobviouslyright.Weexist,physically,becauseourorganismistheseatofconstantmotion;andifwearetoexistintellectually,itcanonlybebymeansofcontinualoccupation--nomatterwithwhatsolongasitissomeformofpracticalormentalactivity.Youmayseethatthisissobythewayinwhichpeoplewhohavenoworkornothingto
thinkabout,immediatelybegintobeatthedevil'stattoowiththeirknucklesorastickoranythingthatcomeshandy.Thetruthis,thatournatureisessentially_restless_initscharacter:weverysoongettiredofhavingnothingtodo;itisintolerableboredom.Thisimpulsetoactivityshouldberegulated,andsomesortofmethodintroducedintoit,whichofitselfwillenhancethesatisfactionweobtain.Activity!--doingsomething,ifpossiblecreatingsomething,atanyratelearningsomething--howfortunateitisthatmencannotexistwithoutthat!Amanwantstousehisstrength,tosee,ifhecan,whateffectitwillproduce;andhewillgetthemostcompletesatisfactionofthisdesireifhecanmakeorconstructsomething--beitabookorabasket.Thereisadirectpleasureinseeingworkgrowunderone'shandsdaybyday,untilatlastitisfinished.Thisisthepleasure
attachingtoaworkofartoramanuscript,orevenmeremanuallabor;and,ofcourse,thehigherthework,thegreaterpleasureitwillgive.
Fromthispointofview,thosearehappiestofallwhoareconsciousofthepowertoproducegreatworksanimatedbysomesignificantpurpose:itgivesahigherkindofinterest--asortofrareflavor--tothewholeoftheirlife,which,byitsabsencefromthelifeoftheordinaryman,makesit,incomparison,somethingveryinsipid.Forrichlyendowednatures,lifeandtheworldhaveaspecialinterest
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beyondthemereeverydaypersonalinterestwhichsomanyothersshare;andsomethinghigherthanthat--aformalinterest.Itisfromlifeandtheworldthattheygetthematerialfortheirworks;andassoonastheyarefreedfromthepressureofpersonalneeds,itistothediligentcollectionofmaterialthattheydevotetheirwholeexistence.Sowiththeirintellect:itistosomeextentofatwo-foldcharacter,anddevotedpartlytotheordinaryaffairsofeveryday--thosemattersofwillwhicharecommontothemandtherestofmankind,andpartlytotheirpeculiarwork--thepureandobjectivecontemplationofexistence.Andwhile,onthestageoftheworld,mostmenplaytheirlittlepartandthenpassaway,thegeniuslivesadoublelife,atonceanactorandaspectator.
Leteveryone,then,dosomething,accordingtothemeasureofhiscapacities.Tohavenoregularwork,nosetsphereofactivity--whatamiserablethingitis!Howoftenlongtravelsundertakenforpleasuremakeamandownrightunhappy;becausetheabsenceofanythingthatcanbecalledoccupationforceshim,asitwere,outofhisrightelement.Effort,struggleswithdifficulties!thatisasnaturaltoamanasgrubbinginthegroundistoamole.Tohaveallhiswantssatisfiedissomethingintolerable--thefeelingofstagnationwhichcomesfrompleasuresthatlasttoolong.Toovercomedifficultiesistoexperiencethefulldelightofexistence,nomatterwheretheobstaclesareencountered;whetherintheaffairsoflife,incommerce
orbusiness;orinmentaleffort--thespiritofinquirythattriestomasteritssubject.Thereisalwayssomethingpleasurableinthestruggleandthevictory.Andifamanhasnoopportunitytoexcitehimself,hewilldowhathecantocreateone,andaccordingtohisindividualbent,hewillhuntorplayCupandBall:orledonbythisunsuspectedelementinhisnature,hewillpickaquarrelwithsomeone,orhatchaplotorintrigue,ortaketoswindlingandrascallycoursesgenerally--alltoputanendtoastateofreposewhichisintolerable.AsIhaveremarked,_difficilisinotioquies_--itisdifficulttokeepquietifyouhavenothingtodo.
SECTION18.Amanshouldavoidbeingledonbythephantomsofhisimagination.Thisisnotthesamethingastosubmittotheguidance
ofideasclearlythoughtout:andyetthesearerulesoflifewhichmostpeoplepervert.Ifyouexaminecloselyintothecircumstanceswhich,inanydeliberation,ultimatelyturnthescaleinfavorofsomeparticularcourse,youwillgenerallyfindthatthedecisionisinfluenced,notbyanycleararrangementofideasleadingtoaformaljudgment,butbysomefancifulpicturewhichseemstostandforoneofthealternativesinquestion.
InoneofVoltaire'sorDiderot'sromances,--Iforgettheprecisereference,--thehero,standinglikeayoungHerculesatthepartingofways,canseenootherrepresentationofVirtuethanhisoldtutorholdingasnuff-boxinhislefthand,fromwhichhetakesapinchandmoralizes;whilstViceappearsintheshapeofhismother's
chambermaid.Itisinyouth,moreespecially,thatthegoalofoureffortscomestobeafancifulpictureofhappiness,whichcontinuestohoverbeforeoureyessometimesforhalfandevenforthewholeofourlife--asortofmockingspirit;forwhenwethinkourdreamistoberealized,thepicturefadesaway,leavingustheknowledgethatnothingofwhatitpromisedisactuallyaccomplished.Howoftenthisissowiththevisionsofdomesticity--thedetailedpictureofwhatourhomewillbelike;or,oflifeamongourfellow-citizensorinsociety;or,again,oflivinginthecountry--thekindofhouseweshallhave,itssurroundings,themarksofhonorandrespectthatwill
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bepaidtous,andsoon,--whateverourhobbymaybe;_chaquefouasamarotte_.Itisoftenthesame,too,withourdreamsaboutonewelove.Andthisisallquitenatural;forthevisionsweconjureupaffectusdirectly,asthoughtheywererealobjects;andsotheyexerciseamoreimmediateinfluenceuponourwillthananabstractidea,whichgivesmerelyavague,generaloutline,devoidofdetails;andthedetailsarejusttherealpartofit.Wecanbeonlyindirectlyaffectedbyanabstractidea,andyetitistheabstractideaalonewhichwilldoasmuchasitpromises;anditisthefunctionofeducationtoteachustoputourtrustinit.Ofcoursetheabstractideamustbeoccasionallyexplained--paraphrased,asitwere--bytheaidofpictures;butdiscreetly,_cumgranosalis_.
SECTION19.Theprecedingrulemaybetakenasaspecialcaseofthemoregeneralmaxim,thatamanshouldneverlethimselfbemasteredbytheimpressionsofthemoment,orindeedbyoutwardappearancesatall,whichareincomparablymorepowerfulintheireffectsthanthemereplayofthoughtoratrainofideas;notbecausethesemomentaryimpressionsarerichinvirtueofthedatatheysupply,--itisoftenjustthecontrary,--butbecausetheyaresomethingpalpabletothesensesanddirectintheirworking;theyforciblyinvadeourmind,disturbingourreposeandshatteringourresolutions.
Itiseasytounderstandthatthethingwhichliesbeforeourvery
eyeswillproducethewholeofitseffectatonce,butthattimeandleisurearenecessaryfortheworkingofthoughtandtheappreciationofargument,asitisimpossibletothinkofeverythingatoneandthesamemoment.Thisiswhywearesoalluredbypleasure,inspiteofallourdeterminationtoresistit;orsomuchannoyedbyacriticism,eventhoughweknowthatitsauthorittotallyincompetenttojudge;orsoirritatedbyaninsult,thoughitcomesfromsomeverycontemptiblequarter.Inthesameway,tomentionnootherinstances,tenreasonsforthinkingthatthereisnodangermaybeoutweighedbyonemistakennotionthatitisactuallyathand.Allthisshowstheradicalunreasonofhumannature.Womenfrequentlysuccumbaltogethertothispredominatinginfluenceofpresentimpressions,andtherearefewmensooverweightedwithreasonastoescapesufferingfroma
similarcause.
Ifitisimpossibletoresisttheeffectsofsomeexternalinfluencebythemereplayofthought,thebestthingtodoistoneutralizeitbysomecontraryinfluence;forexample,theeffectofaninsultmaybeovercomebyseekingthesocietyofthosewhohaveagoodopinionofus;andtheunpleasantsensationofimminentdangermaybeavoidedbyfixingourattentiononthemeansofwardingitoff.
Leibnitz[1]tellsofanItalianwhomanagedtobearupunderthetorturesoftherackbyneverforamomentceasingtothinkofthegallowswhichwouldhaveawaitedhim,hadherevealedhissecret;hekeptoncryingout:_Iseeit!Iseeit_!--afterwardsexplainingthat
thiswaspartofhisplan.
[Footnote1:_NouveauxEssais_.Liv.I.ch.2.Sec.11.]
Itisfromsomesuchreasonasthis,thatwefinditsodifficulttostandaloneinamatterofopinion,--nottobemadeirresolutebythefactthateveryoneelsedisagreeswithusandactsaccordingly,eventhoughwearequitesurethattheyareinthewrong.Takethecaseofafugitivekingwhoistryingtoavoidcapture;howmuchconsolationhemustfindintheceremoniousandsubmissiveattitudeofafaithful
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[Footnote1:_Of.WeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,4thEdition.Bk.II.pp.236-40.]
[Footnote:2:_Cf.loc:cit_:p.275.Sleepisamorselofdeathborrowedtokeepupandrenewthepartoflifewhichisexhaustedbytheday--_lesommeilestunempruntfaitàlamort_.Oritmightbesaidthatsleepistheinterestwehavetopayonthecapitalwhichiscalledinatdeath;andthehighertherateofinterestandthemoreregularlyitispaid,thefurtherthedateofredemptionispostponed.]
Itshouldbeclearlyunderstoodthatthoughtisnothingbuttheorganicfunctionofthebrain;andithastoobeythesamelawsinregardtoexertionandreposeasanyotherorganicfunction.Thebraincanberuinedbyoverstrain,justliketheeyes.Asthefunctionofthestomachistodigest,soitisthatofthebraintothink.Thenotionofa_soul_,--assomethingelementaryandimmaterial,merelylodginginthebrainandneedingnothingatallfortheperformanceofitsessentialfunction,whichconsistsinalwaysandunweariedly _thinking_--hasundoubtedlydrivenmanypeopletofoolishpractices,leadingtoadeadeningoftheintellectualpowers;FredericktheGreat,even,oncetriedtoformthehabitofdoingwithoutsleepaltogether.Itwouldbewellifprofessorsofphilosophyrefrained
fromgivingcurrencytoanotionwhichisattendedbypracticalresultsofaperniciouscharacter;butthenthisisjustwhatprofessorialphilosophydoes,initsold-womanishendeavortokeepongoodtermswiththecatechism.Amanshouldaccustomhimselftoviewhisintellectualcapacitiesinnootherlightthanthatofphysiologicalfunctions,andtomanagethemaccordingly--nursingorexercisingthemasthecasemaybe;rememberingthateverykindofphysicalsuffering,maladyordisorder,inwhateverpartofthebodyitoccurs,hasitseffectuponthemind.ThebestadvicethatIknowonthissubjectisgivenbyCabanisinhis_Rapportsduphysiqueetdumoraldel'homme_.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.TheworktowhichSchopenhauer
hererefersisaseriesofessaysbyCabanis,aFrenchphilosopher(1757-1808),treatingofmentalandmoralphenomenaonaphysiologicalbasis.Inhislaterdays,Cabaniscompletelyabandonedhismaterialisticstandpoint.]
Throughneglectofthisrule,manymenofgeniusandgreatscholarshavebecomeweak-mindedandchildish,orevengonequitemad,astheygrewold.Totakenootherinstances,therecanbenodoubtthatthecelebratedEnglishpoetsoftheearlypartofthiscentury,Scott,Wordsworth,Southey,becameintellectuallydullandincapabletowardstheendoftheirdays,nay,soonafterpassingtheirsixtiethyear;andthattheirimbecilitycanbetracedtothefactthat,atthatperiodoflife,theywereallledon?bythepromiseofhighpay,to
treatliteratureasatradeandtowriteformoney.Thisseducedthemintoanunnaturalabuseoftheirintellectualpowers;andamanwhoputshisPegasusintoharness,andurgesonhisMusewiththewhip,willhavetopayapenaltysimilartothatwhichisexactedbytheabuseofotherkindsofpower.
AndeveninthecaseofKant,Isuspectthatthesecondchildhoodofhislastfouryearswasduetooverworkinlaterlife,andafterhehadsucceededinbecomingafamousman.
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Everymonthoftheyearhasitsownpeculiaranddirectinfluenceuponhealthandbodilyconditiongenerally;nay,evenuponthestateofthemind.Itisaninfluencedependentupontheweather.
CHAPTERIII.
OURRELATIONTOOTHERS.--SECTION21.
Inmakinghiswaythroughlife,amanwillfinditusefultobereadyandabletodotwothings:tolookaheadandtooverlook:theonewillprotecthimfromlossandinjury,theotherfromdisputesandsquabbles.
Noonewhohastoliveamongstmenshouldabsolutelydiscardanypersonwhohashisdueplaceintheorderofnature,eventhoughheisverywickedorcontemptibleorridiculous.Hemustaccepthimasanunalterablefact--unalterable,becausethenecessaryoutcomeofaneternal,fundamentalprinciple;andinbadcasesheshouldrememberthewordsofMephistopheles:_esmussauchsolcheKäuzegeben[1]_--theremustbefoolsandroguesintheworld.Ifheacts
otherwise,hewillbecommittinganinjustice,andgivingachallengeoflifeanddeathtothemanhediscards.Noonecanalterhisownpeculiarindividuality,hismoralcharacter,hisintellectualcapacity,histemperamentorphysique;andifwegosofarastocondemnamanfromeverypointofview,therewillbenothinglefthimbuttoengageusindeadlyconflict;forwearepracticallyallowinghimtherighttoexistonlyonconditionthathebecomesanotherman--whichisimpossible;hisnatureforbidsit.
[Footnote1:Goethe's_Faust_,PartI.]
Soifyouhavetoliveamongstmen,youmustalloweveryonetherighttoexistinaccordancewiththecharacterhehas,whateveritturns
outtobe:andallyoushouldstrivetodoistomakeuseofthischaracterinsuchawayasitskindandnaturepermit,ratherthantohopeforanyalterationinit,ortocondemnitoff-handforwhatitis.Thisisthetruesenseofthemaxim--Liveandletlive.That,however,isataskwhichisdifficultinproportionasitisright;andheisahappymanwhocanonceforallavoidhavingtodowithagreatmanyofhisfellowcreatures.
Theartofputtingupwithpeoplemaybelearnedbypracticingpatienceoninanimateobjects,which,invirtueofsomemechanicalorgeneralphysicalnecessity,opposeastubbornresistancetoourfreedomofaction--aformofpatiencewhichisrequiredeveryday.Thepatiencethusgainedmaybeappliedtoourdealingswithmen,
byaccustomingourselvestoregardtheiropposition,whereverweencounterit,astheinevitableoutcomeoftheirnature,whichsetsitselfupagainstusinvirtueofthesamerigidlawofnecessityasgovernstheresistanceofinanimateobjects.Tobecomeindignantattheirconductisasfoolishastobeangrywithastonebecauseitrollsintoyourpath.Andwithmanypeoplethewisestthingyoucando,istoresolvetomakeuseofthosewhomyoucannotalter.
SECTION22.Itisastonishinghoweasilyandhowquicklysimilarity,ordifferenceofmindanddisposition,makesitselffeltbetweenone
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manandanotherassoonastheybegintotalk:everylittletrifleshowsit.Whentwopeopleoftotallydifferentnaturesareconversing,almosteverythingsaidbytheonewill,inagreaterorlessdegree,displeasetheother,andinmanycasesproducepositiveannoyance;eventhoughtheconversationturnuponthemostout-of-the-waysubject,oroneinwhichneitherofthepartieshasanyrealinterest.Peopleofsimilarnature,ontheotherhand,immediatelycometofeelakindofgeneralagreement;andiftheyarecastverymuchinthesamemould,completeharmonyorevenunisonwillflowfromtheirintercourse.
Thisexplaintwocircumstances.Firstofall,itshowswhyitisthatcommon,ordinarypeoplearesosociableandfindgoodcompanywherevertheygo.Ah!thosegood,dear,bravepeople.Itisjustthecontrarywiththosewhoarenotofthecommonrun;andthelesstheyareso,themoreunsociabletheybecome;sothatif,intheirisolation,theychancetocomeacrosssomeoneinwhosenaturetheycanfindevenasinglesympatheticchord,beitneversominute,theyshowextraordinarypleasureinhissociety.Foronemancanbetoanotheronlysomuchastheotheristohim.Greatmindsarelikeeagles,andbuildtheirnestinsomeloftysolitude.
Secondly,weareenabledtounderstandhowitisthatpeopleoflikedispositionsoquicklygetonwithoneanother,asthoughtheywere
drawntogetherbymagneticforce--kindredsoulsgreetingeachotherfromafar.Ofcoursethemostfrequentopportunityofobservingthisisaffordedbypeopleofvulgartastesandinferiorintellect,butonlybecausetheirnameislegion;whilethosewhoarebetteroffinthisrespectandofararernature,arenotoftentobemetwith:theyarecalledrarebecauseyoucanseldomfindthem.
Takethecaseofalargenumberofpeoplewhohaveformedthemselvesintoaleagueforthepurposeofcarryingoutsomepracticalobject;iftherebetworascalsamongthem,theywillrecognizeeachotherasreadilyasiftheyboreasimilarbadge,andwillatonceconspireforsomemisfeasanceortreachery.Inthesameway,ifyoucanimagine--_perimpossible_--alargecompanyofveryintelligentand
cleverpeople,amongstwhomthereareonlytwoblockheads,thesetwowillbesuretobedrawntogetherbyafeelingofsympathy,andeachofthemwillverysoonsecretlyrejoiceathavingfoundatleastoneintelligentpersoninthewholecompany.Itisreallyquitecurioustoseehowtwosuchmen,especiallyiftheyaremorallyandintellectuallyofaninferiortype,willrecognizeeachotheratfirstsight;withwhatzealtheywillstrivetobecomeintimate;howaffablyandcheerilytheywillruntogreeteachother,justasthoughtheywereoldfriends;--itisallsostrikingthatoneistemptedtoembracetheBuddhistdoctrineofmetempsychosisandpresumethattheywereonfamiliartermsinsomeformerstateofexistence.
Still,inspiteofallthisgeneralagreement,menarekeptapartwho
mightcometogether;or,insomecases,apassingdiscordspringsupbetweenthem.Thisisduetodiversityofmood.Youwillhardlyeverseetwopeopleexactlyinthesameframeofmind;forthatissomethingwhichvarieswiththeirconditionoflife,occupation,surroundings,health,thetrainofthoughttheyareinatthemoment,andsoon.Thesedifferencesgiverisetodiscordbetweenpersonsofthemostharmoniousdisposition.Tocorrectthebalanceproperly,soastoremovethedisturbance--tointroduce,asitwere,auniformtemperature,--isaworkdemandingaveryhighdegreeofculture.Theextenttowhichuniformityofmoodisproductiveofgood-fellowship
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maybemeasuredbyitseffectsuponalargecompany.When,forinstance,agreatmanypeoplearegatheredtogetherandpresentedwithsomeobjectiveinterestwhichworksuponallalikeandinfluencestheminasimilarway,nomatterwhatitbe--acommondangerorhope,somegreatnews,aspectacle,aplay,apieceofmusic,oranythingofthatkind--youwillfindthemrousedtoamutualexpressionofthought,andadisplayofsincereinterest.Therewillbeageneralfeelingofpleasureamongstthem;forthatwhichattractstheirattentionproducesaunityofmoodbyoverpoweringallprivateandpersonalinterests.
