5. URBAN DESIGN PROCESS5. URBAN DESIGN PROCESS

5.0 INTRODUCTION5.0 INTRODUCTIONUrban design is preoccupied with Urban design is preoccupied with physical formphysical form and and functional qualityfunctional quality of the city. of the city.

In terms of approach, it can be viewed as In terms of approach, it can be viewed as pure pure techniquetechnique and/or and/or city building process city building process among among various actorsvarious actors

The nature of objectives will depend on the The nature of objectives will depend on the context and scale/level of concerncontext and scale/level of concern

Thus, at one extreme an urban design plan may be Thus, at one extreme an urban design plan may be specificspecific including construction and financing details including construction and financing details (project level); On the other extreme, urban design (project level); On the other extreme, urban design may be may be generic;generic; simply entail a set of guidelines or simply entail a set of guidelines or rules, used to formulate a policy that affects the rules, used to formulate a policy that affects the decisions of othersdecisions of others

5.1 Urban Design as Technique5.1 Urban Design as Technique

I. Formal /Linear ProcessI. Formal /Linear Process

This is a logical process, through spatial and This is a logical process, through spatial and formal means, that entails the following main formal means, that entails the following main stages:stages:

1.1. Problem identificationProblem identification

2.2. Goal and Objective-settingGoal and Objective-setting

3.3. Situational analysisSituational analysis

4.4. SynthesisSynthesis

5.5. EvaluationEvaluation

6.6. ImplementationImplementation

Problem identificationProblem identification What is not right?What is not right? What liabilities?What liabilities? Whose problem?...who is affected?Whose problem?...who is affected? Why is it a problem?Why is it a problem? When is it a problem?When is it a problem? Where?Where? What does it call for?What does it call for?

……..In a stable environment, this may seem a In a stable environment, this may seem a straight forward thing….but in a pluralist straight forward thing….but in a pluralist environment (diverse), there may be contested environment (diverse), there may be contested issues, stakes, and vested inteersts!issues, stakes, and vested inteersts!

Goal and Objective-settingGoal and Objective-setting GoalsGoals are fairly loose statements of principle that establish are fairly loose statements of principle that establish

a direction, and would hardly provide measurable variables a direction, and would hardly provide measurable variables for gauging success.for gauging success.

ObjectivesObjectives are translations of goals into something that is are translations of goals into something that is achievable; hence their statement is more programmatic achievable; hence their statement is more programmatic and measurable.and measurable.

Urban design goals and objectives can occur at any scale of Urban design goals and objectives can occur at any scale of urban design (macro to micro). An urban design scheme urban design (macro to micro). An urban design scheme devoid of clear goals and objectives can easily be devoid of clear goals and objectives can easily be dismissed.dismissed.

In contemporary societies, change is the norm and the In contemporary societies, change is the norm and the goals of individuals and groups are frequently at odds, goals of individuals and groups are frequently at odds, making it complicated a task to undertake.making it complicated a task to undertake.

Locale/scaleLocale/scale GoalGoal (example) (example) ObjectiveObjective (example) (example)

RegionRegion To engender a feeling of To engender a feeling of the countryside into the the countryside into the citycity

To develop parks along all the To develop parks along all the waterways that connect waterways that connect developed urban areas and developed urban areas and open countrysideopen countryside

CityCity To maintain the To maintain the downtown area as a downtown area as a strong metropolitan strong metropolitan centrecentre

To create economic incentives To create economic incentives for downtown reinvestmentfor downtown reinvestment

NeighbourhooNeighbourhoodd

To reduce conflicts To reduce conflicts between residential and between residential and industrial land usesindustrial land uses

To create visual and acoustical To create visual and acoustical buffers using fencing and buffers using fencing and landscaping between all landscaping between all residential property that abuts residential property that abuts industrial land usesindustrial land uses

BlockBlock To maintain the sense of To maintain the sense of visual enclosure that visual enclosure that presently exists on the presently exists on the streetstreet

To limit new development to To limit new development to existing building heights and existing building heights and setbacks in conformance with setbacks in conformance with

existing street characterexisting street character

Situational analysisSituational analysis

Through inventories and other data collection Through inventories and other data collection techniques.techniques.

