NATURAL SCIENCES AND MATHEMATICS

NATURAL SCIENCES Sciences that deals with matter and energy, or

with objects and processes observable in nature the term natural science refers to a rational

approach to the study of the universe, which is understood as obeying rules or laws of natural origin

The term natural science is also used to distinguish those fields that use the scientific method to study nature

Natural Sciences the phrase natural sciences is also

sometimes used more narrowly to refer to its everyday usage, that is, related to natural history

In this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the biological sciences and perhaps also the earth sciences, as distinguished from the physical sciences, including astronomy, physics, and chemistry.

History of Natural Sciences Prior to the 17th century, the objective study of

nature was known as natural philosophy. Over the next two centuries, however, a

philosophical interpretation of nature was gradually replaced by a scientific approach using inductive methodology.

The works of Sir Francis Bacon popularized this approach, thereby helping to forge the scientific revolution.

History of Natural Sciences

By the 19th century the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions, and in so doing it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science.

MATHEMATICS is the body of knowledge centered on such

concepts as quantity, structure, space, and change, and also the academic discipline that studies them

Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusion.”

Mathematics is the science of pattern, and that mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere

Mathematics

The word "mathematics" comes from the Greek (máthēma), which means learning, study, science, and additionally came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study“.

History The evolution of mathematics might be seen as an

ever-increasing series of abstractions, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter.

The first abstraction was probably that of numbers. The realization that two apples and two oranges

have something in common was a breakthrough in human thought. In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time — days, seasons, years. Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), naturally followed.

Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of geometry.

In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time — days, seasons, years. Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), naturally followed. Monolithic monuments testify to knowledge of geometry.

Subdivisions of Mathematics Quantity Structure Space Change

Quantity starts with numbers first the familiar natural numbers and

integers and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic.

The deeper properties of integers are studied in number theory.

As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognized as a subset of the rational numbers ("fractions").

These, in turn, are contained within the real numbers, which are used to represent continuous quantities.

Real numbers are generalized to complex numbers.

Quantity

Structure Many mathematical objects, such as sets of

numbers and functions, exhibit internal structure

The structural properties of these objects are investigated in the study of groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems, which are themselves such objects.

This is the field of abstract algebra

Space The study of space originates with

geometry Trigonometry combines space and

numbers, and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem.

Change Understanding and describing change is a

common theme in the natural sciences and calculus.

Functions arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real numbers and real-valued functions is known as real analysis, with complex analysis the equivalent field for the complex numbers.

Major Fields in Mathematics Discrete mathematics

- is the common name for the fields of mathematics most generally useful in theoretical computer science. This includes computability theory, computational complexity theory, and information theory.

Applied mathematics

- considers the use of abstract mathematical tools in solving concrete problems in the sciences, business, and other areas.

- An important field in applied mathematics is statistics, which uses probability theory as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena

Euclid,Greek mathematician, 3rd

century BC

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), an inventor of infinitesimal calculus.

ASTRONOMY AND ALLIED SCIENCES

• Is the scientific study of celestial objects •literally means "law of the stars" •and is derived from the Greek , from the words (astron, "star") and (nomos, "laws or cultures").•It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Astronomers of early civilizations performed

methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods.

the invention of the telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern science.

It has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology

Since the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches.

Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics.

Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.

The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being used to confirm theoretical results.

As civilizations developed, astronomical observatories were assembled

and ideas on the nature of the universe began to be explored.

early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry.

notable astronomical discoveries the obliquity of the ecliptic was estimated

as early as 1000 BC by the Chinese. The Chaldeans discovered that lunar

eclipses recurred in a repeating cycle known as a saros.

In the 2nd century BC, the size and distance of the Moon were estimated by Hipparchus.

During the Middle Ages… observational astronomy was mostly

stagnant in medieval Europe, at least until the 13th century

Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names that are now used for individual stars.