AndindefaultofsomeobjectiveinterestofthekindIhavementioned,recourseisusuallyhadtosomethingsubjective.Abottleofwineisnotanuncommonmeansofintroducingamutualfeelingoffellowship;andeventeaandcoffeeareusedforalikeend.
Thediscordwhichsoeasilyfindsitswayintoallsocietyasaneffectofthedifferentmoodsinwhichpeoplehappentobeforthemoment,alsoinpartexplainswhyitisthatmemoryalwaysidealizes,andsometimesalmosttransfigures,theattitudewehavetakenupatanyperiodofthepast--achangeduetoourinabilitytorememberallthefleetinginfluenceswhichdisturbedusonanygivenoccasion.Memoryisinthisrespectlikethelensofa_cameraobscura_:itcontractseverythingwithinitsrange,andsoproducesamuchfiner
picturethantheactuallandscapeaffords.And,inthecaseofaman,absencealwaysgoessomewaytowardssecuringthisadvantageouslight;forthoughtheidealizingtendencyofthememoryrequirestimestocompleteitswork,itbeginsitatonce.Henceitisaprudentthingtoseeyourfriendsandacquaintancesonlyatconsiderableintervalsoftime;andonmeetingthemagain,youwillobservethatmemoryhasbeenatwork.
SECTION23.Nomancansee_overhisownheight._LetmeexplainwhatImean.
Youcannotseeinanothermananymorethanyouhaveinyourself;andyourownintelligencestrictlydeterminestheextenttowhichhecomes
withinitsgrasp.Ifyourintelligenceisofaveryloworder,mentalqualitiesinanother,eventhoughtheybeofthehighestkind,willhavenoeffectatalluponyou;youwillseenothingintheirpossessorexceptthemeanestsideofhisindividuality--inotherwords,justthosepartsofhischaracteranddispositionwhichareweakanddefective.Yourwholeestimateofthemanwillbeconfinedtohisdefects,andhishighermentalqualitieswillnomoreexistforyouthancolorsexistforthosewhocannotsee.
Intellectisinvisibletothemanwhohasnone.Inanyattempttocriticiseanother'swork,therangeofknowledgepossessedbythecriticisasessentialapartofhisverdictastheclaimsoftheworkitself.
Henceintercoursewithothersinvolvesaprocessoflevelingdown.Thequalitieswhicharepresentinoneman,andabsentinanother,cannotcomeintoplaywhentheymeet;andtheself-sacrificewhichthisentailsupononeoftheparties,callsforthnorecognitionfromtheother.
Considerhowsordid,howstupid,inaword,how_vulgar_mostmenare,andyouwillseethatitisimpossibletotalktothemwithoutbecomingvulgaryourselfforthetimebeing.Vulgarityisinthis
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respectlikeelectricity;itiseasilydistributed.Youwillthenfullyappreciatethetruthandproprietyoftheexpression,_tomakeyourselfcheap_;andyouwillbegladtoavoidthesocietyofpeoplewhoseonlypossiblepointofcontactwithyouisjustthatpartofyournatureofwhichyouhaveleastreasontobeproud.Soyouwillseethat,indealingwithfoolsandblockheads,thereisonlyonewayofshowingyourintelligence--byhavingnothingtodowiththem.Thatmeans,ofcourse,thatwhenyougointosociety,youmaynowandthenfeellikeagooddancerwhogetsaninvitationtoaball,andonarriving,findsthateveryoneislame:--withwhomishetodance?
SECTION24.Ifeelrespectfortheman--andheisoneinahundred--who,whenheiswaitingorsittingunoccupied,refrainsfromrattlingorbeatingtimewithanythingthathappenstobehandy,--hisstick,orknifeandfork,orwhateverelseitmaybe.Theprobabilityisthatheisthinkingofsomething.
Withalargenumberofpeople,itisquiteevidentthattheirpowerofsightcompletelydominatesovertheirpowerofthought;theyseemtobeconsciousofexistenceonlywhentheyaremakinganoise;unlessindeedtheyhappentobesmoking,forthisservesasimilarend.Itisforthesamereasonthattheyneverfailtobealleyesandearsforwhatisgoingonaroundthem.
SECTION25.LaRochefoucauldmakesthestrikingremarkthatitisdifficulttofeeldeepvenerationandgreataffectionforoneandthesameperson.Ifthisisso,weshallhavetochoosewhetheritisvenerationorlovethatwewantfromourfellow-men.
Theirloveisalwaysselfish,thoughinverydifferentways;andthemeansusedtogainitarenotalwaysofakindtomakeusproud.Amanislovedbyothersmainlyinthedegreeinwhichhemoderateshisclaimontheirgoodfeelingandintelligence:buthemustactgenuinelyinthematterandwithoutdissimulation--notmerelyoutofforbearance,whichisatbottomakindofcontempt.ThiscallstomindaverytrueobservationofHelvetius[1]:_theamountofintellectnecessarytopleaseus,isamostaccuratemeasureoftheamountof
intellectwehaveourselves_.Withtheseremarksaspremises,itiseasytodrawtheconclusion.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.Helvetius,Claude-Adrien(1715-71),aFrenchphilosophicalwritermuchesteemedbySchopenhauer.Hischiefwork,_Del'Esprit_,excitedgreatinterestandoppositionatthetimeofitspublication,onaccountoftheauthor'spronouncedmaterialism.]
Nowwithvenerationthecaseisjusttheopposite;itiswrungfrommenreluctantly,andforthatveryreasonmostlyconcealed.Hence,ascomparedwithlove,venerationgivesmorerealsatisfaction;foritisconnectedwithpersonalvalue,andthesameisnotdirectlytrue
oflove,whichissubjectiveinitsnature,whilstvenerationisobjective.Tobesure,itismoreusefultobelovedthantobevenerated.
SECTION26.Mostmenaresothoroughlysubjectivethatnothingreallyintereststhembutthemselves.Theyalwaysthinkoftheirowncaseassoonaseveranyremarkismade,andtheirwholeattentionisengrossedandabsorbedbythemerestchancereferencetoanythingwhichaffectsthempersonally,beitneversoremote:withtheresultthattheyhavenopowerleftforforminganobjectiveviewofthings,
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shouldtheconversationtakethatturn;neithercantheyadmitanyvalidityinargumentswhichtellagainsttheirinterestortheirvanity.Hencetheirattentioniseasilydistracted.Theyaresoreadilyoffended,insultedorannoyed,thatindiscussinganyimpersonalmatterwiththem,nocareistoogreattoavoidlettingyourremarksbeartheslightestpossiblereferencetotheveryworthyandsensitiveindividualswhomyouhavebeforeyou;foranythingyoumaysaywillperhapshurttheirfeelings.Peoplereallycareaboutnothingthatdoesnotaffectthempersonally.Trueandstrikingobservations,fine,subtleandwittythingsarelostuponthem:theycannotunderstandorfeelthem.Butanythingthatdisturbstheirpettyvanityinthemostremoteandindirectway,orreflectsprejudiciallyupontheirexceedinglypreciousselves--tothat,theyaremosttenderlysensitive.Inthisrespecttheyarelikethelittledogwhosetoesyouaresoapttotreaduponinadvertently--youknowitbytheshrillbarkitsetsup:or,again,theyresembleasickmancoveredwithsoresandboils,withwhomthegreatestcaremustbetakentoavoidunnecessaryhandling.Andinsomepeoplethisfeelingreachessuchapassthat,iftheyaretalkingwithanyone,andheexhibits,ordoesnotsufficientlyconceal,hisintelligenceanddiscernment,theylookuponitasadownrightinsult;althoughforthemomenttheyhidetheirillwill,andtheunsuspectingauthorofitafterwardsruminatesinvainupontheirconduct,andrackshisbraintodiscoverwhathecouldpossiblyhavedonetoexcitetheirmaliceandhatred.
Butitisjustaseasytoflatterandwinthemover;andthisiswhytheirjudgmentisusuallycorrupt,andwhytheiropinionsareswayed,notbywhatisreallytrueandright,butbythefavorofthepartyorclasstowhichtheybelong.Andtheultimatereasonofitallis,thatinsuchpeopleforceofwillgreatlypredominatesoverknowledge;andhencetheirmeagreintellectiswhollygivenuptotheserviceofthewill,andcanneverfreeitselffromthatserviceforamoment.
Astrologyfurnishesamagnificentproofofthismiserablesubjectivetendencyinmen,whichleadsthemtoseeeverythingonlyasbearinguponthemselves,andtothinkofnothingthatisnotstraightwaymadeintoapersonalmatter.Theaimofastrologyistobringthemotions
ofthecelestialbodiesintorelationwiththewretched_Ego_andtoestablishaconnectionbetweenacometintheskyandsquabblesandrascalitiesonearth.[1]
[Footnote1:See,forinstance,Stobasus,_Eclog.I_.xxii.9.]
SECTION27.Whenanywrongstatementismade,whetherinpublicorinsociety,orinbooks,andwellreceived--or,atanyrate,notrefuted--thatthatisnoreasonwhyyoushoulddespairorthinktherethematterwillrest.Youshouldcomfortyourselfwiththereflectionthatthequestionwillbeafterwardsgraduallysubjectedtoexamination;lightwillbethrownuponit;itwillbethoughtover,considered,discussed,andgenerallyintheendthecorrectviewwill
bereached;sothat,afteratime--thelengthofwhichwilldependuponthedifficultyofthesubject--everyonewillcometounderstandthatwhichaclearheadsawatonce.
Inthemeantime,ofcourse,youmusthavepatience.Hewhocanseetrulyinthemidstofgeneralinfatuationislikeamanwhosewatchkeepsgoodtime,whenallclocksinthetowninwhichhelivesarewrong.Healoneknowstherighttime;butwhatuseisthattohim?foreveryonegoesbytheclockswhichspeakfalse,notevenexceptingthosewhoknowthathiswatchistheonlyonethatisright.
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SECTION28.Menarelikechildren,inthat,ifyouspoilthem,theybecomenaughty.
Thereforeitiswellnottobetooindulgentorcharitablewithanyone.Youmaytakeitasageneralrulethatyouwillnotloseafriendbyrefusinghimaloan,butthatyouareverylikelytodosobygrantingit;and,forsimilarreasons,youwillnotreadilyalienatepeoplebybeingsomewhatproudandcarelessinyourbehaviour;butifyouareverykindandcomplaisanttowardsthem,youwilloftenmakethemarrogantandintolerable,andsoabreachwillensue.
Thereisonethingthat,morethananyother,throwspeopleabsolutelyofftheirbalance--thethoughtthatyouaredependentuponthem.Thisissuretoproduceaninsolentanddomineeringmannertowardsyou.Therearesomepeople,indeed,whobecomerudeifyouenterintoanykindofrelationwiththem;forinstance,ifyouhaveoccasiontoconversewiththemfrequentlyuponconfidentialmatters,theysooncometofancythattheycantakelibertieswithyou,andsotheytryandtransgressthelawsofpoliteness.Thisiswhytherearesofewwithwhomyoucaretobecomemoreintimate,andwhyyoushouldavoidfamiliaritywithvulgarpeople.IfamancomestothinkthatIammoredependentuponhimthanheisuponme,heatoncefeelsasthoughI
hadstolensomethingfromhim;andhisendeavorwillbetohavehisvengeanceandgetitback.Theonlywaytoattainsuperiorityindealingwithmen,istoletitbeseenthatyouareindependentofthem.
Andinthisviewitisadvisabletoleteveryoneofyouracquaintance--whethermanorwoman--feelnowandthenthatyoucouldverywelldispensewiththeircompany.Thiswillconsolidatefriendship.Nay,withmostpeopletherewillbenoharminoccasionallymixingagrainofdisdainwithyourtreatmentofthem;thatwillmakethemvalueyourfriendshipallthemore._Chinonistimavienstimato_,asasubtleItalianproverbhasit--todisregardistowinregard.Butifwereallythinkveryhighlyofaperson,we
shouldconcealitfromhimlikeacrime.Thisisnotaverygratifyingthingtodo,butitisright.Why,adogwillnotbearbeingtreatedtookindly,letaloneaman!
SECTION29.Itisoftenthecasethatpeopleofnoblecharacterandgreatmentalgiftsbetrayastrangelackofworldlywisdomandadeficiencyintheknowledgeofmen,moreespeciallywhentheyareyoung;withtheresultthatitiseasytodeceiveormisleadthem;andthat,ontheotherhand,naturesofthecommonersortaremorereadyandsuccessfulinmakingtheirwayintheworld.
Thereasonofthisisthat,whenamanhaslittleornoexperience,hemustjudgebyhisownantecedentnotions;andinmattersdemanding
judgment,anantecedentnotionisneveronthesamelevelasexperience.For,withthecommonersortofpeople,anantecedentnotionmeansjusttheirownselfishpointofview.Thisisnotthecasewiththosewhosemindandcharacterareabovetheordinary;foritispreciselyinthisrespect--theirunselfishness--thattheydifferfromtherestofmankind;andastheyjudgeotherpeople'sthoughtsandactionsbytheirownhighstandard,theresultdoesnotalwaystallywiththeircalculation.
Butif,intheend,amanofnoblecharactercomestosee,asthe
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effectofhisownexperience,orbythelessonshelearnsfromothers,whatitisthatmaybeexpectedofmeningeneral,--namely,thatfive-sixthsofthemaremorallyandintellectuallysoconstitutedthat,ifcircumstancesdonotplaceyouinrelationwiththem,youhadbettergetoutoftheirwayandkeepasfaraspossiblefromhavinganythingtodowiththem,--still,hewillscarcelyeverattainanadequatenotionoftheirwretchedlymeanandshabbynature:allhislifelonghewillhavetobeextendingandaddingtotheinferiorestimateheformsofthem;andinthemeantimehewillcommitagreatmanymistakesanddohimselfharm.
Then,again,afterhehasreallytakentoheartthelessonsthathavebeentaughthim,itwilloccasionallyhappenthat,whenheisinthesocietyofpeoplewhomhedoesnotknow,hewillbesurprisedtofindhowthoroughlyreasonabletheyallappeartobe,bothintheirconversationandintheirdemeanor--infact,quitehonest,sincere,virtuousandtrustworthypeople,andatthesametimeshrewdandclever.
Butthatoughtnottoperplexhim.Natureisnotlikethosebadpoets,who,insettingafooloraknavebeforeus,dotheirworksoclumsily,andwithsuchevidentdesign,thatyoumightalmostfancyyousawthepoetstandingbehindeachofhischaracters,andcontinuallydisavowingtheirsentiments,andtellingyouinatoneof
warning:_Thisisaknave;thatisafool;donotmindwhathesays_.ButNaturegoestoworklikeShakespeareandGoethe,poetswhomakeeveryoneoftheircharacters--evenifitisthedevilhimself!--appeartobequiteintherightforthemomentthattheycomebeforeusintheirseveralparts;thecharactersaredescribedsoobjectivelythattheyexciteourinterestandcompelustosympathizewiththeirpointofview;for,liketheworksofNature,everyoneofthesecharactersisevolvedastheresultofsomehiddenlaworprinciple,whichmakesalltheysayanddoappearnaturalandthereforenecessary.Andyouwillalwaysbethepreyortheplaythingofthedevilsandfoolsinthisworld,ifyouexpecttoseethemgoingaboutwithhornsorjanglingtheirbells.
Anditshouldbeborneinmindthat,intheirintercoursewithothers,peoplearelikethemoon,orlikehunchbacks;theyshowyouonlyoneoftheirsides.Everymanhasaninnatetalentformimicry,--formakingamaskoutofhisphysiognomy,sothathecanalwayslookasifhereallywerewhathepretendstobe;andsincehemakeshiscalculationsalwayswithinthelinesofhisindividualnature,theappearanceheputsonsuitshimtoanicety,anditseffectisextremelydeceptive.Hedonshismaskwheneverhisobjectistoflatterhimselfintosomeone'sgoodopinion;andyoumaypayjustasmuchattentiontoitasifitweremadeofwaxorcardboard,neverforgettingthatexcellentItalianproverb:_nonésitristocanechenonmenilacoda_,--thereisnodogsobadbutthathewillwaghistail.
Inanycaseitiswelltotakecarenottoformahighlyfavorableopinionofapersonwhoseacquaintanceyouhaveonlyrecentlymade,forotherwiseyouareverylikelytobedisappointed;andthenyouwillbeashamedofyourselfandperhapsevensuffersomeinjury.AndwhileIamonthesubject,thereisanotherfactthatdeservesmention.Itisthis.Amanshowshischaracterjustinthewayinwhichhedealswithtrifles,--forthenheisoffhisguard.Thiswilloftenaffordagoodopportunityofobservingtheboundlessegoismofman'snature,andhistotallackofconsiderationforothers;and
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ifthesedefectsshowthemselvesinsmallthings,ormerelyinhisgeneraldemeanor,youwillfindthattheyalsounderliehisactioninmattersofimportance,althoughhemaydisguisethefact.Thisisanopportunitywhichshouldnotbemissed.Ifinthelittleaffairsofeveryday,--thetriflesoflife,thosematterstowhichtherule_deminimisnon_applies,--amanisinconsiderateandseeksonlywhatisadvantageousorconvenienttohimself,totheprejudiceofothers'rights;ifheappropriatestohimselfthatwhichbelongstoallalike,youmaybesurethereisnojusticeinhisheart,andthathewouldbeascoundrelonawholesalescale,onlythatlawandcompulsionbindhishands.Donottrusthimbeyondyourdoor.Hewhoisnotafraidtobreakthelawsofhisownprivatecircle,willbreakthoseoftheStatewhenhecandosowithimpunity.
Iftheaveragemanweresoconstitutedthatthegoodinhimoutweighedthebad,itwouldbemoreadvisabletorelyuponhissenseofjustice,fairness,gratitude,fidelity,loveorcompassion,thantoworkuponhisfears;butasthecontraryisthecase,anditisthebadthatoutweighsthegood,theoppositecourseisthemoreprudentone.
Ifanypersonwithwhomweareassociatedorhavetodo,exhibitsunpleasantorannoyingqualities,wehaveonlytoaskourselveswhetherornotthispersonisofsomuchvaluetousthatwecanputupwithfrequentandrepeatedexhibitionsofthesamequalitiesina
somewhataggravatedform.[1]Incaseofanaffirmativeanswertothisquestion,therewillnotbemuchtobesaid,becausetalkingisverylittleuse.Wemustletthematterpass,withorwithoutsomenotice;butweshouldneverthelessrememberthatwearetherebyexposingourselvestoarepetitionoftheoffence.Iftheanswerisinthenegative,wemustbreakwithourworthyfriendatonceandforever;orinthecaseofaservant,dismisshim.Forhewillinevitablyrepeattheoffence,ordosomethingtantamounttoit,shouldtheoccasionreturn,eventhoughforthemomentheisdeepandsincereinhisassurancesofthecontrary.Thereisnothing,absolutelynothing,thatamancannotforget,--butnot_himself,hisowncharacter_.Forcharacterisincorrigible;becauseallaman'sactionsemanatefromaninwardprinciple,invirtueofwhichhemustalwaysdothesamething
underlikecircumstances;andhecannotdootherwise.Letmerefertomyprizeessayontheso-called_FreedomoftheWill_,theperusalofwhichwilldissipateanydelusionsthereadermayhaveonthissubject.