Considerations: Considerations: land use, population, transportation, natural land use, population, transportation, natural

systems, and topography; the varied character of systems, and topography; the varied character of areas, structure of neighbourhoods, business areas areas, structure of neighbourhoods, business areas e.t.ce.t.c

Central to understanding the structure, Central to understanding the structure, organization, and pattern of urban areasorganization, and pattern of urban areas

Includes:Includes: Visual survey;Visual survey; Identification of hard and soft areas;Identification of hard and soft areas; Functional analysis Functional analysis

Visual surveyVisual survey

Graphic examinationGraphic examination of the key physical elements of the key physical elements and functional character of an area.and functional character of an area.

A vocabulary of symbols exist: A vocabulary of symbols exist: edge, path, node, edge, path, node, landmark, districtlandmark, district (after Lynch) that enables an urban (after Lynch) that enables an urban designer to characterize, in graphic form, the key designer to characterize, in graphic form, the key elements of the urban fabric. elements of the urban fabric.

Visual surveyVisual survey is an urban design tool used to is an urban design tool used to communicate the perceptions of the structure and communicate the perceptions of the structure and organization of a city.organization of a city.

Imageability/legibility:Imageability/legibility: A more legible city makes us A more legible city makes us feel less anxious about finding our way about in the feel less anxious about finding our way about in the citycity

Identification of hard and soft areasIdentification of hard and soft areas

““Hard” and “soft” is concerned with “buildable” and “non-Hard” and “soft” is concerned with “buildable” and “non-buildable”buildable” and and does not necessarily coincide with “built” does not necessarily coincide with “built” and “unbuilt” .and “unbuilt” .

Delineation of the urban fabric into Delineation of the urban fabric into hardhard and and softsoft areas areas assists the designer in identification of the parts of the city assists the designer in identification of the parts of the city that can accommodate growth and change, against those that can accommodate growth and change, against those that are essentially fixed because they may be occupied by that are essentially fixed because they may be occupied by say historic monuments or cemeteriessay historic monuments or cemeteries

Thus, a hard area may be a public park near the city’s Thus, a hard area may be a public park near the city’s central business district that, despite the shortage of land, central business district that, despite the shortage of land, cannot be identified for new construction. On the other cannot be identified for new construction. On the other hand, a soft area may include neighbourhood or hand, a soft area may include neighbourhood or commercial district with an increasing number of vacant commercial district with an increasing number of vacant buildings or with condemned building stock that gives an buildings or with condemned building stock that gives an opportunity for redevelopment.opportunity for redevelopment.

Functional analysisFunctional analysis This examines the This examines the relationship of activitiesrelationship of activities

among the various land uses among the various land uses and how they relate and how they relate to circulationto circulation systems. systems.

This relates closely with the work of land use This relates closely with the work of land use planners, the difference being that the urban planners, the difference being that the urban designer carries out such a study into three designer carries out such a study into three dimensions.dimensions.

For instance, increase in building heights will call For instance, increase in building heights will call for widening of streets to accommodate both for widening of streets to accommodate both motorized and pedestrian traffic.motorized and pedestrian traffic.

SynthesisSynthesis Data collected and the analysis of the problem Data collected and the analysis of the problem

are translated into design proposals for actionare translated into design proposals for action

Design concepts that reflect an understanding Design concepts that reflect an understanding of the constraints of the problem and propose of the constraints of the problem and propose optimum solutions, based on tradeoffs such as optimum solutions, based on tradeoffs such as between motor traffic and pedestriansbetween motor traffic and pedestrians

Main activities include:Main activities include:Evolution of concepts for developmentEvolution of concepts for developmentDevelopment of schematic designDevelopment of schematic designPreliminary DesignsPreliminary Designs

EvaluationEvaluation

Based on two main criteria:Based on two main criteria:- How well the solutions fit the problemHow well the solutions fit the problem- How readily the proposals can be How readily the proposals can be

implemented.implemented.

Thus, evaluation may examine:Thus, evaluation may examine: ability to meet objectivesability to meet objectives

ability to gain public acceptanceability to gain public acceptance

meeting financial and technical demandsmeeting financial and technical demands

ImplementationImplementation Devising the actual strategies for financing and Devising the actual strategies for financing and

construction.construction.

Implementation relies on two main tools: Implementation relies on two main tools: - Land use controls:Land use controls: include the traditional/Euclidean include the traditional/Euclidean

zoning ordinance, Planned Unit Development, zoning ordinance, Planned Unit Development, Incentive/Bonus zoning, and Transfer of Incentive/Bonus zoning, and Transfer of Development RightsDevelopment Rights

- Capital expendituresCapital expenditures: these shape the pattern of : these shape the pattern of land use by altering land values through the land use by altering land values through the provision of access and utilities.provision of access and utilities.