During the Renaissance.. Scientific revolution Nicolaus Copernicus

proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.

His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.

Galileo innovated by using telescopes to enhance his observations.

information is mainly received from the detection and analysis of visible light or other regions of the electromagnetic radiation

Observational astronomy

Solar astronomy

Subfield of astronomy for specific astronomical objects

Planetary science

Stellar astronomy

•Galactic astronomy And Extragalactic

astronomy

•Cosmology

Biology

Biology •from Greek: bio, "life"; and •logos, "speech" lit. "to talk about life“• also referred to as the biological sciences, which is the scientific study of life.

Biology encompasses a set of disciplines that examines

phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies.

is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the natural environment.

Biological fields they are grouped by the type of organism

being studied botany, the study of plants zoology, the study of animals microbiology, the study of

microorganisms.

Further divided fields for Biology

based on the scale at which organisms are studied

Based on the methods used to study them biochemistry examines the fundamental

chemistry of life molecular biology studies the complex

interactions of systems of biological molecules

Further divided fields for Biology

cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell

physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues and organ systems of an organism

ecology examines how various organisms and their environment interrelate.

History of Biology The biological fields of botany, zoology, and

medicine date back to early periods of civilization while microbiology was introduced in the 17th

century with the invention of the microscope. In 19th century, biology became a unified

science; once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things it was decided they were best studied as a whole

Some key developments in the science of Biology

were the discovery of genetics Darwin's theory of evolution through

natural selection the germ theory of disease the application of the techniques of

chemistry and physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule.

Modern Biology is divided into sub-disciplines by the type

of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the

fundamental chemistry of life Cellular biology is the examination of the

cell; the basic building block of all life

Modern Biology Physiology looks at the internal structure

of organism Ecology looks at how various organisms

interrelate.

Chemistry

Chemistry from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth" is the science concerned with the composition,

structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions

Chemistry is the study of interactions of chemical substances with one another and energy

Chemistry the scientific study of interaction of

substances called chemical substances that are constituted of atoms

or the subatomic components that make up atoms: protons, electrons and neutrons

History The genesis of chemistry can be traced to the

widely observed phenomenon of burning that led to metallurgy- the art and science of processing ores to get metals

The greed for gold led to the discovery of the process for its purification, even though, the underlying principles were not well understood -- it was thought to be a transformation rather than purification.

Historically, modern chemistry evolved out of alchemy following the chemical revolution (1773).

Chemistry is a physical science related to studies of various atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the spontaneity of chemical processes.

Disciplines within Chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of

matter being studied or the kind of study These include inorganic chemistry, the

study of inorganic matter organic chemistry, the study of organic

matter biochemistry, the study of substances

found in biological organisms

physical chemistry, the energy related studies of chemical systems at macro, molecular and submolecular scales

analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure

neurochemistry the chemical study of the mind

Physics

• is the science studying the concept of matter and its motion as well as space and time • the science that deals with concepts such as force, energy, mass, and charge. • is an experimental science, and it is the objective of physicists to understand some quality of the natural world

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines

and through its modern subfield of astronomy, it may be the oldest of all

During the last two millennia, these sciences became more distinct; physics emerged as a modern science in the 17th century

The core theories of physics are:

classical mechanics Electromagnetism relativity Thermodynamics quantum mechanics optics.

Classical mechanics is a model of the physics

of forces acting upon bodies

It is often referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion

Electromagnetism

describes the interaction of charged particles with electric and magnetic fields.

It can be divided into electrostatics, the study of interactions between charges at rest, and electrodynamics, the study of interactions between moving charges and radiation

Relativity

is a generalization of classical mechanics that describes fast-moving or very massive systems

Quantum Mechanics

is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation in terms of observable quantities.

Condensed matter

physics

is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.

is by far the largest field of contemporary physics

Atomic, molecular, and optical Atomic, molecular, and

optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms.