[Footnote1:To_forgiveandforget_meanstothrowawaydearlyboughtexperience.]
Tobecomereconciledtoafriendwithwhomyouhavebroken,isaformofweakness;andyoupaythepenaltyofitwhenhetakesthefirstopportunityofdoingpreciselytheverythingwhichbroughtaboutthebreach;nay,hedoesitthemoreboldly,becauseheissecretlyconsciousthatyoucannotgetonwithouthim.Thisisalsoapplicable
toservantswhomyouhavedismissed,andthentakenintoyourserviceagain.
Forthesamereason,youshouldjustaslittleexpectpeopletocontinuetoactinasimilarwayunderalteredcircumstances.Thetruthisthatmenaltertheirdemeanorandsentimentsjustasfastastheirinterestchanges;andtheirresigninthisrespectisabilldrawnforshortpaymentthatthemanmustbestillmoreshort-sightedwhoacceptsthebillwithoutprotestingit.Accordingly,supposeyouwanttoknowhowamanwillbehaveinanofficeintowhichyouthink
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ofputtinghim;youshouldnotbuilduponexpectations,onhispromisesorassurances.For,evenallowingthatheisquitesincere,heisspeakingaboutamatterofwhichhehasnoknowledge.Theonlywaytocalculatehowhewillbehave,istoconsiderthecircumstancesinwhichhewillbeplaced,andtheextenttowhichtheywillconflictwithhischaracter.
Ifyouwishtogetaclearandprofoundinsight--anditisveryneedful--intothetruebutmelancholyelementsofwhichmostmenaremade,youwillfindinaveryinstructivethingtotakethewaytheybehaveinthepagesofliteratureasacommentarytotheirdoingsinpracticallife,and_viceversa._Theexperiencethusgainedwillbeveryusefulinavoidingwrongideas,whetheraboutyourselforaboutothers.Butifyoucomeacrossanyspecialtraitofmeannessorstupidity--inlifeorinliterature,--youmustbecarefulnottoletitannoyordistressyou,buttolookuponitmerelyasanadditiontoyourknowledge--anewfacttobeconsideredinstudyingthecharacterofhumanity.Yourattitudetowardsitwillbethatofthemineralogistwhostumblesuponaverycharacteristicspecimenofamineral.
Ofcoursetherearesomefactswhichareveryexceptional,anditisdifficulttounderstandhowtheyarise,andhowitisthattherecometobesuchenormousdifferencesbetweenmanandman;but,ingeneral,whatwassaidlongagoisquitetrue,andtheworldisinaverybad
way.Insavagecountriestheyeatoneanother,incivilizedtheydeceiveoneanother;andthatiswhatpeoplecallthewayoftheworld!WhatareStatesandalltheelaboratesystemsofpoliticalmachinery,andtheruleofforce,whetherinhomeorinforeignaffairs,--whataretheybutbarriersagainsttheboundlessiniquityofmankind?Doesnotallhistoryshowthatwheneverakingisfirmlyplantedonathrone,andhispeoplereachsomedegreeofprosperity,heusesittoleadhisarmy,likeabandofrobbers,againstadjoiningcountries?Arenotalmostallwarsultimatelyundertakenforpurposesofplunder?Inthemostremoteantiquity,andtosomeextentalsointheMiddleAges,theconqueredbecameslaves,--inotherwords,theyhadtoworkforthosewhoconqueredthem;andwhereisthedifferencebetweenthatandpayingwar-taxes,whichrepresenttheproductofour
previouswork?
Allwar,saysVoltaire,isamatterofrobbery;andtheGermansshouldtakethatasawarning.
SECTION30.Nomanissoformedthathecanbeleftentirelytohimself,togohisownways;everyoneneedstobeguidedbyapreconceivedplan,andtofollowcertaingeneralrules.Butifthisiscarriedtoofar,andamantriestotakeonacharacterwhichisnotnaturalorinnateinhim,butitartificiallyacquiredandevolvedmerelybyaprocessofreasoning,hewillverysoondiscoverthatNaturecannotbeforced,andthatifyoudriveitout,itwillreturndespiteyourefforts:--
_Naturamexpellesfurca,tamenusquerecurret_.
Tounderstandarulegoverningconducttowardsothers,eventodiscoveritforoneselfandtoexpressitneatly,iseasyenough;andstill,verysoonafterwards,therulemaybebrokeninpractice.Butthatisnoreasonfordespair;andyouneednotfancythatasitisimpossibletoregulateyourlifeinaccordancewithabstractideasandmaxims,itisbettertolivejustasyouplease.Here,asinalltheoreticalinstructionthataimsatapracticalresult,thefirst
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thingtodoistounderstandtherule;thesecondthingistolearnthepracticeofit.Thetheorymaybeunderstandatoncebyaneffortofreason,andyetthepracticeofitacquiredonlyincourseoftime.
Apupilmayleanthevariousnotesonaninstrumentofmusic,orthedifferentpositioninfencing;andwhenhemakesamistake,asheissuretodo,howeverhardhetries,heisapttothinkitwillbeimpossibletoobservetherules,whenheissettoreadmusicatsightorchallengedtoafuriousduel.Butforallthat,gradualpracticemakeshimperfect,throughalongseriesofslips,blundersandfreshefforts.Itisjustthesameinotherthings;inlearningtowriteandspeakLatin,amanwillforgetthegrammaticalrules;itisonlybylongpracticethatablockheadturnsintoacourtier,thatapassionatemanbecomesshrewdandworldly-wise,orafrankpersonreserved,oranoblepersonironical.Butthoughself-disciplineofthiskindistheresultoflonghabit,italwaysworksbyasortofexternalcompulsion,whichNatureneverceasestoresistandsometimesunexpectedlyovercomes.Thedifferencebetweenactioninaccordancewithabstractprinciples,andactionastheresultoforiginal,innatetendency,isthesameasthatbetweenaworkofart,sayawatch--whereformandmovementareimpresseduponshapelessandinertmatter--andalivingorganism,whereformandmatterareone,andeachisinseparablefromtheother.
ThereisamaximattributedtotheEmperorNapoleon,whichexpressesthisrelationbetweenacquiredandinnatecharacter,andconfirmswhatIhavesaid:_everythingthatisunnaturalisimperfect_;--aruleofuniversalapplication,whetherinthephysicalorinthemoralsphere.TheonlyexceptionIcanthinkoftothisruleisaventurine,[1]asubstanceknowntomineralogists,whichinitsnaturalstatecannotcomparewiththeartificialpreparationofit.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.Aventurineisararekindofquartz;andthesamenameisgiventoabrownish-coloredglassmuchresemblingit,whichismanufacturedatMurano.Itissocalledfromthefactthattheglasswasdiscoveredbychance_(arventura)_.]
Andinthisconnectionletmeutterawordofprotestagainstanyandeveryformof_affectation_.Italwaysarousescontempt;inthefirstplace,becauseitarguesdeception,andthedeceptioniscowardly,foritisbasedonfear;and,secondly,itarguesself-condemnation,becauseitmeansthatamanistryingtoappearwhatheisnot,andthereforesomethingwhichhethingsbetterthanheactuallyis.Toaffectaquality,andtoplumeyourselfuponit,isjusttoconfessthatyouhavenotgotit.Whetheritiscourage,orlearning,orintellect,orwit,orsuccesswithwomen,orriches,orsocialposition,orwhateverelseitmaybethatamanboastsof,youmayconcludebyhisboastingaboutitthatthatispreciselythedirectioninwhichheisratherweak;forifamanreallypossessesanyfacultytothefull,itwillnotoccurtohimtomakeagreatshowof
affectingit;heisquitecontenttoknowthathehasit.ThatistheapplicationoftheSpanishproverb:_herraduraquechacoloteaclavolefalta_--aclatteringhoofmeansanailgone.Tobesure,asIsaidatfirst,nomanoughttoletthereinsgoquiteloose,andshowhimselfjustasheis;fortherearemanyevilandbestialsidestoournaturewhichrequiretobehiddenawayoutofsight;andthisjustifiesthenegativeattitudeofdissimulation,butitdoesnotjustifyapositivefeigningofqualitieswhicharenotthere.Itshouldalsoberememberedthataffectationisrecognizedatonce,evenbeforeitisclearwhatitisthatisbeingaffected.And,finally,affectation
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issimplythatinthisworldofoursmiseryandneedarethechieffeatures:thereforeitiseverywheretheessentialandparamountbusinessoflifetodevisethemeansofalleviatingthem.
SECTION33.Aspaper-moneycirculatesintheworldinsteadofrealcoin,so,istheplaceoftrueesteemandgenuinefriendship,youhavetheoutwardappearanceofit--amimicshowmadetolookasmuchliketherealthingaspossible.
Ontheotherhand,itmaybeaskedwhetherthereareanypeoplewhoreallydeservethetruecoin.Formyownpart,Ishouldcertainlypaymorerespecttoanhonestdogwagginghistailthantoahundredsuchdemonstrationsofhumanregard.
Trueandgenuinefriendshippresupposesastrongsympathywiththewealandwoeofanother--purelyobjectiveinitscharacterandquitedisinterested;andthisinitsturnmeansanabsoluteidentificationofselfwiththeobjectoffriendship.Theegoismofhumannatureissostronglyantagonistictoanysuchsympathy,thattruefriendshipbelongstothatclassofthings--thesea-serpent,forinstance,--withregardtowhichnooneknowswhethertheyarefabulousorreallyexistsomewhereorother.
Still,inmanycases,thereisagrainoftrueandgenuinefriendship
intherelationofmantoman,thoughgenerally,ofcourse,somesecretpersonalinterestisatthebottomofthem--someoneamongthemanyformsthatselfishnesscantake.Butinaworldwhereallisimperfect,thisgrainoftruefeelingissuchanennoblinginfluencethatitgivessomewarrantforcallingthoserelationsbythenameoffriendship,fortheystandfarabovetheordinaryfriendshipsthatprevailamongstmankind.Thelatteraresoconstitutedthat,wereyoutohearhowyourdearfriendsspeakofyoubehindyourback,youwouldneversayanotherwordtothem.
Apartfromthecasewhereitwouldbearealhelptoyouifyourfriendweretomakesomegreatsacrificetoserveyou,thereisnobettermeansoftestingthegenuinenessofhisfeelingsthantheway
inwhichhereceivesthenewsofamisfortunethathasjusthappenedtoyou.Atthatmomenttheexpressionofhisfeatureswilleithershowthathisonethoughtisthatoftrueandsinceresympathyforyou;orelsetheabsolutecomposureofhiscountenance,orthepassingtraceofsomethingotherthansympathy,willconfirmthewell-knownmaximofLaRochefoucauld:_Dansl'adversitedenosmeilleursamis,noustrouvonstoujoursquelquechosequinenousdeplaitpas_.Indeed,atsuchamoment,theordinaryso-calledfriendwillfindithardtosuppressthesignsofaslightsmileofpleasure.Therearefewwaysbywhichyoucanmakemorecertainofputtingpeopleintoagoodhumorthanbytellingthemofsometroublethathasrecentlybefallenyou,orbyunreservedlydisclosingsomepersonalweaknessofyours.Howcharacteristicthisisofhumanity!
Distanceandlongabsencearealwaysprejudicialtofriendship,howeverdisinclinedamanmaybetoadmit.Ourregardforpeoplewhomwedonotsee--eventhoughtheybeourdearestfriends--graduallydriesupinthecourseofyears,andtheybecomeabstractnotions;sothatourinterestinthemgrowstobemoreandmoreintellectual,--nay,itiskeptuponlyasakindoftradition;whilstweretainalivelyanddeepinterestinthosewhoareconstantlybeforeoureyes,eveniftheybeonlypetanimals.Thisshowshowmuchmenarelimitedbytheirsenses,andhowtrueistheremarkthat
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Goethemakesin_Tasso_aboutthedominantinfluenceofthepresentmoment:--
_DieGegenwartisteinemächtigeGöttin_[1]
[Footnote1:Activ.,se.4.]
_Friendsofthehouse_areveryrightlysocalled;becausetheyarefriendsofthehouseratherthanofitsmaster;inotherwords,theyaremorelikecatsthandogs.
Yourfriendswilltellyouthattheyaresincere;yourenemiesarereallyso.Letyourenemies'censurebelikeabittermedicine,tobeusedasameansofself-knowledge.
Afriendinneed,asthesayinggoes,israre.Nay,itisjustthecontrary;nosoonerhaveyoumadeafriendthanheisinneed,andasksforaloan.
SECTION34.Amanmustbestillagreenhorninthewaysoftheworld,ifheimaginesthathecanmakehimselfpopularinsocietybyexhibitingintelligenceanddiscernment.Withtheimmensemajorityofpeople,suchqualitiesexcitehatredandresentment,whicharerenderedallthehardertobearbythefactthatpeopleareobligedto
suppress--evenfromthemselves--therealreasonoftheiranger.
Whatactuallytakesplaceisthis.Amanfeelsandperceivesthatthepersonwithwhomheisconversingisintellectuallyverymuchhissuperior.[1]
[Footnote1:Cf._WeltalsWillsundVorstellung_,Bk.II.p.256(4thEdit.),whereIquotefromDr.Johnson,andfromMerck,thefriendofGoethe'syouth.Theformersays:_Thereisnothingbywhichamanexasperatesmostpeoplemore,thanbydisplayingasuperiorabilityofbrilliancyinconversation.Theyseempleasedatthetime,buttheirenvymakesthemcursehimattheirhearts._(Boswells_LifeofJohnson_aetat:74).]
Hethereuponsecretlyandhalfunconsciouslyconcludesthathisinterlocutormustformaproportionatelylowandlimitedestimateofhisabilities.Thatisamethodofreasoning--anenthymeme--whichrousesthebitterestfeelingsofsullenandrancoroushatred.AndsoGracianisquiterightinsayingthattheonlywaytowinaffectionfrompeopleistoshowthemostanimal-likesimplicityofdemeanor--_paraserbienquisto,elunicomediovestirselapieldelmassimpledelosbrutos_.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--BalthazarGraeian,_Oraculomanual,yartedeprudencia_,240.Gracian(1584-1658)wasaSpanishprosewriterandJesuit,whoseworksdealchieflywiththeobservation
ofcharacterinthevariousphenomenaoflife.Schopenhauer,amongothers,hadagreatadmirationforhisworldlyphilosophy,andtranslatedhis_Oraculomanual_--asystemofrulesfortheconductoflife--intoGerman.ThesamebookwastranslatedintoEnglishtowardsthecloseoftheseventeenthcentury.]
Toshowyourintelligenceanddiscernmentisonlyanindirectwayofreproachingotherpeopleforbeingdullandincapable.Andbesides,itisnaturalforavulgarmantobeviolentlyagitatedbythesightofoppositioninanyform;andinthiscaseenvycomesinasthesecret
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causeofhishostility.Foritisamatterofdailyobservationthatpeopletakethegreatestpleasureinthatwhichsatisfiestheirvanity;andvanitycannotbesatisfiedwithoutcomparisonwithothers.Now,thereisnothingofwhichamanisprouderthanofintellectualability,foritisthisthatgiveshimhiscommandingplaceintheanimalworld.Itisanexceedinglyrashthingtoletanyoneseethatyouaredecidedlysuperiortohiminthisrespect,andtoletotherpeopleseeittoo;becausehewillthenthirstforvengeance,andgenerallylookaboutforanopportunityoftakingitbymeansofinsult,becausethisistopassfromthesphereof_intellect_tothatof_will_--andthere,allareonanequalfootingasregardsthefeelingofhostility.Hence,whilerankandrichesmayalwaysreckonupondeferentialtreatmentinsociety,thatissomethingwhichintellectualabilitycanneverexpect;tobeignoredisthegreatestfavorshowntoit;andifpeoplenoticeitatall,itisbecausetheyregarditasapieceofimpertinence,orelseassomethingtowhichitspossessorhasnolegitimateright,anduponwhichhedarestopridehimself;andinretaliationandrevengeforhisconduct,peoplesecretlytryandhumiliatehiminsomeotherway;andiftheywaittodothis,itisonlyforafittingopportunity.Amanmaybeashumbleaspossibleinhisdemeanor,andyethardlyevergetpeopletooverlookhiscrimeinstandingintellectuallyabovethem.Inthe _GardenofRoses_,Sadimakestheremark:--_Youshouldknowthatfoolishpeopleareahundredfoldmoreaversetomeetingthewisethan
thewiseareindisposedforthecompanyofthefoolish_.
Ontheotherhand,itisarealrecommendationtobestupid.Forjustaswarmthisagreeabletothebody,soitdoesthemindgoodtofeelitssuperiority;andamanwillseekcompanylikelytogivehimthisfeeling,asinstinctivelyashewillapproachthefireplaceorwalkinthesunifhewantstogetwarm.Butthismeansthathewillbedislikedonaccountofhissuperiority;andifamanistobeliked,hemustreallybeinferiorinpointofintellect;andthesamethingholdsgoodofawomaninpointofbeauty.Togiveproofofrealandunfeignedinferioritytosomeofthepeopleyoumeet--thatisaverydifficultbusinessindeed!
Considerhowkindlyandheartilyagirlwhoispassablyprettywillwelcomeonewhoisdownrightugly.Physicaladvantagesarenotthoughtsomuchofinthecaseofman,thoughIsupposeyouwouldratheralittlemansatnexttoyouthanonewhowasbiggerthanyourself.Thisiswhy,amongstmen,itisthedullandignorant,andamongstwomen,theugly,whoarealwayspopularandinrequest.[1]Itislikelytobesaidofsuchpeoplethattheyareextremelygood-natured,becauseeveryonewantstofindapretextforcaringaboutthem--apretextwhichwillblindbothhimselfandotherpeopletotherealreasonwhyhelikesthem.Thisisalsowhymentalsuperiorityofanysortalwaystendstoisolateitspossessor;peoplerunawayfromhimoutofpurehatred,andsayallmannerofbadthingsabouthimbywayofjustifyingtheiraction.Beauty,inthecaseofwomen,hasasimilar
effect:veryprettygirlshavenofriendsoftheirownsex,andtheyevenfindithardtogetanothergirltokeepthemcompany.Ahandsomewomanshouldalwaysavoidapplyingforapositionascompanion,becausethemomentsheenterstheroom,herprospectivemistresswillscowlatherbeauty,asapieceoffollywithwhich,bothforherownandforherdaughter'ssake,shecanverywelldispense.Butifthegirlhasadvantagesofrank,thecaseisverydifferent;becauserank,unlikepersonalqualitieswhichworkbytheforceofmerecontrast,producesitseffectbyaprocessofreflection;muchinthesamewayastheparticularhueofaperson'scomplexiondependsuponthe
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prevailingtoneofhisimmediatesurroundings.