In this age of participation, successful In this age of participation, successful implementation of urban design projects will rely implementation of urban design projects will rely on both capital expenditures and eminent domain on both capital expenditures and eminent domain (popularity).(popularity).

Making a Visual SurveyMaking a Visual Survey

A A visual surveyvisual survey is an examination of the form, is an examination of the form, appearance, and composition of a city…an appearance, and composition of a city…an evaluation of its evaluation of its assets assets (to be protected) and (to be protected) and liabilities liabilities (to be corrected.(to be corrected.

As an analysis of a city, its objectives are twofold:As an analysis of a city, its objectives are twofold:- To establish the relationship between spatial To establish the relationship between spatial

components as well as assessment of their components as well as assessment of their conditioncondition

- To determine where the area investigated needs To determine where the area investigated needs improvement /reshaping/remodellingimprovement /reshaping/remodelling

A visual survey can be made at different urban A visual survey can be made at different urban scales: scales: macromacro to to micromicro

A visual survey calls for a A visual survey calls for a descriptive descriptive vocabularyvocabulary for identification and for identification and relation of spatial elements in order relation of spatial elements in order to understand the form, function, and to understand the form, function, and consequent appearance of given consequent appearance of given space.space.

A good survey generates ideas for A good survey generates ideas for action: areas of improvement, action: areas of improvement, correction or total replacement.correction or total replacement.

Components of a visual Components of a visual surveysurvey

1.1. Image of the city Image of the city 2.2. Landform and NatureLandform and Nature3.3. Local ClimateLocal Climate4.4. Shape of urban formShape of urban form5.5. Size and DensitySize and Density6.6. Pattern, Grain, and TexturePattern, Grain, and Texture7.7. Urban Spaces and Open SpacesUrban Spaces and Open Spaces8.8. Routes of movementRoutes of movement9.9. Districts/Enclaves/SectorsDistricts/Enclaves/Sectors10.10. Activity structureActivity structure11.11. OrientationOrientation12.12. DetailsDetails13.13. Pedestrian areasPedestrian areas14.14. Vistas and skylinesVistas and skylines15.15. Non-physical AspectsNon-physical Aspects16.16. Problem AreasProblem Areas

Image of the cityImage of the city(paths, districts, edges, landmarks, nodes)(paths, districts, edges, landmarks, nodes)

- the mental picture people extract from the - the mental picture people extract from the physical reality of the cityphysical reality of the city

- a picture of parts of the city in physical a picture of parts of the city in physical relationship to each otherrelationship to each other

- Picture of the most salient features of a city’s Picture of the most salient features of a city’s formform

- Skeletal elements of city formSkeletal elements of city form

The more imageable the city, the more legible it is!The more imageable the city, the more legible it is!

Landform:Landform: Every city is built on landEvery city is built on land Includes topography and landscape character…form of Includes topography and landscape character…form of

terrain (flat, rolling, hilly e.t.c)terrain (flat, rolling, hilly e.t.c) Prominent landscape features should be noted….cliffs, Prominent landscape features should be noted….cliffs,

ranges, mountain peaks, rivers, lakes, e.t.cranges, mountain peaks, rivers, lakes, e.t.c Type and character of greenery, including its seasonal Type and character of greenery, including its seasonal

changeschanges

Landform and NatureLandform and Nature

Nature:Nature: Considerations,Considerations, Character of surrounding landscape Character of surrounding landscape

that built form will respond to that built form will respond to functionally and aestheticallyfunctionally and aesthetically

Degree to which built form will Degree to which built form will enhance natureenhance nature

Natural areas to be left intact to Natural areas to be left intact to complement urban formcomplement urban form

Shape of urban formShape of urban form

Characteristics and Characteristics and objectives of objectives of various shapes; various shapes; prospros and and conscons..