Earth Science also known as geoscience, the

geosciences or the Earth Sciences is an all-embracing term for the

sciences related to the planet Earth including geology, geophysics,

hydrology, meteorology, physical geography, oceanography, and soil science.

History

the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar impact on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology

19th century, paleontology, blossomed 20th century, the growth of other

disciplines like geophysics

Earth sciences today are closely linked to climate research and the petroleum and mineral exploration industries

The major historic disciplines use physics, geology, geography, meteorology, mathematics, chemistry and biology to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system.

Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology,geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology

Geophysics and Geodesy investigate the figure of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields

Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere

Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). Major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology

Oceanography and hydrology (includes limnology) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the watery parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Major subdisciplines include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological oceanography.

Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).

Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (~1000 km). Major subdisciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics

PALEONTOLOGY (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and

logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth

through the examination of plant and animal fossils This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (

ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilized fasces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Studies of prehistoric hominids, their culture and their behaviors are the purview of two other disciplines, archaeology and paleoanthropology.

The major subdivisions of paleontology

include paleozoology (animals), paleobotany (plants) micropaleontology (microfossils). Paleozoologists may specialize in

invertebrate paleontology, which deals with animals without backbones

in vertebrate paleontology, dealing with fossils of animals with backbones, including fossil hominids (paleoanthropology).

Micropaleontologists study microscopic fossils, including organic-walled microfossils whose study is called palynology.

Developing Specialties in Paleontology paleobiology, paleoecology, ichnology (the

study of tracks and burrows) and taphonomy (the study of what happens to organisms after they expire).

Major areas of study include the correlation of rock strata with their geologic ages and the study of evolution of lifeforms.

The primary economic importance of paleontology lies in the use of fossils to determine the age and nature of the rocks that contain them or the layers above or below.

Paleozoology also spelled as palaeozoology

(Greek: paleon = old and zoon = animal),

is the branch of paleontology or paleobiology dealing with the recovery and identification of multicellular animal remains from geological (or even archeological) contexts, and the use of these fossils in the reconstruction of prehistoric environments and ancient ecosystems

Botany Botany

Botany is the scientific study of plant life. As a branch of biology, it is also called plant

science(s), phytology, or plant biology. Botany covers a wide range of scientific

disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups

History The study of plants and botany began with

tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences.

From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.

Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be animals.

Some of these "plant-like" organisms include fungi (studied in mycology), bacteria and viruses (studied in microbiology), and algae (studied in phycology).

Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses.

The study of plants has importance for a number of reasons.

Plants are a fundamental part of life on Earth. They generate the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and

medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb carbon dioxide through

photosynthesis, a minor greenhouse gas that in large amounts can effect global climate.

It is believed that the evolution of plants has changed the global atmosphere of the earth early in the earth's history and paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record.

Scope of botany

- human nutrition

- fundamental life processes

- medicine and materials

- environmental changes

Subdisciplines of BotanyAgronomy —Application of plant science to crop productionBryology —Mosses, liverworts, and hornwarts Economic botany —The place of plants in economics Ethnobotany —Relationship between humans and plants Forestry —Forest management and related studies

Horticulture—Cultivated plants

Paleobotany—Fossil plants Palynology—Pollen and

spores Phycology - Algae Phytochemistry—Plant

secondary chemistry and chemical processes

Phytopathology—Plant diseases

Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure

Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment

Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants

Plant morphology—Structure and life cycles

Plant physiology—Life functions of plants

Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants  

Zoology Zoology (from

Greek: zoion, "animal"; and logos, "knowledge")

is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals.

Subfields of Zoology Comparative anatomy studies the structure

of animals The physiology of animals is studied under

various fields including anatomy and embryology

The common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology, molecular genetics and developmental biology

Ethology is the study of animal behavior.

History of ZoologyPre-scientific zoology Humans have been fascinated by the other members of the animal

kingdom throughout history. In early Europe, they gathered up and treasured stories of strange

animals from distant lands or deep seas, such as are recorded in the Physiologus, in the works of Albertus Magnus (On Animals), and others.