[Footnote1:Ifyoudesiretogetonintheworld,friendsandacquaintancesarebyfarthebestpassporttofortune.Thepossessionofagreatdealofabilitymakesamanproud,andthereforenotapttoflatterthosewhohaveverylittle,andfromwhom,onthataccount,thepossessionofgreatabilityshouldbecarefullyconcealed.Theconsciousnessofsmallintellectualpowerhasjusttheoppositeeffect,andisverycompatiblewithahumble,affableandcompanionablenature,andwithrespectforwhatismeanandwretched.Thisiswhyaninferiorsortofmanhassomanyfriendstobefriendandencouragehim.
Theseremarksareapplicablenotonlytoadvancementinpoliticallife,buttoallcompetitionforplacesofhonoranddignity,nay,evenforreputationintheworldofscience,literatureandart.Inlearnedsocieties,forexample,mediocrity--thatveryacceptablequality--isalwaystothefore,whilstmeritmeetswithtardyrecognition,orwithnoneatall.Soitisineverything.]
SECTION35.Ourtrustinotherpeopleoftenconsistsingreatmeasureofpurelaziness,selfishnessandvanityonourownpart:Isay _laziness_,because,insteadofmakinginquiriesourselves,andexercisinganactivecare,weprefertotrustothers;_selfishness_,
becauseweareledtoconfideinpeoplebythepressureofourownaffairs;and_vanity_,whenweaskconfidenceforamatteronwhichweratherprideourselves.Andyet,forallthat,weexpectpeopletobetruetothetrustwereposeinthem.
Butweoughtnottobecomeangryifpeopleputnotrustinus:becausethatreallymeansthattheypayhonestythesincerecomplimentofregardingitasaveryrarething,--sorare,indeed,astoleaveusindoubtwhetheritsexistenceisnotmerelyfabulous.
SECTION36._Politeness_,--whichtheChineseholdtobeacardinalvirtue,--isbasedupontwoconsiderationsofpolicy.Ihaveexplainedoneoftheseconsiderationsinmy_Ethics_;theotherisas
follows:--Politenessisatacitagreementthatpeople'smiserabledefects,whethermoralorintellectual,shalloneithersidebeignoredandnotmadethesubjectofreproach;andsincethesedefectsarethusrenderedsomewhatlessobtrusive,theresultismutuallyadvantageous.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--Inthepassagereferredto _(GrundlagederMoral_,collectedworks,Vol.IV.,pp.187and198),Schopenhauerexplainspolitenessasaconventionalandsystematicattempttomasktheegoismofhumannatureinthesmallaffairsoflife,--anegoismsorepulsivethatsomesuchdeviceisnecessaryforthepurposeofconcealingitsugliness.Therelationwhichpolitenessbearstothetrueloveofone'sneighborisanalogoustothatexisting
betweenjusticeasanaffairoflegality,andjusticeastherealintegrityoftheheart.]
Itisawisethingtobepolite;consequently,itisastupidthingtoberude.Tomakeenemiesbyunnecessaryandwillfulincivility,isjustasinsaneaproceedingastosetyourhouseonfire.Forpolitenessislikeacounter--anavowedlyfalsecoin,withwhichitisfoolishtobestingy.Asensiblemanwillbegenerousintheuseofit.Itiscustomaryineverycountrytoendaletterwiththewords:--_yourmostobedientservant_--_votretrès-humble
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serviteur_--_suodevotissimoservo_.(TheGermansaretheonlypeoplewhosuppresstheword_servant_--_Diener_--because,ofcourse,itisnottrue!)However,tocarrypolitenesstosuchanextentastodamageyourprospects,islikegivingmoneywhereonlycountersareexpected.
Wax,asubstancenaturallyhardandbrittle,canbemadesoftbytheapplicationofalittlewarmth,sothatitwilltakeanyshapeyouplease.Inthesameway,bybeingpoliteandfriendly,youcanmakepeoplepliableandobliging,eventhoughtheyareapttobecrabbedandmalevolent.Hencepolitenessistohumannaturewhatwarmthistowax.
Ofcourse,itisnoeasymattertobepolite;insofar,Imean,asitrequiresustoshowgreatrespectforeverybody,whereasmostpeopledeservenoneatall;andagaininsofarasitdemandsthatweshouldfeignthemostlivelyinterestinpeople,whenwemustbeverygladthatwehavenothingtodowiththem.Tocombinepolitenesswithprideisamasterpieceofwisdom.
Weshouldbemuchlessreadytoloseourtemperoveraninsult,--which,inthestrictsenseoftheword,meansthatwehavenotbeentreatedwithrespect,--if,ontheonehand,wehavenotsuchanexaggeratedestimateofourvalueanddignity--thatistosay,ifwewerenotsoimmenselyproudofourselves;and,ontheotherhand,
ifwehadarrivedatanyclearnotionofthejudgmentwhich,inhisheart,onemangenerallypassesuponanother.Ifmostpeopleresenttheslightesthintthatanyblameattachestothem,youmayimaginetheirfeelingsiftheyweretooverhearwhattheiracquaintancesayaboutthem.Youshouldneverlosesightofthefactthatordinarypolitenessisonlyagrinningmask:ifitshiftsitsplacealittle,orisremovedforamoment,thereisnouseraisingahueandcry.Whenamanisdownrightrude,itisasthoughhehadtakenoffallhisclothes,andstoodbeforeyouin_purisnaturalibus_.Likemostmeninthiscondition,hedoesnotpresentaveryattractiveappearance.
SECTION37.Yououghtnevertotakeanymanasamodelforwhatyoushoulddoorleaveundone;becausepositionandcircumstancesarein
notwocasesalike,anddifferenceofcharactergivesapeculiar,individualtonetowhatamandoes.Hence_duocumfaciuntidem,nonestidem_--twopersonsmaydothesamethingwithadifferentresult.Amanshouldactinaccordancewithhisowncharacter,assoonashehascarefullydeliberatedonwhatheisabouttodo.
Theoutcomeofthisisthat_originality_cannotbedispensedwithinpracticalmatters:otherwise,whatamandoeswillnotaccordwithwhatheis.
SECTION38.Nevercombatanyman'sopinion;forthoughyoureachedtheageofMethuselah,youwouldneverhavedonesettinghimrightuponalltheabsurdthingsthathebelieves.
Itisalsowelltoavoidcorrectingpeople'smistakesinconversation,howevergoodyourintentionsmaybe;foritiseasytooffendpeople,anddifficult,ifnotimpossible,tomendthem.
Ifyoufeelirritatedbytheabsurdremarksoftwopeoplewhoseconversationyouhappentooverhear,youshouldimaginethatyouarelisteningtoadialogueoftwofoolsinacomedy._Probatumest._
Themanwhocomesintotheworldwiththenotionthatheisreally
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goingtoinstructinmattersofthehighestimportance,maythankhisstarsifheescapeswithawholeskin.
SECTION39.Ifyouwantyourjudgmenttobeaccepted,expressitcoollyandwithoutpassion.Allviolencehasitsseatinthe_will_;andso,ifyourjudgmentisexpressedwithvehemence,peoplewillconsideritaneffortofwill,andnottheoutcomeofknowledge,whichisinitsnaturecoldandunimpassioned.Sincethewillistheprimaryandradicalelementinhumannature,and_intellect_merelysupervenesassomethingsecondary,peoplearemorelikelytobelievethattheopinionyouexpresswithsomuchvehemenceisduetotheexcitedstateofyourwill,ratherthanthattheexcitementofthewillcomesonlyfromtheardentnatureofyouropinion.
SECTION40.Evenwhenyouarefullyjustifiedinpraisingyourself,youshouldneverbeseducedintodoingso.Forvanityissoverycommon,andmeritsoveryuncommon,thatevenifamanappearstobepraisinghimself,thoughveryindirectly,peoplewillbereadytolayahundredtoonethatheistalkingoutofpurevanity,andthathehasnotsenseenoughtoseewhatafoolheismakingofhimself.
Still,forallthat,theremaybesometruthinBacon'sremarkthat,asinthecaseofcalumny,ifyouthrowenoughdirt,someofitwillstick,soititalsoinregardtoself-praise;withtheconclusion
thatself-praise,insmalldoses,istoberecommended.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--SchopenhaueralludestothefollowingpassageinBacon's_DeAugmentisScientiarum_,Bk.viii.,ch.2:_Sicutenimdicisoletdecalumnia_,audactercalumniare,semperaliquidhaeret;_sicdicipotestdejactantia,(nisiplanedeformisfueritetridicula_),audactertevendita,semperaliquidhaeret._Haerebitcerteapudpopulum,licetprudentioressubrideant.Itaqueexistimatiopartaapudplurimospaucorumfastidiumabundecompensabit._]
SECTION41.Ifyouhavereasontosuspectthatapersonistellingyoualie,lookasthoughyoubelievedeverywordhesaid.Thiswillgive
himcouragetogoon;hewillbecomemorevehementinhisassertions,andintheendbetrayhimself.
Again,ifyouperceivethatapersonistryingtoconcealsomethingfromyou,butwithonlypartialsuccess,lookasthoughyoudidnotbelievehim,Thisoppositiononyourpartwillprovokehimintoleadingouthisreserveoftruthandbringingthewholeforceofittobearuponyourincredulity.
SECTION42.Youshouldregardallyourprivateaffairsassecrets,and,inrespectofthem,treatyouracquaintances,eventhoughyouareongoodtermswiththem,asperfectstrangers,lettingthemknownothingmorethantheycanseeforthemselves.Forincourseoftime,
andunderalteredcircumstances,youmayfinditadisadvantagethattheyknoweventhemostharmlessthingsaboutyou.
And,asageneralrule,itismoreadvisabletoshowyourintelligencebysayingnothingthanbyspeakingout;forsilenceisamatterofprudence,whilstspeechhassomethinginitofvanity.Theopportunitiesfordisplayingtheoneortheotherqualityoccurequallyoften;butthefleetingsatisfactionaffordedbyspeechisoftenpreferredtothepermanentadvantagesecuredbysilence.
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Thefeelingofreliefwhichlivelypeopleexperienceinspeakingaloudwhennooneislistening,shouldnotbeindulged,lestitgrowintoahabit;forinthiswaythoughtestablishessuchveryfriendlytermswithspeech,thatconversationisapttobecomeaprocessofthinkingaloud.Prudenceexactsthatawidegulfshouldbefixedbetweenwhatwethinkandwhatwesay.
Attimeswefancythatpeopleareutterlyunabletobelieveinthetruthofsomestatementaffectinguspersonally,whereasitneveroccurstothemtodoubtit;butifwegivethemtheslightestopportunityofdoubtingit,theyfinditabsolutelyimpossibletobelieveitanymore.Weoftenbetrayourselvesintorevealingsomething,simplybecausewesupposethatpeoplecannothelpnoticingit,--justasamanwillthrowhimselfdownfromagreatheightbecauseheloseshishead,inotherwords,becausehefanciesthathecannotretainafirmfootinganylonger;thetormentofhispositionissogreat,thathethinksitbettertoputanendtoitatonce.Thisisthekindofinsanitywhichiscalled_acrophobia_.
Butitshouldnotbeforgottenhowcleverpeopleareinregardtoaffairswhichdonotconcernthem,eventhoughtheyshownoparticularlysignofacutenessinothermatters.Thisisakindofalgebrainwhichpeopleareveryproficient:givethemasinglefacttogoupon,andtheywillsolvethemostcomplicatedproblems.So,
ifyouwishtorelatesomeeventthathappenedlongago,withoutmentioninganynames,orotherwiseindicatingthepersonstowhomyourefer,youshouldbeverycarefulnottointroduceintoyournarrativeanythingthatmightpoint,howeverdistantly,tosomedefinitefact,whetheritisaparticularlocality,oradate,orthenameofsomeonewhowasonlytoasmallextentimplicated,oranythingelsethatwasevenremotelyconnectedwiththeevent;forthatatoncegivespeoplesomethingpositivetogoupon,andbytheaidoftheirtalentforthissortofalgebra,theywilldiscoveralltherest.Theircuriosityinthesemattersbecomesakindofenthusiasm:theirwillspursontheirintellect,anddrivesitforwardtotheattainmentofthemostremoteresults.Forhoweverunsusceptibleanddifferentpeoplemaybetogeneralanduniversaltruths,theyareveryardentin
thematterofparticulardetails.
InkeepingwithwhatIhavesaid,itwillbefoundthatallthosewhoprofesstogiveinstructionsinthewisdomoflifearespeciallyurgentincommendingthepracticeofsilence,andassignmanifoldreasonswhyitshouldbeobserved;soitisnotnecessaryformetoenlargeuponthesubjectanyfurther.However,ImayjustaddoneortwolittleknownArabianproverbs,whichoccurtomeaspeculiarlyappropriate:--
_Donottellafriendanythingthatyouwouldconcealfromanenemy_.
_Asecretisinmycustody,ifIkeepit;butshoulditescapeme,it
isIwhoamtheprisoner_.
_Thetreeofsilencebearsthefruitofpeace_.
SECTION43.Moneyisneverspenttosomuchadvantageaswhenyouhavebeencheatedoutofit;foratonestrokeyouhavepurchasedprudence.
SECTION44.Ifpossible,noanimosityshouldbefeltforanyone.Butcarefullyobserveandrememberthemannerinwhichamanconductshimself,sothatyoumaytakethemeasureofhisvalue,--atany
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rateinregardtoyourself,--andregulateyourbearingtowardshimaccordingly;neverlosingsightofthefactthatcharacterisunalterable,andthattoforgetthebadfeaturesinaman'sdispositionislikethrowingawayhard-wonmoney.Thusyouwillprotectyourselfagainsttheresultsofunwiseintimacyandfoolishfriendship.
_Givewayneithertolovenortohate_,isone-halfofworldlywisdom: _saynothingandbelievenothing_,theotherhalf.Truly,aworldwherethereisneedofsuchrulesasthisandthefollowing,isoneuponwhichamanmaywellturnhisback.
SECTION45.Tospeakangrilytoaperson,toshowyourhatredbywhatyousayorbythewayyoulook,isanunnecessaryproceeding--dangerous,foolish,ridiculous,andvulgar.
Angerandhatredshouldneverbeshownotherwisethaninwhatyoudo;andfeelingswillbeallthemoreeffectiveinaction,insofarasyouavoidtheexhibitionoftheminanyotherway.Itisonlycold-bloodedanimalswhosebiteispoisonous.
SECTION46.Tospeakwithoutemphasizingyourwords--_parlersansaccent_--isanoldrulewiththosewhoarewiseintheworld'sways.Itmeansthatyoushouldleaveotherpeopletodiscoverwhatitis
thatyouhavesaid;andastheirmindsareslow,youcanmakeyourescapeintime.Ontheotherhand,toemphasizeyourmeaning--_parleravecaccent_--istoaddresstheirfeelings;andtheresultisalwaystheoppositeofwhatyouexpect.Ifyouarepoliteenoughinyourmannerandcourteousinyourtonetherearemanypeoplewhomyoumayabuseoutright,andyetrunnoimmediateriskofoffendingthem.
CHAPTERIV,
WORLDLYFORTUNE.--SECTION47.
Howevervariedtheformsthathumandestinymaytake,thesameelementsarealwayspresent;andsolifeiseverywheremuchofapiece,whetheritpassedinthecottageorinthepalace,inthebarrackorinthecloister.Alterthecircumstanceasmuchasyouplease!pointtostrangeadventures,successes,failures!lifeislikeasweet-shop,wherethereisagreatvarietyofthings,oddinshapeanddiverseincolor--oneandallmadefromthesamepaste.Andwhenmenspeakofsomeone'ssuccess,thelotofthemanwhohasfailedisnotsoverydifferentasitseems.Theinequalitiesintheworldarelikethecombinationsinakaleidoscope;ateveryturnafreshpicturestrikestheeye;andyet,inreality,youseeonlythesamebitsof
glassasyousawbefore.
SECTION48.Anancientwritersays,verytruly,thattherearethreegreatpowersintheworld;_Sagacity,Strength_,and_Luck_,--[Greek:sunetos,kratos,tuchu.]Ithinkthelastisthemostefficacious.
Aman'slifeislikethevoyageofaship,whereluck--_secundaautadversafortuna_--actsthepartofthewind,andspeedsthevesselonitswayordrivesitfaroutofitscourse.Allthatthemancandoforhimselfisoflittleavail;liketherudder,which,ifworkedhard
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andcontinuously,mayhelpinthenavigationoftheship;andyetallmaybelostagainbyasuddensquall.Butifthewindisonlyintherightquarter,theshipwillsailonsoasnottoneedanysteering.ThepowerofluckisnowherebetterexpressedthaninacertainSpanishproverb:_DaVenturaatuhijo,yechaloenelmar_--giveyoursonluckandthrowhimintothesea.
Still,chance,itmaybesaid,isamalignantpower,andaslittleaspossibleshouldbelefttoitsagency.Andyetwhereisthereanygiverwho,indispensinggifts,tellsusquiteclearlythatwehavenorighttothem,andthatweowethemnottoanymeritonourpart,butwhollytothegoodnessandgraceofthegiver--atthesametimeallowingustocherishthejoyfulhopeofreceiving,inallhumility,furtherundeservedgiftsfromthesamehands--whereisthereanygiverlikethat,unlessitbe_Chance_?whounderstandsthekinglyartofshowingtherecipientthatallmeritispowerlessandunavailingagainsttheroyalgraceandfavor.
Onlookingbackoverthecourseofhislife,--that_labyrinthinewayoferror_,--amanmustseemanypointswhereluckfailedhimandmisfortunecame;andthenitiseasytocarryself-reproachtoanunjustexcess.Forthecourseofaman'slifeisinnowiseentirelyofhisownmaking;itistheproductoftwofactors--theseriesofthingsthathappened,andhisownresolvesinregardtothem,and
thesetwoareconstantlyinteractinguponandmodifyingeachother.Andbesidesthese,anotherinfluenceisatworkintheverylimitedextentofaman'shorizon,whetheritisthathecannotseeveryfaraheadinrespectoftheplanshewilladopt,orthatheisstilllessabletopredictthecourseoffutureevents:hisknowledgeisstrictlyconfinedtopresentplansandpresentevents.Hence,aslongasaman'sgoalisfaroff,hecannotsteerstraightforit;hemustbecontenttomakeacoursethatisapproximatelyright;andinfollowingthedirectioninwhichhethinksheoughttogo,hewilloftenhaveoccasiontotack.
Allthatamancandoistoformsuchresolvesasfromtimetotimeaccordwiththecircumstancesinwhichheisplaced,inthehopeof
thusmanagingtoadvanceastepnearertowardsthefinalgoal.Itisusuallythecasethatthepositioninwhichwestand,andtheobjectatwhichweaim,resembletwotendenciesworkingwithdissimilarstrengthindifferentdirections;andthecourseofourlifeisrepresentedbytheirdiagonal,orresultantforce.
Terencemakestheremarkthatlifeislikeagameatdice,whereifthenumberthatturnsupisnotpreciselytheoneyouwant,youcanstillcontrivetouseitequally:--_invitaesthominumquasicumludastesseris;siilludquodmaximeopusestjactunoncadit,illudquodceciditforte,idarteutcorrigas_.[1]Or,toputthemattermoreshortly,lifeisagameofcards,whenthecardsareshuffledanddealtbyfate.Butformypresentpurpose,themostsuitablesimile
wouldbethatofagameofchess,wheretheplanwedeterminedtofollowisconditionedbytheplayofourrival,--inlife,bythecapriceoffate.Wearecompelledtomodifyourtactics,oftentosuchanextentthat,aswecarrythemout,hardlyasinglefeatureoftheoriginalplancanberecognized.
[Footnote1:Heseemstohavebeenreferringtoagamesomethinglikebackgammon.]
Butaboveandbeyondallthis,thereisanotherinfluencethatmakes
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itselffeltinourlives.Itisatritesaying--onlytoofrequentlytrue--thatweareoftenmorefoolishthanwethink.Ontheotherhand,weareoftenwiserthanwefancyourselvestobe.This,however,isadiscoverywhichonlythosecanmake,ofwhomitisreallytrue;andittakesthemalongtimetomakeit.Ourbrainsarenotthewisestpartofus.Inthegreatmomentsoflife,whenamandecidesuponanimportantstep,hisactionisdirectednotsomuchbyanyclearknowledgeoftherightthingtodo,asbyaninnerimpulse--youmayalmostcallitaninstinct--proceedingfromthedeepestfoundationsofhisbeing.If,lateron,heattemptstocriticisehisactionbythelightofhardandfastideasofwhatisrightintheabstract--thoseunprofitableideaswhicharelearntbyrote,or,itmaybe,borrowedfromotherpeople;ifhebeginstoapplygeneralrules,theprincipleswhichhaveguidedothers,tohisowncase,withoutsufficientlyweighingthemaximthatoneman'smeatisanother'spoison,thenhewillrungreatriskofdoinghimselfaninjustice.Theresultwillshowwheretherightcourselay.Itisonlywhenamanhasreachedthehappyageofwisdomthatheiscapableofjustjudgmentinregardeithertohisownactionsortothoseofothers.
Itmaybethatthisimpulseorinstinctistheunconsciouseffectofakindofpropheticdreamwhichisforgottenwhenweawake--lendingourlifeauniformityoftone,adramaticunity,suchascouldneverresultfromtheunstablemomentsofconsciousness,whenweareso
easilyledintoerror,soliabletostrikeafalsenote.Itisinvirtueofsomesuchpropheticdreamthatamanfeelshimselfcalledtogreatachievementsinaspecialsphere,andworksinthatdirectionfromhisyouthupoutofaninnerandsecretfeelingthatthatishistruepath,justasbyasimilarinstinctthebeeisledtobuildupitscellsinthecomb.ThisistheimpulsewhichBalthazarGraciancalls_lagransindéresis_[1]--thegreatpowerofmoraldiscernment:itissomethingthatamaninstinctivelyfeelstobehissalvationwithoutwhichhewerelost.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--ThisobscurewordappearstobederivedfromtheGreek_sugtaereo_(N.T.andPolyb.)meaning"toobservestrictly."Itoccursin_TheDoctorandStudent_,aseriesof
dialoguesbetweenadoctorofdivinityandastudentonthelawsofEngland,firstpublishedin1518;andisthere(Dialog.I.ch.13)explainedas"anaturalpowerofthesoule,setinthehighestpartthereof,movingandstirringittogood,andabhoringevil."ThispassageiscopiedintoMilton'sCommonplaceBook,edit._Horwood_,§79.ThewordisalsofoundintheDictionaryoftheSpanishAcademy(vol.vi.oftheyear1739)inthesenseofaninnatediscernmentofmoralprinciples,whereaquotationisgivenfromMadreMariadeJesus,abbessoftheconventoftheConceptionatAgreda,amysticalwriteroftheseventeenthcentury,frequentlyconsultedbyPhilipIV.,--andagainintheBologneseDictionaryof1824,withasimilarmeaning,illustratedfromthewritingsofSalvini(1653-1729).ForthesereferencesIamindebtedtothekindnessofMr.NormanMaccoll.]
Toactinaccordancewithabstractprinciplesisadifficultmatter,andagreatdealofpracticewillberequiredbeforeyoucanbeevenoccasionallysuccessful;itoftenshappensthattheprinciplesdonotfitinwithyourparticularcase.Buteverymanhascertaininnate _concreteprinciples_--apart,asitwere,oftheverybloodthatflowsinhisveins,thesumorresult,infact,ofallhisthoughts,feelingsandvolitions.Usuallyhehasnoknowledgeoftheminanyabstractform;itisonlywhenhelooksbackuponthecoursehislifehastaken,thathebecomesawareofhavingbeenalwaysledonby
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them--asthoughtheyformedaninvisiblecluewhichhehadfollowedunawares.
SECTION49.ThatTimeworksgreatchanges,andthatallthingsareintheirnaturefleeting--thesearetruthsthatshouldneverbeforgotten.Hence,inwhatevercaseyoumaybe,itiswelltopicturetoyourselftheopposite:inprosperity,tobemindfulofmisfortune;infriendship,ofenmity;ingoodweather,ofdayswhentheskyisovercast;inlove,ofhatred;inmomentsoftrust,toimaginethebetrayalthatwillmakeyouregretyourconfidence;andso,too,whenyouareinevilplight,tohavealivelysenseofhappiertimes--whatalastingsourceoftrueworldlywisdomwerethere!Weshouldthenalwaysreflect,andnotbesoveryeasilydeceived;because,ingeneral,weshouldanticipatetheverychangesthattheyearswillbring.
Perhapsinnoformofknowledgeispersonalexperiencesoindispensableasinlearningtoseethatallthingsareunstableandtransitoryinthisworld.Thereisnothingthat,initsownplaceandforthetimeitlasts,isnotaproductofnecessity,andthereforecapableofbeingfullyjustified;anditisthisfactthatmakescircumstancesofeveryyear,everymonth,evenofeveryday,seemasthoughtheymightmaintaintheirrighttolasttoalleternity.Butweknowthatthiscanneverbethecase,andthatinaworldwhereallis
fleeting,changealoneendures.Heisaprudentmanwhoisnotonlyundeceivedbyapparentstability,butisabletoforecastthelinesuponwhichmovementwilltakeplace.[1]
[Footnote1:_Chance_playssogreatapartinallhumanaffairsthatwhenamantriestowardoffaremotedangerbypresentsacrifice,thedangeroftenvanishesundersomenewandunforeseendevelopmentofevents;andthenthesacrifice,inadditiontobeingacompleteloss,bringsaboutsuchanalteredstateofthingsastobeinitselfasourceofpositivedangerinthefaceofthisnewdevelopment.Intakingmeasuresofprecaution,then,itiswellnottolooktoofarahead,buttoreckonwithchance;andoftentoopposeacourageousfronttoadanger,inthehopethat,likemanyadarkthunder-cloud,
itmaypassawaywithoutbreaking.]
Butpeoplegenerallythinkthatpresentcircumstanceswilllast,andthatmatterswillgooninthefutureastheyhavecloneinthepast.Theirmistakesarisesfromthefactthattheydonotunderstandthecauseofthethingstheysee--causeswhich,unliketheeffectstheyproduce,containinthemselvesthegermoffuturechange.Theeffectsareallthatpeopleknow,andtheyholdfasttothemonthesuppositionthatthoseunknowncauses,whichweresufficienttobringthemabout,willalsobeabletomaintainthemastheyare.Thisisaverycommonerror;andthefactthatitiscommonisnotwithoutitsadvantage,foritmeansthatpeoplealwayserrinunison;andhencethecalamitywhichresultsfromtheerroraffectsallalike,andis
thereforeeasytobear;whereas,ifaphilosophermakesamistake,heisaloneinhiserror,andsoatadoubledisadvantage.[1]
[Footnote1:Imayremark,parenthetically,thatallthisisaconfirmationoftheprinciplelaiddownin_DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung_(Bk.I.p.94:4thedit.),thaterroralwaysconsistsinmaking_awronginference_,thatis,inascribingagiveneffecttosomethingthatdidnotcauseit.]
Butinsayingthatweshouldanticipatetheeffectsoftime,Imean
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shouldnothesitateaboutspendingtime,trouble,andmoney,orgivinguphiscomfort,orrestrictinghisaimsanddenyinghimself,ifhecantherebyshutthedooronthepossibilityofmisfortune.Themostterriblemisfortunesarealsothemostimprobableandremote--theleastlikelytooccur.TheruleIamgivingisbestexemplifiedinthepracticeofinsurance,--apublicsacrificemadeonthealtarofanxiety.Thereforetakeoutyourpolicyofinsurance!
SECTION51.Whateverfatebefallsyou,donotgivewaytogreatrejoicingsorgreatlamentations;partlybecauseallthingsarefullofchange,andyourfortunemayturnatanymoment;partlybecausemenaresoapttobedeceivedintheirjudgmentastowhatisgoodorbadforthem.
Almosteveryoneinhisturnhaslamentedoversomethingwhichafterwardsturnedouttobetheverybestthingforhimthatcouldhavehappened--orrejoicedataneventwhichbecamethesourceofhisgreatestsufferings.TherightstateofmindhasbeenfinelyportrayedbyShakespeare:
_IhavefeltsomanyquirksofjoyandgriefThatthefirstfaceofneither,onthestart,Canwomanmeunto't_.[1]
[Footnote1:_All'sWellthatEndsWell,Act.ii.Sc.2_.]
And,ingeneral,itmaybesaidthat,ifamantakesmisfortunesquietly,itisbecauseheknowsthatverymanydreadfulthingsmayhappeninthecourseoflife;andsohelooksuponthetroubleofthemomentasonlyaverysmallpartofthatwhichmightcome.ThisistheStoictemper--nevertobeunmindfulofthesadfateofhumanity--_condicionishumanoeoblitus_;butalwaystorememberthatourexistenceisfullofwoeandmisery:andthattheillstowhichweareexposedareinnumerable.Whereverhebe,amanneedonlycastalookaround,torevivethesenseofhumanmisery:therebeforehiseyeshecanseemankindstrugglingandflounderingintorment,--allforthesakeofawretchedexistence,barrenandunprofitable!
Ifheremembersthis,amanwillnotexpectverymuchfromlife,butlearntoaccommodatehimselftoaworldwhereallisrelativeandnoperfectstateexists;--alwayslookingmisfortuneintheface,andifhecannotavoidit,meetingitwithcourage.
Itshouldneverbeforgottenthatmisfortune,beitgreatorsmall,istheelementinwhichwelive.Butthatisnoreasonwhyamanshouldindulgeinfretfulcomplaints,and,likeBeresford,[1]pullalongfaceoverthe_MiseriesofHumanLife_,--andnotasinglehourisfreefromthem;orstillless,callupontheDeityateveryflea-bite--_inpulicismorsuDeuminvocare_.Ouraimshouldbetolookwellaboutus,towardoffmisfortunebygoingtomeetit,toattainsuchperfectionandrefinementinavertingthedisagreeablethingsoflife,--whether
theycomefromourfellow-menorfromthephysicalworld,--that,likeacleverfox,wemayslipoutofthewayofeverymishap,greatorsmall;rememberingthatamishapisgenerallyonlyourownawkwardnessindisguise.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--Rev.JamesBeresford(1764-1840),miscellaneouswriter.Thefulltitleofthis,hischiefwork,is"TheMiseriesofHumanLife;orthelastgroansofTimothyTestyandSamuelSensitive,withafewsupplementarysighsfromMrs.Testy."]
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Themainreasonwhymisfortunefallslessheavilyuponus,ifwehavelookeduponitsoccurrenceasnotimpossible,and,asthesayingis,preparedourselvesforit,maybethis:if,beforethismisfortunecomes,wehavequietlythoughtoveritassomethingwhichmayormaynothappen,thewholeofitsextentandrangeisknowntous,andwecan,atleast,determinehowfaritwillaffectus;sothat,ifitreallyarrives,itdoesnotdepressusunduly--itsweightisnotfelttobegreaterthanitactuallyis.Butifnopreparationhasbeenmadetomeetit,anditcomesunexpectedly,themindisinastateofterrorforthemomentandunabletomeasurethefullextentofthecalamity;itseemssofar-reachinginitseffectsthatthevictimmightwellthinktherewasnolimittothem;inanycase,itsrangeisexaggerated.Inthesameway,darknessanduncertaintyalwaysincreasethesenseofdanger.And,ofcourse,ifwehavethoughtoverthepossibilityofmisfortune,wehavealsoatthesametimeconsideredthesourcestowhichweshalllookforhelpandconsolation;or,atanyrate,wehaveaccustomedourselvestotheideaofit.
Thereisnothingthatbetterfitsustoendurethemisfortunesoflifewithcomposure,thantoknowforcertainthat_everythingthathappens--fromthesmallestuptothegreatestfactsofexistence--happensofnecessity._[1]Amansoonaccommodateshimselftotheinevitable--tosomethingthatmustbe;andifheknowsthatnothingcanhappenexceptofnecessity,hewillseethatthingscannot
beotherthattheyare,andthateventhestrangestchancesintheworldarejustasmuchaproductofnecessityasphenomenawhichobeywell-knownrulesandturnoutexactlyinaccordancewithexpectation.LetmehererefertowhatIhavesaidelsewhereonthesoothingeffectoftheknowledgethatallthingsareinevitableandaproductofnecessity.[2]
[Footnote1:ThisisatruthwhichIhavefirmlyestablishedinmyprize-essayonthe_FreedomoftheWill_,wherethereaderwillfindadetailedexplanationofthegroundsonwhichitrests.Cf.especiallyp.60.[Schopenhauer'sWorks,4thEdit.,vol.iv.--_Tr_.]]
[Footnote2:Cf._WeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,Bk.I.p.361(4th
edit.).]
Ifamanissteepedintheknowledgeofthistruth,hewill,firstofall,dowhathecan,andthenreadilyendurewhathemust.
Wemayregardthepettyvexationsoflifethatareconstantlyhappening,asdesignedtokeepusinpracticeforbearinggreatmisfortunes,sothatwemaynotbecomecompletelyenervatedbyacareerofprosperity.AmanshouldbeasSiegfried,armed_cap-à-pie_,towardsthesmalltroublesofeveryday--thoselittledifferenceswehavewithourfellow-men,insignificantdisputes,unbecomingconductinotherpeople,pettygossip,andmanyothersimilarannoyancesoflife;heshouldnotfeelthematall,muchlesstakethemtoheartand
broodoverthem,butholdthematarm'slengthandpushthemoutofhisway,likestonesthatlieintheroad,anduponnoaccountthinkaboutthemandgivethemaplaceinhisreflections.
SECTION52.Whatpeoplecommonlycall_Fate_is,asageneralrule,nothingbuttheirownstupidandfoolishconduct.ThereisafinepassageinHomer,[1]illustratingthetruthofthisremark,wherethepoetpraises[GREEK:maetis]--shrewdcouncil;andhisadviceisworthyofallattention.Forifwickednessisatonedforonlyinanotherworld,stupiditygetsitsrewardhere--although,nowandthen,
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mercymaybeshowntotheoffender.
[Footnote1:_Iliad_,xxiii.313,sqq.]
Itisnotferocitybutcunningthatstrikesfearintotheheartandforebodesdanger;sotrueitisthatthehumanbrainisamoreterribleweaponthanthelion'spaw.
Themostfinishedmanoftheworldwouldbeonewhowasneverirresoluteandneverinahurry.
SECTION53._Courage_comesnexttoprudenceasaqualityofmindveryessentialtohappiness.Itisquitetruethatnoonecanendowhimselfwitheither,sinceamaninheritsprudencefromhismotherandcouragefromhisfather;still,ifhehasthesequalities,hecandomuchtodevelopthembymeansofresoluteexercise.
Inthisworld,_wherethegameisplayedwithloadeddice_,amanmusthaveatemperofiron,witharmorprooftotheblowsoffate,andweaponstomakehiswayagainstmen.Lifeisonelongbattle;wehavetofightateverystep;andVoltaireveryrightlysaysthatifwesucceed,itisatthepointofthesword,andthatwediewiththeweaponinourhand--on_neréussitdanscemondequalapointedel'épee,etonmeurtlesarmesàlamain_.Itisacowardlysoulthat
shrinksorgrowsfaintanddespondentassoonasthestormbeginstogather,orevenwhenthefirstcloudappearsonthehorizon.Ourmottoshouldbe_NoSurrender_;andfarfromyieldingtotheillsoflife,letustakefreshcouragefrommisfortune:--
_Tunecedemalissedcontraaudentiorito_.[1]
[Footnote1:Virgil,_Aeneid_,vi.95.]
Aslongastheissueofanymatterfraughtwithperilisstillindoubt,andthereisyetsomepossibilityleftthatallmaycomeright,nooneshouldevertrembleorthinkofanythingbutresistance,--justasamanshouldnotdespairoftheweatherifhecanseeabitofblue
skyanywhere.Letourattitudebesuchthatweshouldnotquakeeveniftheworldfellinruinsaboutus:--
_SifractusillabaturorbisImpavidumferientruinae_.[1]
[Footnote1:Horace,Odesiii.3.]
Ourwholelifeitself--letaloneitsblessings--wouldnotbeworthsuchacowardlytremblingandshrinkingoftheheart.Therefore,letusfacelifecourageouslyandshowafirmfronttoeveryill:--
_QuocircavivitefortesFortiaqueadversisopponitepectorarebus_.
Still,itispossibleforcouragetobecarriedtoanexcessandtodegenerateintorashness.Itmayevenbesaidthatsomeamountoffearisnecessary,ifwearetoexistatallintheworld,andcowardiceisonlytheexaggeratedformofit.ThistruthhasbeenverywellexpressedbyBacon,inhisaccountof_TerrorPanicus_;andtheetymologicalaccountwhichhegivesofitsmeaning,isverysuperiortotheancientexplanationpreservedforusbyPlutarch.[1]Heconnectstheexpressionwith_Pan_thepersonificationofNature;[2]andobservesthatfearisinnateineverylivingthing,and,infact,
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tendstoitspreservation,butthatitisapttocomeintoplaywithoutduecause,andthatmanisespeciallyexposedtoit.Thechieffeatureofthis_PanieTerror_isthatthereisnoclearnotionofanydefinitedangerboundupwithit;thatitpresumesratherthanknowsthatdangerexists;andthat,incaseofneed,itpleadsfrightitselfasthereasonforbeingafraid.
[Footnote1:_DeIsideetOsiride_ch.14.]
[Footnote2:_DeSapientiaVeterum_,C.6._Naturaenimrerumomnibusviventibusindiditmentumacformidinem,vitaeatqueessentiaesuaeconservatricem,acmalaingruentiavitantemetdepellentem.Verumtameneadennaturamodumtenerenesciaest:sedtimoribussalutaribussempervanosetinnanesadmiscet;adeoutomnia(siintusconspicidarentur)Panicisterroribusplenissimasintpraesertimhumana_.]
CHAPTERV.
THEAGESOFLIFE.
ThereisaveryfinesayingofVoltaire'stotheeffectthateveryageoflifehasitsownpeculiarmentalcharacter,andthatamanwillfeelcompletelyunhappyifhismindisnotinaccordancewithhisyears:--
_Quin'apasl'espritdesonâge,Desonâgeatoutlemalheur_.