These accounts were often apocryphal and creatures were often described as "legendary."

This period was succeeded by the age of collectors and travellers, when many of the stories were actually demonstrated as true when the living or preserved specimens were brought to Europe.

16th century developments

Scientific zoology really started in the 16th century with the awakening of the new spirit of observation and exploration

but for a long time ran a separate course uninfluenced by the progress of the medical studies of anatomy and physiology

17th century developments In the 17th century, the lovers of the new

philosophy, the investigators of nature by means of observation and experiment, banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual support and intercourse.

The first founded of surviving European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (1651) especially confined itself to the description and illustration of the structure of plants and animals;

`17th century A little later the Academy of Sciences of

Paris was established by Louis XIV The influence of these great academies of

the 17th century on the progress of zoology was precisely to effect that bringing together of the museum-men and the physicians or anatomists which was needed for further development.

19th century developments

Development of the microscope

- It was not until the 19th century that the microscope, was applied to the study of animal structure, and accomplished for zoology its final and most important service.

The perfecting of the microscope led to a full comprehension of the great doctrine of cell structure and the establishment of the facts

Developments in other sciences impacting zoology

Zoology Since 1859: Darwin and Theory of Evolution

in 1859, Charles Darwin placed the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.

This changed the attitudes of most exponents of the scientific method. Darwin's discoveries revolutionized the zoological and botanical sciences, by introducing the theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for the diversity of all animal and plant life.

Timeline

subtopics DDC LC

Natural Sciences and Mathematics 500 Q

Mathematics 510 QA

Astronomy and Allied Sciences 520 QB

Physics 530 QC

Chemistry and Allied Sciences 540 QD

Earth Sciences 550 QE

Paleontology; Paleozoology 560 QE

Life Sciences: Biology 570 QH

Plants 580 QK

Animals 590 QZ

Reference Sources on Astronomy: Bibliographies Abstract Journals Encyclopedias and dictionaries Handbooks Atlases Stars Navigations chronology

Reference Sources Astronomy

Bibliography

Drake, Milton. Almanacs of the United States. N.Y., Scarecrow, 1962. 2v.

- a listing of more than 14,000 almanacs published from 1963 to 1850, arranged by state and then chronologically.

Astronomy Abstract Journals

Sky and Telescope. Cambridge, Sky Pub. Corp., Harvard College Observatory, 1941- .V1- Monthly.

- excellent source for general current information. Contains review articles on current events, monthly star maps and calendars, review on important professional and amateur meetings.

Astronomy Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Rudaux, Lucien and Vancouleurs, G. de. Larousse encyclopedia of astronomy. 2d ed. N.Y., Prometheus, 1959. 506p. Il.

- a profusely illustrated treatise on astronomy. Nonalphabetical. Kleczek, Josip. Astronomical Dictionary. N.Y., London, Academic Pr.; Praha, Pub. House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 1961. 972p.

Biological SciencesBibliography

Periodicals U.S. Library of Congress. Science and Technology Division. Biological Sciences Serial Publications. 1950-1954

Indexes Biological and Agricultural Index, a Cumulative Subject Index to Periodicals in the Fields of Biology, Agriculture and Related Sciences. 1964-

Abstract journals

Biological Abstracts From the World’s Biological Research Literature. 1926-

Dictionaries A Dictionary of Biology, Abercrombie, Michael, Hickman, C.J. 1962-

Encyclopedias

The Encyclopedia of Microscopy. Clark, George Linderberg. 1961-

Style manuals Conference Of Biological Editors. Committee On Form And Style. Style Manual For Biological Journals. 1964-