Itwill,therefore,beafittingclosetoourspeculationsuponthenatureofhappiness,ifweglanceatthechanceswhichthevariousperiodsoflifeproduceinus.
Ourwholelifelongitis_thepresent_,andthepresentalone,that
weactuallypossess:theonlydifferenceisthatatthebeginningoflifewelookforwardtoalongfuture,andthattowardstheendwelookbackuponalongpast;alsothatourtemperament,butnotourcharacter,undergoescertainwell-knownchanges,whichmake_thepresent_wearadifferentcolorateachperiodoflife.
Ihaveelsewherestatedthatinchildhoodwearemoregiventousingour_intellect_thanour_will_;andIhaveexplainedwhythisisso.[1]Itisjustforthisreasonthatthefirstquarteroflifeissohappy:aswelookbackuponitinafteryears,itseemsasortoflostparadise.Inchildhoodourrelationswithothersarelimited,ourwantsarefew,--inaword,thereislittlestimulusforthewill;andsoourchiefconcernistheextensionofourknowledge.The
intellect--likethebrain,whichattainsitsfullsizeintheseventhyear,[2]isdevelopedearly,thoughittakestimetomature;anditexploresthewholeworldofitssurroundingsinitsconstantsearchfornutriment:itisthenthatexistenceisinitselfaneverfreshdelight,andallthingssparklewiththecharmofnovelty.
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--Schopenhauerrefersto_DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,Bk.II.c,31,p.451(4thedit.),whereheexplainsthatthisisduetothefactthatatthatperiodoflifethebrainandnervoussystemaremuchmoredevelopedthananyother
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partoftheorganism.]
[Footnote2:_Translator'sNote_.--Thisstatementisnotquitecorrect.Theweightofthebrainincreasesrapidlyuptotheseventhyear,moreslowlybetweenthesixteenthandthetwentiethyear,stillmoreslowlytillbetweenthirtyandfortyyearsofage,whenitattainsitsmaximum.Ateachdecennialperiodafterthis,itissupposedtodecreaseinweightontheaverage,anounceforeverytenyears.]
Thisiswhytheyearsofchildhoodarelikealongpoem.Forthefunctionofpoetry,asofallart,istograspthe_Idea_--inthePlatonicsense;inotherwords,toapprehendaparticularobjectinsuchawayastoperceiveitsessentialnature,thecharacteristicsithasincommonwithallotherobjectsofthesamekind;sothatasingleobjectappearsastherepresentativeofaclass,andtheresultsofoneexperienceholdgoodforathousand.
Itmaybethoughtthatmyremarksareopposedtofact,andthatthechildisneveroccupiedwithanythingbeyondtheindividualobjectsoreventswhicharepresentedtoitfromtimetotime,andthenonlyinsofarastheyinterestandexciteitswillforthemoment;butthisisnotreallythecase.Inthoseearlyyears,life--inthefullmeaningoftheword,issomethingsonewandfresh,anditssensations
aresokeenandunbluntedbyrepetition,that,inthemidstofallitspursuitsandwithoutanyclearconsciousnessofwhatitisdoing,thechildisalwayssilentlyoccupiedingraspingthenatureoflifeitself,--inarrivingatitsfundamentalcharacterandgeneraloutlinebymeansofseparatescenesandexperiences;or,touseSpinoza'sphraseology,thechildislearningtoseethethingsandpersonsaboutit_subspecieaeternitatis_,--asparticularmanifestationsofuniversallaw.
Theyoungerweare,then,themoredoeseveryindividualobjectrepresentforusthewholeclasstowhichitbelongs;butastheyearsincrease,thisbecomeslessandlessthecase.Thatisthereasonwhyyouthfulimpressionsaresodifferentfromthoseofoldage.Andthat
italsowhytheslightknowledgeandexperiencegainedinchildhoodandyouthafterwardscometostandasthepermanentrubric,orheading,foralltheknowledgeacquiredinlaterlife,--thoseearlyformsofknowledgepassingintocategories,asitwere,underwhichtheresultsofsubsequentexperienceareclassified;thoughaclearconsciousnessofwhatisbeingdone,doesnotalwaysattendupontheprocess.
Inthiswaytheearliestyearsofaman'slifelaythefoundationofhisviewoftheworld,whetheritbeshallowordeep;andalthoughthisviewmaybeextendedandperfectedlateron,itisnotmateriallyaltered.Itisaneffectofthispurelyobjectiveandthereforepoeticalviewoftheworld,--essentialtotheperiodofchildhood
andpromotedbytheasyetundevelopedstateofthevolitionalenergy--that,aschildren,weareconcernedmuchmorewiththeacquisitionofpureknowledgethanwithexercisingthepowerofwill.Hencethatgrave,fixedlookobservableinsomanychildren,ofwhichRaphaelmakessuchahappyuseinhisdepictionofcherubs,especiallyinthepictureofthe_SistineMadonna_.Theyearsofchildhoodarethusrenderedsofullofblissthatthememoryofthemisalwayscoupledwithlongingandregret.
Whilewethuseagerlyapplyourselvestolearningtheoutwardaspect
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ofthings,astheprimitivemethodofunderstandingtheobjectsaboutus,educationaimsatinstillingintous_ideas_.Butideasfurnishnoinformationastotherealandessentialnatureofobjects,which,asthefoundationandtruecontentofallknowledge,canbereachedonlybytheprocesscalled_intuition_.Thisisakindofknowledgewhichcaninnowisebeinstilledintousfromwithout;wemustarriveatitbyandforourselves.
Henceaman'sintellectualaswellashismoralqualitiesproceedfromthedepthsofhisownnature,andarenottheresultofexternalinfluences;andnoeducationalscheme--ofPestalozzi,orofanyoneelse--canturnabornsimpletonintoamanofsense.Thethingisimpossible!Hewasbornasimpleton,andasimpletonhewilldie.
Itisthedepthandintensityofthisearlyintuitiveknowledgeoftheexternalworldthatexplainwhytheexperiencesofchildhoodtakesuchafirmholdonthememory.Whenwewereyoung,wewerecompletelyabsorbedinourimmediatesurroundings;therewasnothingtodistractourattentionfromthem;welookedupontheobjectsaboutusasthoughtheyweretheonlyonesoftheirkind,asthough,indeed,nothingelseexistedatall.Lateron,whenwecometofindouthowmanythingsthereareintheworld,thisprimitivestateofmindvanishes,andwithitourpatience.
Ihavesaidelsewhere[1]thattheworld,consideredas_object_,--inotherwords,asitis_presented_tousobjectively,--wearsingeneralapleasingaspect;butthatintheworld,consideredas _subject_,--thatis,inregardtoitsinnernature,whichis _will_,--painandtroublepredominate.Imaybeallowedtoexpressthematter,briefly,thus:_theworldisglorioustolookat,butdreadfulinreality_.
[Footnote1:_DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,Bk.II.c.31,p.426-7(4thEdit.),towhichthereaderisreferredforadetailedexplanationofmymeaning.]
Accordingly,wefindthat,intheyearsofchildhood,theworldis
muchbetterknowntousonitsouterorobjectiveside,namely,asthepresentationofwill,thanonthesideofitsinnernature,namely,asthewillitself.Sincetheobjectivesidewearsapleasingaspect,andtheinnerorsubjectiveside,withitstaleofhorror,remainsasyetunknown,theyouth,ashisintelligencedevelops,takesalltheformsofbeautythathesees,innatureandinart,forsomanyobjectsofblissfulexistence;theyaresobeautifultotheoutwardeyethat,ontheirinnerside,theymust,hethinks,bemuchmorebeautifulstill.SotheworldliesbeforehimlikeanotherEden;andthisistheArcadiainwhichweareallborn.
Alittlelater,thisstateofmindgivesbirthtoathirstforreallife--theimpulsetodoandsuffer--whichdrivesamanforthinto
thehurly-burlyoftheworld.Therehelearnstheothersideofexistence--theinnerside,thewill,whichisthwartedateverystep.Thencomesthegreatperiodofdisillusion,aperiodofverygradualgrowth;butonceithasfairlybegun,amanwilltellyouthathehasgotoverallhisfalsenotions--_l'âgedesillusionsestpassé_;andyettheprocessisonlybeginning,anditgoesonextendingitsswayandapplyingmoreandmoretothewholeoflife.
Soitmaybesaidthatinchildhood,lifelookslikethesceneryinatheatre,asyouviewitfromadistance;andthatinoldageitis
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likethesamescenerywhenyoucomeupquiteclosetoit.
And,lastly,thereisanothercircumstancethatcontributestothehappinessofchildhood.Asspringcommences,theyoungleavesonthetreesaresimilarincolorandmuchthesameinshape;andinthefirstyearsoflifeweallresembleoneanotherandharmonizeverywell.Butwithpubertydivergencebegins;and,liketheradiiofacircle,wegofurtherandfurtherapart.
Theperiodofyouth,whichformstheremainderofthisearlierhalfofourexistence--andhowmanyadvantagesithasoverthelaterhalf!--istroubledandmademiserablebythepursuitofhappiness,asthoughtherewerenodoubtthatitcanbemetwithsomewhereinlife,--ahopethatalwaysendsinfailureandleadstodiscontent.Anillusoryimageofsomevaguefuturebliss--bornofadreamandshapedbyfancy--floatsbeforeoureyes;andwesearchfortherealityinvain.Soitisthattheyoungmanisgenerallydissatisfiedwiththepositioninwhichhefindshimself,whateveritmaybe;heascribeshisdisappointmentsolelytothestateofthingsthatmeetshimonhisfirstintroductiontolife,whenhehadexpectedsomethingverydifferent;whereasitisonlythevanityandwretchednessofhumanlifeeverywherethatheisnowforthefirsttimeexperiencing.
Itwouldbeagreatadvantagetoayoungmanifhisearlytraining
coulderadicatetheideathattheworldhasagreatdealtoofferhim.Buttheusualresultofeducationistostrengthenthisdelusion;andourfirstideasoflifearegenerallytakenfromfictionratherthanfromfact.
Inthebrightdawnofouryouthfuldays,thepoetryoflifespreadsoutagorgeousvisionbeforeus,andwetortureourselvesbylongingtoseeitrealized.Wemightaswellwishtograsptherainbow!Theyouthexpectshiscareertobelikeaninterestingromance;andthereliesthegermofthatdisappointmentwhichIhavebeendescribing.[1]Whatlendsacharmtoallthesevisionsisjustthefactthattheyarevisionaryandnotreal,andthatincontemplatingthemweareinthesphereofpureknowledge,whichissufficientinitselfandfreefrom
thenoiseandstruggleoflife.Totryandrealizethosevisionsistomakethemanobjectof_will_--aprocesswhichalwaysinvolvespain.[2]
[Footnote1:Cf.loc.cit.,p.428.]
[Footnote2:Letmereferthereader,ifheisinterestedinthesubject,tothevolumealreadycited,chapter37.]
Ifthechieffeatureoftheearlierhalfoflifeisanever-satisfiedlongingafterhappiness,thelaterhalfischaracterizedbythedreadofmisfortune.For,asweadvanceinyears,itbecomesinagreaterorlessdegreeclearthatallhappinessischimericalinitsnature,
andthatpainaloneisreal.Accordingly,inlateryears,we,or,atleast,themoreprudentamongstus,aremoreintentuponeliminatingwhatispainfulfromourlivesandmakingourpositionsecure,thanonthepursuitofpositivepleasure.Imayobserve,bytheway,thatinoldage,wearebetterabletopreventmisfortunesfromcoming,andinyouthbetterabletobearthemwhentheycome.
Inmyyoungdays,Iwasalwayspleasedtoheararingatmydoor:ah!thoughtI,nowforsomethingpleasant.Butinlaterlifemyfeelingsonsuchoccasionswereratherakintodismaythantopleasure:heaven
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helpme!thoughtI,whatamItodo?Asimilarrevulsionoffeelinginregardtotheworldofmentakesplaceinallpersonsofanytalentordistinction.Forthatveryreasontheycannotbesaidproperlytobelongtotheworld;inagreaterorlessdegree,accordingtotheextentoftheirsuperiority,theystandalone.Intheiryouththeyhaveasenseofbeingabandonedbytheworld;butlateron,theyfeelasthoughtheyhadescapedit.Theearlierfeelingisanunpleasantone,andrestsuponignorance;thesecondispleasurable--forinthemeantimetheyhavecometoknowwhattheworldis.
Theconsequenceofthisisthat,ascomparedwiththeearlier,thelaterhalfoflife,likethesecondpartofamusicalperiod,haslessofpassionatelongingandmorerestfulnessaboutit.AndwhyisthisthecaseSimplybecause,inyouth,amanfanciesthatthereisaprodigiousamountofhappinessandpleasuretobehadintheworld,onlythatitisdifficulttocomebyit;whereas,whenhebecomesold,heknowsthatthereisnothingofthekind;hemakeshismindcompletelyateaseonthematter,enjoysthepresenthouraswellashecan,andeventakesapleasureintrifles.
Thechiefresultgainedbyexperienceoflifeis_clearnessofview_.Thisiswhatdistinguishesthemanofmatureage,andmakestheworldwearsuchadifferentaspectfromthatwhichitpresentedinhisyouthorboyhood.Itisonlythenthatheseesthingsquiteplain,andtakes
themforthatwhichtheyreallyare:whileinearlieryearshesawaphantom-world,puttogetheroutofthewhimsandcrotchetsofhisownmind,inheritedprejudiceandstrangedelusion:therealworldwashiddenfromhim,orthevisionofitdistorted.Thefirstthingthatexperiencefindstodoistofreeusfromthephantomsofthebrain--thosefalsenotionsthathavebeenputintousinyouth.
Topreventtheirentranceatallwould,ofcourse,bethebestformofeducation,eventhoughitwereonlynegativeinaim:butitwouldbeataskfullofdifficulty.Atfirstthechild'shorizonwouldhavetobelimitedasmuchaspossible,andyetwithinthatlimitedspherenonebutclearandcorrectnotionswouldhavetobegiven;onlyafterthechildhadproperlyappreciatedeverythingwithinit,mightthesphere
begraduallyenlarged;carebeingalwaystakenthatnothingwasleftobscure,orhalforwronglyunderstood.Theconsequenceofthistrainingwouldbethatthechild'snotionsofmenandthingswouldalwaysbelimitedandsimpleintheircharacter;but,ontheotherhand,theywouldbeclearandcorrect,andonlyneedtobeextended,nottoberectified.Thesamelinemightbepursuedonintotheperiodofyouth.Thismethodofeducationwouldlayspecialstressupontheprohibitionofnovelreading;andtheplaceofnovelswouldbetakenbysuitablebiographicalliterature--thelifeofFranklin,forinstance,orMoritz'_AntonReiser_.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--Moritzwasamiscellaneouswriterofthelastcentury(1757-93).His_AntonReiser_,composedinthe
formofanovel,ispracticallyanautobiography.]
Inourearlydayswefancythattheleadingeventsinourlife,andthepersonswhoaregoingtoplayanimportantpartinit,willmaketheirentrancetothesoundofdrumsandtrumpets;butwhen,inoldage,welookback,wefindthattheyallcameinquitequietly,slippedin,asitwere,bytheside-door,almostunnoticed.
Fromthepointofviewwehavebeentakingupuntilnow,lifemaybecomparedtoapieceofembroidery,ofwhich,duringthefirsthalfof
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histime,amangetsasightoftherightside,andduringthesecondhalf,ofthewrong.Thewrongsideisnotsoprettyastheright,butitismoreinstructive;itshowsthewayinwhichthethreadshavebeenworkedtogether.
Intellectualsuperiority,evenifitisofthehighestkind,willnotsecureforamanapreponderatingplaceinconversationuntilafterheisfortyyearsofage.Forageandexperience,thoughtheycanneverbeasubstituteforintellectualtalent,mayfaroutweighit;andeveninapersonofthemeanestcapacity,theygiveacertaincounterpoisetothepowerofanextremelyintellectualman,solongasthelatterisyoung.OfcourseIalludeheretopersonalsuperiority,nottotheplaceamanmaygainbyhisworks.
Andonpassinghisfortiethyear,anymanoftheslightestpowerofmind--anyman,thatis,whohasmorethanthesorryshareofintellectwithwhichNaturehasendowedfive-sixthsofmankind--willhardlyfailtoshowsometraceofmisanthropy.For,asisnatural,hehasbythattimeinferredotherpeople'scharacterfromanexaminationofhisown;withtheresultthathehasbeengraduallydisappointedtofindthatinthequalitiesoftheheadorinthoseoftheheart--andusuallyinboth--hereachesaleveltowhichtheydonotattain;sohegladlyavoidshavinganythingmoretodowiththem.Foritmaybesaid,ingeneral,thateverymanwillloveorhatesolitude--inotherWords,
hisownsociety--justinproportionasheisworthanythinginhimself.Kanthassomeremarksuponthiskindofmisanthropyinhis _CritiqueoftheFacultyofJudgment_.[1]
[Footnote1:_KritikderUrtheilskraft_,PartI,§29,Noteadfin.]
Inayoungman,itisabadsign,aswellfromanintellectualasfromamoralpointofview,ifheisprecociousinunderstandingthewaysoftheworld,andinadaptinghimselftoitspursuits;ifheatonceknowshowtodealwithmen,andentersuponlife,asitwere,fullyprepared.Itarguesavulgarnature.Ontheotherhand,tobesurprisedandastonishedatthewaypeopleact,andtobeclumsyandcross-grainedinhavingtodowiththem,indicatesacharacterofthe
noblersort.
Thecheerfulnessandvivacityofyoutharepartlyduetothefactthat,whenweareascendingthehilloflife,deathisnotvisible:itliesdownatthebottomoftheotherside.Butoncewehavecrossedthetopofthehill,deathcomesinview--death--which,untilthen,wasknowntousonlybyhearsay.Thismakesourspiritsdroop,foratthesametimewebegintofeelthatourvitalpowersareontheebb.Agraveseriousnessnowtakestheplaceofthatearlyextravaganceofspirit;andthechangeisnoticeableevenintheexpressionofaman'sface.Aslongasweareyoung,peoplemaytelluswhattheyplease!welookuponlifeasendlessanduseourtimerecklessly;buttheolderwebecome,themorewepracticeeconomy.Fortowardsthecloseof
life,everydaywelivegivesusthesamekindofsensationasthecriminalexperiencesateverysteponhiswaytobetried.
Fromthestandpointofyouth,lifeseemstostretchawayintoanendlessfuture;fromthestandpointofoldage,togobackbutalittlewayintothepast;sothat,atthebeginning,lifepresentsuswithapictureinwhichtheobjectsappearagreatwayoff,asthoughwehadreversedourtelescope;whileintheendeverythingseemssoclose.Toseehowshortlifeis,amanmusthavegrownold,thatistosay,hemusthavelivedlong.
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Ontheotherhand,astheyearsincrease,thingslooksmaller,oneandall;andLife,whichhadsofirmandstableabaseinthedaysofouryouth,nowseemsnothingbutarapidflightofmoments,everyoneofthemillusory:wehavecometoseethatthewholeworldisvanity!
Timeitselfseemstogoatamuchslowerpacewhenweareyoung;sothatnotonlyisthefirstquarteroflifethehappiest,itisalsothelongestofall;itleavesmorememoriesbehindit.Ifamanwereputtoit,hecouldtellyoumoreoutofthefirstquarterofhislifethanoutoftwooftheremainingperiods.Nay,inthespringoflife,asinthespringoftheyear,thedaysreachalengththatispositivelytiresome;butintheautumn,whetheroftheyearoroflife,thoughtheyareshort,theyaremoregenialanduniform.
Butwhyisitthattoanoldmanhispastlifeappearssoshort?Forthisreason:hismemoryisshort;andsohefanciesthathislifehasbeenshorttoo.Henolongerrememberstheinsignificantpartsofit,andmuchthatwasunpleasantisnowforgotten;howlittle,then,thereisleft!For,ingeneral,aman'smemoryisasimperfectashisintellect;andhemustmakeapracticeofreflectinguponthelessonshehaslearnedandtheeventshehasexperienced,ifhedoesnotwantthembothtosinkgraduallyintothegulfofoblivion.Now,weareunaccustomedtoreflectuponmattersofnoimportance,or,asarule,
uponthingsthatwehavefounddisagreeable,andyetthatisnecessaryifthememoryofthemistobepreserved.Buttheclassofthingsthatmaybecalledinsignificantiscontinuallyreceivingfreshadditions:muchthatwearsanairofimportanceatfirst,graduallybecomesofnoconsequenceatallfromthefactofitsfrequentrepetition;sothatintheendweactuallylosecountofthenumberoftimesithappens.Hencewearebetterabletoremembertheeventsofourearlythanofourlateryears.Thelongerwelive,thefewerarethethingsthatwecancallimportantorsignificantenoughtodeservefurtherconsideration,andbythisalonecantheybefixedinthememory;inotherwords,theyareforgottenassoonastheyarepast.Thusitisthattimerunson,leavingalwaysfewertracesofitspassage.
Further,ifdisagreeablethingshavehappenedtous,wedonotcaretoruminateuponthem,leastofallwhentheytouchourvanity,asisusuallythecase;forfewmisfortunesfalluponusforwhichwecanbeheldentirelyblameless.Sopeopleareveryreadytoforgetmanythingsthataredisagreeable,aswellasmanythatareunimportant.
Itisfromthisdoublecausethatourmemoryissoshort;andaman'srecollectionofwhathashappenedalwaysbecomesproportionatelyshorter,themorethingsthathaveoccupiedhiminlife.Thethingswedidinyearsgoneby,theeventsthathappenedlongago,arelikethoseobjectsonthecoastwhich,totheseafareronhisoutwardvoyage,becomesmallereveryminute,moreunrecognizableandhardertodistinguish.
Again,itsometimeshappensthatmemoryandimaginationwillcallupsomelongpastsceneasvividlyasifithadoccurredonlyyesterday;sothattheeventinquestionseemstostandveryneartothepresenttime.Thereasonofthisisthatitisimpossibletocallupalltheinterveningperiodinthesamevividway,asthereisnoonefigurepervadingitwhichcanbetakeninataglance;andbesides,mostofthethingsthathappenedinthatperiodareforgotten,andallthatremainsofitisthegeneralknowledgethatwehavelivedthroughit--amerenotionofabstractexistence,notadirectvisionofsome
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particularexperience.Itisthisthatcausessomesingleeventoflongagotoappearasthoughittookplacebutyesterday:theinterveningtimevanishes,andthewholeoflifelooksincrediblyshort.Nay,thereareoccasionalmomentsinoldagewhenwecanscarcelybelievethatwearesoadvancedinyears,orthatthelongpastlyingbehindushashadanyrealexistence--afeelingwhichismainlyduetothecircumstancethatthepresentalwaysseemsfixedandimmovableaswelookatit.Theseandsimilarmentalphenomenaareultimatelytobetracedtothefactthatitisnotournatureinitself,butonlytheoutwardpresentationofit,thatliesintime,andthatthepresentisthepointofcontactbetweentheworldassubjectandtheworldasobject.[1]
[Footnote1:_Translator'sNote_.--BythisremarkSchopenhauermeansthat_will_,which,asheargues,formstheinnerrealityunderlyingallthephenomenaoflifeandnature,isnotinitselfaffectedbytime;butthat,ontheotherhand,timeisnecessaryfortheobjectificationofthewill,forthewillaspresentedinthepassingphenomenaoftheworld.Timeisthusdefinableastheconditionofchange,andthepresenttimeastheonlypointofcontactbetweenrealityandappearance.]
Again,whyisitthatinyouthwecanseenoendtotheyearsthatseemtoliebeforeus?Becauseweareobligedtofindroomforall
thethingswehopetoattaininlife.Wecramtheyearssofullofprojectsthatifweweretotryandcarrythemallout,deathwouldcomeprematurelythoughwereachedtheageofMethuselah.
Anotherreasonwhylifelookssolongwhenweareyoung,isthatweareapttomeasureitslengthbythefewyearswehavealreadylived.Inthoseearlyyearsthingsarenewtous,andsotheyappearimportant;wedwelluponthemaftertheyhavehappenedandoftencallthemtomind;andthusinyouthlifeseemsrepletewithincident,andthereforeoflongduration.
Sometimeswecreditourselveswithalongingtobeinsomedistantspot,whereas,intruth,weareonlylongingtohavethetimeback
againwhichwespentthere--dayswhenwewereyoungerandfresherthanwearenow.InthosemomentsTimemocksusbywearingthemaskofspace;andifwetraveltothespot,wecanseehowmuchwehavebeendeceived.
Therearetwowaysofreachingagreatage,bothofwhichpresupposeasoundconstitutionasa_conditiosinequânon_.Theymaybeillustratedbytwolamps,oneofwhichburnsalongtimewithverylittleoil,becauseithasaverythinwick;andtheotherjustaslong,thoughithasaverythickone,becausethereisplentyofoiltofeedit.Here,theoilisthevitalenergy,andthedifferenceinthewickisthemanifoldwayinwhichthevitalenergyisused.
Uptoourthirty-sixthyear,wemaybecompared,inrespectofthewayinwhichweuseourvitalenergy,topeoplewholiveontheinterestoftheirmoney:whattheyspendto-day,theyhaveagainto-morrow.Butfromtheageofthirty-sixonwards,ourpositionislikethatoftheinvestorwhobeginstoentrenchuponhiscapital.Atfirsthehardlynoticesanydifferenceatall,asthegreaterpartofhisexpensesiscoveredbytheinterestofhissecurities;andifthedeficitisbutslight,hepaysnoattentiontoit.Butthedeficitgoesonincreasing,untilheawakestothefactthatitisbecomingmoreseriouseveryday:hispositionbecomeslessandlesssecure,andhe
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feelshimselfgrowingpoorerandpoorer,whilehehasnoexpectationofthisdrainuponhisresourcescomingtoanend.Hisfallfromwealthtopovertybecomesfastereverymoment--likethefallofasolidbodyinspace,untilatlasthehasabsolutelynothingleft.Amanistrulyinawoefulplightifboththetermsofthiscomparison--hisvitalenergyandhiswealth--reallybegintomeltawayatoneandthesametime.Itisthedreadofthiscalamitythatmakesloveofpossessionincreasewithage.
Ontheotherhand,atthebeginningoflife,intheyearsbeforeweattainmajority,andforsomelittletimeafterwards--thestateofourvitalenergyputsusonalevelwiththosewhoeachyearlaybyapartoftheirinterestandaddittotheircapital:inotherwords,notonlydoestheirinterestcomeinregularly,butthecapitalisconstantlyreceivingadditions.Thishappyconditionofaffairsissometimesbroughtabout--withhealthaswithmoney--underthewatchfulcareofsomehonestguardian.Ohappyyouth,andsadoldage!
Nevertheless,amanshouldeconomizehisstrengthevenwhenheisyoung.Aristotle[1]observesthatamongstthosewhowerevictorsatOlympiaonlytwoorthreegainedaprizeattwodifferentperiods,onceinboyhoodandthenagainwhentheycametobemen;andthereasonofthiswasthattheprematureeffortswhichthetraininginvolved,socompletelyexhaustedtheirpowersthattheyfailedto
lastonintomanhood.Asthisistrueofmuscular,soitisstillmoretrueofnervousenergy,ofwhichallintellectualachievementsarethemanifestation.Hence,thoseinfantprodigies--_ingeniapraecoda_--thefruitofahot-houseeducation,whosurpriseusbytheirclevernessaschildren,afterwardsturnoutveryordinaryfolk.Nay,themannerinwhichboysareforcedintoanearlyacquaintancewiththeancienttonguesmay,perhaps,betoblameforthedullnessandlackofjudgmentwhichdistinguishsomanylearnedpersons.
[Footnote1:_Politics_.]
Ihavesaidthatalmosteveryman'scharacterseemstobespeciallysuitedtosomeoneperiodoflife,sothatonreachingitthemanis
athisbest.Somepeoplearecharmingsolongastheyareyoung,andafterwardsthereisnothingattractiveaboutthem;othersarevigorousandactiveinmanhood,andthenloseallthevaluetheypossessastheyadvanceinyears;manyappeartobestadvantageinoldage,whentheircharacterassumesagentlertone,asbecomesmenwhohaveseentheworldandtakelifeeasily.ThisisoftenthecasewiththeFrench.
Thispeculiaritymustbeduetothefactthattheman'scharacterhassomethinginitakintothequalitiesofyouthormanhoodoroldage--somethingwhichaccordswithoneoranotheroftheseperiodsoflife,orperhapsactsasacorrectivetoitsspecialfailings.
Themarinerobservestheprogresshemakesonlybythewayinwhichobjectsonthecoastfadeawayintothedistanceandapparentlydecreaseinsize.Inthesamewayamanbecomesconsciousthatheisadvancinginyearswhenhefindsthatpeopleolderthanhimselfbegintoseemyoungtohim.
Ithasalreadybeenremarkedthattheolderamanbecomes,thefewerarethetracesleftinhismindbyallthathesees,doesorexperiences,andthecauseofthishasbeenexplained.Thereisthusasenseinwhichitmaybesaidthatitisonlyinyouththataman
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liveswithafulldegreeofconsciousness,andthatheisonlyhalfalivewhenheisold.Astheyearsadvance,hisconsciousnessofwhatgoesonabouthimdwindles,andthethingsoflifehurrybywithoutmakinganyimpressionuponhim,justasnoneismadebyaworkofartseenforthethousandthtime.Amandoeswhathishandfindstodo,andafterwardshedoesnotknowwhetherhehasdoneitornot.
Aslifebecomesmoreandmoreunconscious,theneareritapproachesthepointatwhichallconsciousnessceases,thecourseoftimeitselfseemstoincreaseinrapidity.Inchildhoodallthethingsandcircumstancesoflifearenovel;andthatissufficienttoawakeustothefullconsciousnessofexistence:hence,atthatage,thedayseemsofsuchimmenselength.Thesamethinghappenswhenwearetraveling:onemonthseemslongerthenthanfourspentathome.Still,thoughtimeseemstolastlongerwhenweareyoungoronajourney,thesenseofnoveltydoesnotpreventitfromnowandtheninrealityhangingheavilyuponourhandsunderboththesecircumstances,atanyratemorethanisthecasewhenweareoldorstayingathome.Buttheintellectgraduallybecomessorubbeddownandbluntedbylonghabituationtosuchimpressionsthatthingshaveaconstanttendencytoproducelessandlessimpressionuponusastheypassby;andthismakestimeseemincreasinglylessimportant,andthereforeshorterinduration:thehoursoftheboyarelongerthanthedaysoftheoldman.Accordingly,timegoesfasterandfasterthelongerwelive,
likeaballrollingdownahill.Or,totakeanotherexample:asinarevolvingdisc,thefurtherapointliesfromthecentre,themorerapidisitsrateofprogression,soitisinthewheeloflife;thefurtheryoustandfromthebeginning,thefastertimemovesforyou.Henceitmaybesaidthatasfarasconcernstheimmediatesensationthattimemakesuponourminds,thelengthofanygivenyearisindirectproportiontothenumberoftimesitwilldivideourwholelife:forinstance,attheageoffiftytheyearappearstousonlyone-tenthaslongasitdidattheageoffive.
Thisvariationintherateatwhichtimeappearstomove,exercisesamostdecidedinfluenceuponthewholenatureofourexistenceateveryperiodofit.Firstofall,itcauseschildhood--eventhoughit
embraceonlyaspanoffifteenyears--toseemthelongestperiodoflife,andthereforetherichestinreminiscences.Next,itbringsitaboutthatamanisapttobeboredjustinproportionasheisyoung.Consider,forinstance,thatconstantneedofoccupation--whetheritisworkorplay--thatisshownbychildren:iftheycometoanendofbothworkandplay,aterriblefeelingofboredomensues.Eveninyouthpeoplearebynomeansfreefromthistendency,anddreadthehourswhentheyhavenothingtodo.Asmanhoodapproaches,boredomdisappears;andoldmenfindthetimetooshortwhentheirdaysflypastthemlikearrowsfromabow.Ofcourse,Imustbeunderstoodtospeakof_men_,notofdecrepit_brutes_.Withthisincreasedrapidityoftime,boredommostlypassesawayasweadvanceinlife;andasthepassionswithalltheirattendantpainarethenlaidasleep,the
burdenoflifeis,onthewhole,appreciablylighterinlateryearsthaninyouth,provided,ofcourse,thathealthremains.Soitisthattheperiodimmediatelyprecedingtheweaknessandtroublesofoldage,receivesthenameofaman's_bestyears_.
Thatmaybeatrueappellation,inviewofthecomfortablefeelingwhichthoseyearsbring;butforallthattheyearsofyouth,whenourconsciousnessislivelyandopentoeverysortofimpression,havethisprivilege--thatthentheseedsaresownandthebudscomeforth;itisthespringtimeofthemind.Deeptruthsmaybeperceived,but
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canneverbeexcogitated--thatistosay,thefirstknowledgeofthemisimmediate,calledforthbysomemomentaryimpression.Thisknowledgeisofsuchakindastobeattainableonlywhentheimpressionsarestrong,livelyanddeep;andifwearetobeacquaintedwithdeeptruths,everythingdependsuponaproperuseofourearlyyears.Inlaterlife,wemaybebetterabletoworkuponotherpeople,--upontheworld,becauseournaturesarethenfinishedandroundedoff,andnomoreapreytofreshviews;butthentheworldislessabletoworkuponus.Thesearetheyearsofactionandachievement;whileyouthisthetimeforformingfundamentalconceptions,andlayingdowntheground-workofthought.
Inyouthitistheoutwardaspectofthingsthatmostengagesus;whileinage,thoughtorreflectionisthepredominatingqualityofthemind.Hence,youthisthetimeforpoetry,andageismoreinclinedtophilosophy.Inpracticalaffairsitisthesame:amanshapeshisresolutionsinyouthmorebytheimpressionthattheoutwardworldmakesuponhim;whereas,whenheisold,itisthoughtthatdetermineshisactions.Thisispartlytobeexplainedbythefactthatitisonlywhenamanisoldthattheresultsofoutwardobservationarepresentinsufficientnumberstoallowoftheirbeingclassifiedaccordingtotheideastheyrepresent,--aprocesswhichinitsturncausesthoseideastobemorefullyunderstoodinalltheirbearings,andtheexactvalueandamountoftrusttobeplacedin
them,fixedanddetermined;whileatthesametimehehasgrownaccustomedtotheimpressionsproducedbythevariousphenomenaoflife,andtheireffectsonhimarenolongerwhattheywere.Contrarily,inyouth,theimpressionsthatthingsmake,thatistosay,theoutwardaspectsoflife,aresooverpoweringlystrong,especiallyinthecaseofpeopleoflivelyandimaginativedisposition,thattheyviewtheworldlikeapicture;andtheirchiefconcernisthefiguretheycutinit,theappearancetheypresent;nay,theyareunawareoftheextenttowhichthisisthecase.Itisaqualityofmindthatshowsitself--ifinnootherway--inthatpersonalvanity,andthatloveoffineclothes,whichdistinguishyoungpeople.
Therecanbenodoubtthattheintellectualpowersaremostcapableofenduringgreatandsustainedeffortsinyouth,uptotheageofthirty-fiveatlatest;fromwhichperiodtheirstrengthbeginstodecline,thoughverygradually.Still,thelateryearsoflife,andevenoldageitself,arenotwithouttheirintellectualcompensation.Itisonlythenthatamancanbesaidtobereallyrichinexperienceorinlearning;hehasthenhadtimeandopportunityenoughtoenablehimtoseeandthinkoverlifefromallitssides;hehasbeenabletocompareonethingwithanother,andtodiscoverpointsofcontactandconnectinglinks,sothatonlythenarethetruerelationsofthingsrightlyunderstood.Further,inoldagetherecomesanincreaseddepthintheknowledgethatwasacquiredinyouth;amanhasnowmanymoreillustrationsofanyideashemayhaveattained;thingswhichhe
thoughtheknewwhenhewasyoung,henowknowsinreality.Andbesides,hisrangeofknowledgeiswider;andinwhateverdirectionitextends,itisthorough,andthereforeformedintoaconsistentandconnectedwhole;whereasinyouthknowledgeisalwaysdefectiveandfragmentary.
Acompleteandadequatenotionoflifecanneverbeattainedbyanyonewhodoesnotreacholdage;foritisonlytheoldmanwhoseeslifewholeandknowsitsnaturalcourse;itisonlyhewhoisacquainted--andthisismostimportant--notonlywithitsentrance,
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liketherestofmankind,butwithitsexittoo;sothathealonehasafullsenseofitsuttervanity;whilsttheothersneverceasetolaborunderthefalsenotionthateverythingwillcomerightintheend.
Ontheotherhand,thereismoreconceptivepowerinyouth,andatthattimeoflifeamancanmakemoreoutofthelittlethatheknows.Inage,judgment,penetrationandthoroughnesspredominate.Youthisthetimeforamassingthematerialforaknowledgeoftheworldthatshallbedistinctiveandpeculiar,--foranoriginalviewoflife,inotherwords,thelegacythatamanofgeniusleavestohisfellow-men;itis,however,onlyinlateryearsthathebecomesmasterofhismaterial.Accordinglyitwillbefoundthat,asarule,agreatwritergiveshisbestworktotheworldwhenheisaboutfiftyyearsofage.Butthoughthetreeofknowledgemustreachitsfullheightbeforeitcanbearfruit,therootsofitlieinyouth.