History A Hundred Years of Biology. Dawes, Ben. 1952-

Biological sciences reference sources

Natural history reference sources

Bibliographies Bibliography of American Natural History. Meisel, Max. 1769-1865-

Handbooks Handbooks on American Natural History, V.1-. 1942-

Botany Bibliographies Bibliographies of Botany; A

Contribution Toward Bibliotheca Bibliographica. 1909-

Abstract Journal and Indexes

Torrey Botanical Club. Index to American Botanical Literature. 1888-

Dictionaries American Join Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature. Standardized Plant Names. 1942-

Directories International Directory of Botanical Gardens. Howard, Richard a. 1963-

Biography Biographical Index of Deceased British and Irish Botanists. Britten, James. 1931-

Botany Handbooks Gray’s Manual of Botany: 8th Centennial

Edition. Gray, Asa. 1950-

Flora Manual of Cultivated Plants Most Commonly Grown in the Continental United States and Canada. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. 1949.

Fungi A Dictionary of the Fungi. Ainsworth, Geoffrey Clough. 1961

Mosses Mosses With a Hand Lens; Guide to the Common Mosses and Liverworts of the U.S.

Trees Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada East of the Rocky Mountains.Hough, Romeyn Beck. 1907.

Zoology Guides Guides to the Literature of the

Zoological Sciences. Smith, Roger Cletus. 1962.

Abstract journals and indexes

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. A Wildlife Review. 1952.

Dictionaries A dictionary of zoology. Leftwich, A. W. 1963.

Chemistry reference sources:

Guides Division of Chemical Literature. Searching the Chemical Literature. American Chemical Society. 1961.

Bibliographies Selected Bibliography of Chemistry. Bolton, Henry Carrington. 1904.

Dissertations Committee on Professional Training. Directory of Graduate Research. American Chemical Society. 1953.

Periodical abbreviations

Chemical abstracts. List of periodicals with key to library files. 1961.

Encyclopedias The Encyclopedia of Chemistry. Clark, George Linderberg. 1957.

Chemistry Reference Sources;Dictionaries Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 6th Ed.

By Arthur and Elizabeth Rose.

Handbooks Handbooks of Chemistry and Physics; A Ready-reference Book of Chemical and Physical Data. 1964. Selby, Samuel M.

Directories Chemical Sources. Directories Pub. Co. 1958.

Biography Chemical Who’s Who. 1956. By Winfield Scott Downs.

Earth sciences… Geology guides The Literature of Geology. Mason, Brian.

1953.

Bibliographies American Geological Institute. Visual Education Committee, Directory of Geosciences Films by Wakefield Dort.1962.

Dissertations Bibliography of Theses Written for Advanced Degrees in Geology and Related Sciences. Chronic, John and Chronic, Halka. 1958.

Abstract journals Geological abstracts, v.1-6.1953-58. Quarterly.

Earth sciences reference sources..

Encyclopedias and Handbooks

Geology and Earth Sciences Source Book for Elementary and Secondary Schools. Robert Heller.. 1962.

Dictionaries Dictionary of geological terms. American geological institute. 1962.

Directories Directory of Geosciences Departments in the Colleges and Universities of U. S. And Canada.1952.

History The Founders of Geology. Sir Archibald Geiki.1962.

Paleontology reference sources:Bibliography Bibliography of Vertebrate

Paleontology and Related Subjects.1947.

Fossil indexes Index of Generic Names of Fossil Plants. 1820-1950.

Directories Paleontologi Catalogus Bio-bibliographicus. Kalman Lambrecht. 1938.

Handbooks The Fossil Book: a Record of Prehistoric

Life. Fenton, Caroll Lane. 1958.

Mathematics' reference sources.. Guides Guide to the Literature of Mathematics

and Physics Including Related Works on Engineering Science.. Park , Nathan Grier. 1958.

Bibliography Bibliography of Basic Texts and Monographs on Statistical Methods. 1945-1960.

Current American Mathematical Society. New Publications. Providence. 1961.

Abstract journals Statistical Theory and Method Abstracts. Edinburgh

THANK YOU!

Prepared by: Dang Brazal