Everygeneration,nomatterhowpaltryitscharacter,thinksitselfmuchwiserthantheoneimmediatelyprecedingit,letalonethosethataremoreremote.Itisjustthesamewiththedifferentperiodsinaman'slife;andyetoften,intheonecasenolessthanintheother,itisamistakenopinion.Intheyearsofphysicalgrowth,whenourpowersofmindandourstoresofknowledgearereceivingdailyadditions,itbecomesahabitforto-daytolookdownwithcontempt
uponyesterday.Thehabitstrikesroot,andremainsevenaftertheintellectualpowershavebeguntodecline,--whento-dayshouldratherlookupwithrespecttoyesterday.Soitisthatweoftenundulydepreciatetheachievementsaswellasthejudgmentsofouryouth.Thisseemstheplaceformakingthegeneralobservation,that,althoughinitsmainqualitiesaman's_intellect_or_head_,aswellashis_character_or_heart_,isinnate,yettheformerisbynomeanssounalterableinitsnatureasthelatter.Thefactisthattheintellectissubjecttoverymanytransformations,which,asarule,donotfailtomaketheiractualappearance;andthisisso,partlybecausetheintellecthasadeepfoundationinthephysique,andpartlybecausethematerialwithwhichitdealsisgiveninexperience.Andso,fromaphysicalpointofview,wefindthatifa
manhasanypeculiarpower,itfirstgraduallyincreasesinstrengthuntilitreachesitsacme,afterwhichitentersuponapathofslowdecadence,untilitendsinimbecility.But,ontheotherhand,wemustnotlosesightofthefactthatthematerialwhichgivesemploymenttoaman'spowersandkeepstheminactivity,--thesubject-matterofthoughtandknowledge,experience,intellectualattainments,thepracticeofseeingtothebottomofthings,andsoaperfectmentalvision,forminthemselvesamasswhichcontinuestoincreaseinsize,untilthetimecomeswhenweaknessshowsitself,andtheman'spowerssuddenlyfail.Thewayinwhichthesetwodistinguishableelementscombineinthesamenature,--theoneabsolutelyunalterable,andtheothersubjecttochangeintwodirectionsopposedtoeachother--explainsthevarietyofmental
attitudeandthedissimilarityofvaluewhichattachtoamanatdifferentperiodsoflife.
Thesametruthmaybemorebroadlyexpressedbysayingthatthefirstfortyyearsoflifefurnishthetext,whiletheremainingthirtysupplythecommentary;andthatwithoutthecommentaryweareunabletounderstandarightthetruesenseandcoherenceofthetext,togetherwiththemoralitcontainsandallthesubtleapplicationofwhichitadmits.
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Towardsthecloseoflife,muchthesamethinghappensasattheendofa_balmasqué_--themasksaretakenoff.Thenyoucanseewhothepeoplereallyare,withwhomyouhavecomeintocontactinyourpassagethroughtheworld.Forbytheendoflifecharactershavecomeoutintheirtruelight,actionshavebornefruit,achievementshavebeenrightlyappreciated,andallshamshavefallentopieces.Forthis,Timewasineverycaserequisite.
Butthemostcuriousfactisthatitisalsoonlytowardsthecloseoflifethanamanreallyrecognizesandunderstandshisowntrueself,--theaimsandobjectshehasfollowedinlife,moreespeciallythekindofrelationinwhichhehasstoodtootherpeopleandtotheworld.Itwilloftenhappenthatasaresultofthisknowledge,amanwillhavetoassignhimselfalowerplacethanheformerlythoughtwashisdue.Butthereareexceptionstothisrule;anditwilloccasionallybethecasethathewilltakeahigherpositionthanhehadbefore.Thiswillbeowingtothefactthathehadnoadequatenotionofthe_baseness_oftheworld,andthathesetupahigheraimforhimselfthanwasfollowedbytherestofmankind.
Theprogressoflifeshowsamanthestuffofwhichheismade.
Itiscustomarytocallyouththehappy,andagethesadpartoflife.Thiswouldbetrueifitwerethepassionsthatmadeamanhappy.
Youthisswayedtoandfrobythem;andtheygiveagreatdealofpainandlittlepleasure.Inagethepassionscoolandleaveamanatrest,andthenforthwithhismindtakesacontemplativetone;theintellectissetfreeandattainstheupperhand.Andsince,initself,intellectisbeyondtherangeofpain,andmanfeelshappyjustinsofarashisintellectisthepredominatingpartofhim.
Itneedonlyberememberedthatallpleasureisnegative,andthatpainispositiveinitsnature,inordertoseethatthepassionscanneverbeasourceofhappiness,andthatageisnotthelesstobeenviedonthegroundthatmanypleasuresaredeniedit.Foreverysortofpleasureisneveranythingmorethanthequietiveofsomeneedorlonging;andthatpleasureshouldcometoanendassoonastheneed
ceases,isnomoreasubjectofcomplaintthanthatamancannotgooneatingafterhehashadhisdinner,orfallasleepagainafteragoodnight'srest.
Sofarfromyouthbeingthehappiestperiodoflife,thereismuchmoretruthintheremarkmadebyPlato,atthebeginningofthe _Republic_,thattheprizeshouldratherbegiventooldage,becausethenatlastamanisfreedfromtheanimalpassionwhichhashithertoneverceasedtodisquiethim.Nay,itmayevenbesaidthatthecountlessandmanifoldhumorswhichhavetheirsourceinthispassion,andtheemotionsthatspringfromit,produceamildstateofmadness;andthislastsaslongasthemanissubjecttothespelloftheimpulse--thisevilspirit,asitwere,ofwhichthereisno
riddance--sothatheneverreallybecomesareasonablebeinguntilthepassionisextinguished.
Thereisnodoubtthat,ingeneral,andapartfromindividualcircumstancesandparticulardispositions,youthismarkedbyacertainmelancholyandsadness,whilegenialsentimentsattachtooldage;andthereasonforthisisnothingbutthefactthattheyoungmanisstillundertheservice,nay,theforcedlabor,imposedbythatevilspirit,whichscarcelyeverleaveshimamomenttohimself.Tothissourcemaybetraced,directlyorindirectly,almostalland
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everyillthatbefallsormenacesmankind.Theoldmanisgenialandcheerfulbecause,afterlonglyinginthebondsofpassion,hecannowmoveaboutinfreedom.
Still,itshouldnotbeforgottenthat,whenthispassionisextinguished,thetruekerneloflifeisgone,andnothingremainsbutthehollowshell;or,fromanotherpointofview,lifethenbecomeslikeacomedy,which,begunbyrealactors,iscontinuedandbroughttoanendbyautomatadressedintheirclothes.
Howeverthatmaybe,youthistheperiodofunrest,andageofrepose;andfromthatverycircumstance,therelativedegreeofpleasurebelongingtoeachmaybeinferred.Thechildstretchesoutitslittlehandsintheeagerdesiretoseizealltheprettythingsthatmeetitssight,charmedbytheworldbecauseallitssensesarestillsoyoungandfresh.Muchthesamethinghappenswiththeyouth,andhedisplaysgreaterenergyinhisquest.He,too,ischarmedbyalltheprettythingsandthemanypleasingshapesthatsurroundhim;andforthwithhisimaginationconjuresuppleasureswhichtheworldcanneverrealize.Soheisfilledwithanardentdesireforheknowsnotwhatdelights--robbinghimofallrestandmakinghappinessimpossible.Butwhenoldageisreached,allthisisoveranddonewith,partlybecausethebloodrunscoolerandthesensesarenolongersoeasilyallured;partlybecauseexperiencehasshownthetruevalueofthings
andthefutilityofpleasure,wherebyillusionhasbeengraduallydispelled,andthestrangefanciesandprejudiceswhichpreviouslyconcealedordistortedafreeandtrueviewoftheworld,havebeendissipatedandputtoflight;withtheresultthatamancannowgetajusterandclearerview,andseethingsastheyare,andalsoinameasureattainmoreorlessinsightintothenullityofallthingsonthisearth.
Itisthisthatgivesalmosteveryoldman,nomatterhowordinaryhisfacultiesmaybe,acertaintinctureofwisdom,whichdistinguisheshimfromtheyoung.Butthechiefresultofallthischangeisthepeaceofmindthatensues--agreatelementinhappiness,and,infact,theconditionandessenceofit.Whiletheyoungmanfanciesthat
thereisavastamountofgoodthingsintheworld,ifhecouldonlycomeatthem,theoldmanissteepedinthetruthofthePreacher'swords,that_allthingsarevanity_--knowingthat,howevergildedtheshell,thenutishollow.
Intheselateryears,andnotbefore,amancomestoatrueappreciationofHorace'smaxim:_Niladmirari._Heisdirectlyandsincerelyconvincedofthevanityofeverythingandthatallthegloriesoftheworldareasnothing:hisillusionsaregone.Heisnomorebesetwiththeideathatthereisanyparticularamountofhappinessanywhere,inthepalaceorinthecottage,anymorethanhehimselfenjoyswhenheisfreefrombodilyormentalpain.Theworldlydistinctionsofgreatandsmall,highandlow,existforhimno
longer;andinthisblissfulstateofmindtheoldmanmaylookdownwithasmileuponallfalsenotions.Heiscompletelyundeceived,andknowsthatwhatevermaybedonetoadornhumanlifeanddeckitoutinfinery,itspaltrycharacterwillsoonshowthroughtheglitterofitssurroundings;andthat,paintandbejewelitasonemay,itremainseverywheremuchthesame,--anexistencewhichhasnotruevalueexceptinfreedomfrompain,andisnevertobeestimatedbythepresenceofpleasure,letalone,then,ofdisplay.[1]
[Footnote1:Cf.Horace,_Epist_.I.12,I-4.]
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Disillusionisthechiefcharacteristicofoldage;forbythattimethefictionsaregonewhichgavelifeitscharmandspurredonthemindtoactivity;thesplendorsoftheworldhavebeenprovednullandvain;itspomp,grandeurandmagnificencearefaded.Amanhasthenfoundoutthatbehindmostofthethingshewants,andmostofthepleasureshelongsfor,thereisverylittleafterall;andsohecomesbydegreestoseethatourexistenceisallemptyandvoid.ItisonlywhenheisseventyyearsoldthathequiteunderstandsthefirstwordsofthePreacher;andthisagainexplainswhyitisthatoldmenaresometimesfretfulandmorose.
Itisoftensaidthatthecommonlotofoldageisdiseaseandwearinessoflife.Diseaseisbynomeansessentialtooldage;especiallywhereareallylongspanofyearsistobeattained;foraslifegoeson,theconditionsofhealthanddisordertendtoincrease--_crescentevita,crescitsanitasetmorbus_.Andasfaraswearinessorboredomisconcerned,Ihavestatedabovewhyoldageisevenlessexposedtothatformofevilthanyouth.Norisboredombyanymeanstobetakenasanecessaryaccompanimentofthatsolitude,which,forreasonsthatdonotrequiretobeexplained,oldagecertainlycannotescape;itisratherthefatethatawaitsthosewhohaveneverknownanyotherpleasuresbutthegratificationofthesensesandthedelightsofsociety--whohavelefttheirminds
unenlightenedandtheirfacultiesunused.Itisquitetruethattheintellectualfacultiesdeclinewiththeapproachofoldage;butwheretheywereoriginallystrong,therewillalwaysbeenoughlefttocombattheonslaughtofboredom.Andthenagain,asIhavesaid,experience,knowledge,reflection,andskillindealingwithmen,combinetogiveanoldmananincreasinglyaccurateinsightintothewaysoftheworld;hisjudgmentbecomeskeenandheattainsacoherentviewoflife:hismentalvisionembracesawiderrange.Constantlyfindingnewusesforhisstoresofknowledgeandaddingtothemateveryopportunity,hemaintainsuninterruptedthatinwardprocessofself-education,whichgivesemploymentandsatisfactiontothemind,andthusformstheduerewardofallitsefforts.
Allthisservesinsomemeasureasacompensationfordecreasedintellectualpower.Andbesides,Time,asIhaveremarked,seemstogomuchmorequicklywhenweareadvancedinyears;andthisisinitselfapreventiveofboredom.Thereisnogreatharminthefactthataman'sbodilystrengthdecreasesinoldage,unless,indeed,herequiresittomakealiving.Tobepoorwhenoneisold,isagreatmisfortune.Ifamanissecurefromthat,andretainshishealth,oldagemaybeaverypassabletimeoflife.Itschiefnecessityistobecomfortableandwelloff;and,inconsequence,moneyisthenprizedmorethanever,becauseitisasubstituteforfailingstrength.DesertedbyVenus,theoldmanlikestoturntoBacchustomakehimmerry.Intheplaceofwantingtoseethings,totravelandlearn,comesthedesiretospeakandteach.Itisapieceofgoodfortuneif
theoldmanretainssomeofhisloveofstudyorofmusicorofthetheatre,--if,ingeneral,heisstillsomewhatsusceptibletothethingsabouthim;asis,indeed,thecasewithsomepeopletoaverylateage.Atthattimeoflife,_whatamanhasinhimself_isofgreateradvantagetohimthateveritwasbefore.
Therecanbenodoubtthatmostpeoplewhohaveneverbeenanythingbutdullandstupid,becomemoreandmoreofautomataastheygrowold.Theyhavealwaysthought,saidanddonethesamethingsastheirneighbors;andnothingthathappensnowcanchangetheirdisposition,
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ormakethemactotherwise.Totalktooldpeopleofthiskindislikewritingonthesand;ifyouproduceanyimpressionatall,itisgonealmostimmediately;oldageisherenothingbutthe_caputmortuum_ oflife--allthatisessentialtomanhoodisgone.Therearecasesinwhichnaturesuppliesathirdsetofteethinoldage,therebyapparentlydemonstratingthefactthatthatperiodoflifeisasecondchildhood.
Itiscertainlyaverymelancholythingthatallaman'sfacultiestendtowasteawayashegrowsold,andataratethatincreasesinrapidity:butstill,thisisanecessary,nay,abeneficialarrangement,asotherwisedeath,forwhichitisapreparation,wouldbetoohardtobear.Sothegreatestboonthatfollowstheattainmentofextremeoldageis_euthanasia_,--aneasydeath,notusheredinbydisease,andfreefromallpainandstruggle.[1]Forletamanliveaslongashemay,heisneverconsciousofanymomentbutthepresent,oneandindivisible;andinthoselateyearsthemindlosesmoreeverydaybysheerforgetfulnessthaneveritgainsanew.
[Footnote1:See_DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung_,Bk.II.ch.41,forafurtherdescriptionofthishappyendtolife.]
Themaindifferencebetweenyouthandagewillalwaysbethatyouthlooksforwardtolife,andoldagetodeath;andthatwhiletheone
hasashortpastandalongfuturebeforeit,thecaseisjusttheoppositewiththeother.Itisquitetruethatwhenamanisold,todieistheonlythingthatawaitshim;whileifheisyoung,hemayexpecttolive;andthequestionariseswhichofthetwofatesisthemorehazardous,andiflifeisnotamatterwhich,onthewhole,itisbettertohavebehindonethanbefore?DoesnotthePreachersay: _thedayofdeath[isbetter]thanthedayofone'sbirth_.[1]Itiscertainlyarashthingtowishforlonglife;[2]forastheSpanishproverbhasit,itmeanstoseemuchevil,--_Quienlargavidavivemuchomalvide_.
[Footnote1:Ecclesiastesvii.1.]
[Footnote2:Thelifeofmancannot,strictlyspeaking,becalledeither_long_or_short_,sinceitistheultimatestandardbywhichdurationoftimeinregardtoallotherthingsismeasured.
InoneoftheVedic_Upanishads(Oupnekhat_,II.)_thenaturallength_ ofhumanlifeisputdownatonehundredyears.AndIbelievethistoberight.Ihaveobserved,asamatteroffact,thatitisonlypeoplewhoexceedtheageofninetywhoattain_euthanasia_,--whodie,thatistosay,ofnodisease,apoplexyorconvulsion,andpassawaywithoutagonyofanysort;nay,whosometimesevenshownopallor,butexpiregenerallyinasittingattitude,andoftenafterameal,--or,Imaysay,simplyceasetoliveratherthandie.Tocometoone'sendbeforetheageofninety,meanstodieofdisease,inotherwords,
prematurely.
NowtheOldTestament(Psalmsxc.10)putsthelimitofhumanlifeatseventy,andifitisverylong,ateightyyears;andwhatismorenoticeablestill,Herodotus(i.32andiii.22)saysthesamething.Butthisiswrong;andtheerrorisduesimplytoaroughandsuperficialestimateoftheresultsofdailyexperience.Forifthenaturallengthoflifewerefromseventytoeightyyears,peoplewoulddie,aboutthattime,ofmereoldage.Nowthisiscertainlynotthecase.Iftheydiethen,theydie,likeyoungerpeople,_ofdisease_;
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anddiseaseissomethingabnormal.Thereforeitisnotnaturaltodieatthatage.Itisonlywhentheyarebetweenninetyandahundredthatpeopledieofoldage;die,Imean,withoutsufferingfromanydisease,orshowinganyspecialsignsoftheircondition,suchasastruggle,death-rattle,convulsion,pallor,--theabsenceofallwhichconstitutes_euthanasia_.Thenaturallengthofhumanlifeisahundredyears;andinassigningthatlimittheUpanishadsarerightoncemore.]
Aman'sindividualcareerisnot,asAstrologywishestomakeout,tobepredictedfromobservationoftheplanets;butthecourseofhumanlifeingeneral,asfarasthevariousperiodsofitareconcerned,maybelikenedtothesuccessionoftheplanets:sothatwemaybesaidtopassundertheinfluenceofeachoneoftheminturn.
Atten,_Mercury_isintheascendant;andatthatage,ayouth,likethisplanet,ischaracterizedbyextrememobilitywithinanarrowsphere,wheretrifleshaveagreateffectuponhim;butundertheguidanceofsocraftyandeloquentagod,heeasilymakesgreatprogress._Venus_beginsherswayduringhistwentiethyear,andthenamaniswhollygivenuptotheloveofwomen.Atthirty,_Mars_ comestothefront,andheisnowallenergyandstrength,--daring,pugnaciousandarrogant.
Whenamanreachestheageofforty,heisundertheruleofthefour_Asteroids_;thatistosay,hislifehasgainedsomethinginextension.Heisfrugal;inotherwords,bythehelpof_Ceres_,hefavorswhatisuseful;hehashisownhearth,bytheinfluenceof _Vesta_;_Pallas_hastaughthimthatwhichisnecessaryforhimtoknow;andhiswife--his_Juno_--rulesasthemistressofhishouse.
Butattheageoffifty,_Jupiter_isthedominantinfluence.Atthatperiodamanhasoutlivedmostofhiscontemporaries,andhecanfeelhimselfsuperiortothegenerationabouthim.Heisstillinthefullenjoymentofhisstrength,andrichinexperienceandknowledge;andifhehasanypowerandpositionofhisown,heisendowedwithauthorityoverallwhostandinhisimmediatesurroundings.Heisno
moreinclinedtoreceiveordersfromothers;hewantstotakecommandhimself.Theworkmostsuitabletohimnowistoguideandrulewithinhisownsphere.ThisisthepointwhereJupiterculminates,andwherethemanoffiftyyearsisathisbest.
Thencomes_Saturn_,atabouttheageofsixty,aweightasof_lead_,dullandslow:--
_Butoldfolks,manyfeignastheyweredead;Unwieldy,slow,heavyandpaleaslead_.Lastofall,_Uranus_;or,asthesayingis,amangoestoheaven.
Icannotfindaplacefor_Neptune_,asthisplanethasbeenvery
thoughtlesslynamed;becauseImaynotcallitasitshouldbecalled--_Eros_.OtherwiseIshouldpointouthowBeginningandEndmeettogether,andhowcloselyandintimatelyErosisconnectedwithDeath:howOrcus,orAmenthes,astheEgyptianscalledhim,isnotonlythereceiverbutthegiverofallthings--[Greek:lambanonkaididous].DeathisthegreatreservoirofLife.EverythingcomesfromOrcus;everythingthatisalivenowwasoncethere.Couldwebutunderstandthegreattrickbywhichthatisdone,allwouldbeclear!
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