Size and DensitySize and Density

Size: physical extent; no. of inhabitantsSize: physical extent; no. of inhabitants

Density: population density; unit (dwellings) Density: population density; unit (dwellings) density; amount of building floor area in a density; amount of building floor area in a given section of the city (floor area index); given section of the city (floor area index); automobile densityautomobile density

Relationship of size and density influences Relationship of size and density influences the population distribution and urban the population distribution and urban massingmassing

Local ClimateLocal Climate

Temperatures: Temperatures: implications of seasonal implications of seasonal temperatures and humidity…averages and extremes…temperatures and humidity…averages and extremes…comfort zones and periods…amelioration of extremes and comfort zones and periods…amelioration of extremes and discomfort discomfort

Light: Light: implications of clear and cloudy daysimplications of clear and cloudy days

Precipitation: Precipitation: rain and snowrain and snow

Sun: Sun: angles of the sun (solar altitude) at different angles of the sun (solar altitude) at different seasons affects viewing conditions…long and short sunny seasons affects viewing conditions…long and short sunny daysdays

Winds: Winds: direction and intensity of seasonal winds; cold direction and intensity of seasonal winds; cold and hot windsand hot winds

Pattern, Grain and TexturePattern, Grain and Texture

Pattern:Pattern: the underlying the underlying geometry of city form…geometry of city form…mostly define by block mostly define by block and street layoutsand street layouts

Grain:Grain: degree of degree of fineness or courseness fineness or courseness in an urban areain an urban area

Texture:Texture: the degree of the degree of mixture of fine and mixture of fine and course elements of course elements of urban form (urban form (eveneven vs vs unevenuneven))

Urban Spaces and Open SpacesUrban Spaces and Open Spaces

Voids within the cityVoids within the city Urban spaces: Urban spaces:

formal…usually formal…usually modelled by modelled by building facades building facades and the city’s floorand the city’s floor

Open spaces: Open spaces: natural, natural, representing nature representing nature in the cityin the city

Routes of Routes of movementmovement

Principal Principal determinants of determinants of urban form:urban form:

Routes affect the Routes affect the appearance of the appearance of the landscape through landscape through which they pass as which they pass as well as the well as the architecture and architecture and form of cities they form of cities they serve. serve.

Routes of movement (cont’d)Routes of movement (cont’d) ClarityClarity of routes of routes in form and directionin form and direction is a design is a design

concernconcern Routes should have physical relationships and help Routes should have physical relationships and help

define areas they serve instead of just slashing define areas they serve instead of just slashing through them, causing blight and disintegrationthrough them, causing blight and disintegration

Routes should artfully traverse the landscape, Routes should artfully traverse the landscape, revealing its strong features.revealing its strong features.

Approach routesApproach routes present cities to us and enable us present cities to us and enable us to fond our destination…thus they both to fond our destination…thus they both informinform and and conductconduct us. us.

Surface arteries Surface arteries are major routes through the city…are major routes through the city…high volume traffichigh volume traffic

Local streetsLocal streets carry a mixture of people and vehicles; carry a mixture of people and vehicles; through traffic not desirable.through traffic not desirable.

Evaluation of streetsEvaluation of streets How streets tie together into the expressway How streets tie together into the expressway

patternpattern Clarity of formClarity of form Relationship to cityscapeRelationship to cityscape How they shape building sitesHow they shape building sites How they pass through existing districtsHow they pass through existing districts Vehicular versus pedestrian traffic…any Vehicular versus pedestrian traffic…any

conflicts?...or complementary?conflicts?...or complementary? Crossing levels…specific or not defined: Crossing levels…specific or not defined:

stoplights, grade separationstoplights, grade separation Through versus local trafficThrough versus local traffic Scale…how size of streets relates to size of the Scale…how size of streets relates to size of the

districts they servedistricts they serve

Districts of a cityDistricts of a city These are: These are:

areas/precincts/quarteareas/precincts/quarters/sectors/enclaves of rs/sectors/enclaves of the citythe city

Often have dominant, Often have dominant, distinctive, and distinctive, and pervasive pervasive characteristic featurescharacteristic features

The city is an The city is an arrangement of these.arrangement of these.

Districts (cont’d)Districts (cont’d) Districts may be distinct, overlapping, Districts may be distinct, overlapping,

uniform, complex.uniform, complex. Two data categories to assess:Two data categories to assess:

- Physical formPhysical form- Visible activityVisible activity

We assess:We assess:

- Components, appearance, activity, threats, - Components, appearance, activity, threats, emergence, relationsemergence, relations

AnatomyAnatomy of a district: form, activity, of a district: form, activity, features, paths, centres, intrusions, features, paths, centres, intrusions, change, improvementchange, improvement

Activity structureActivity structure

This captures certain This captures certain areas of the city with areas of the city with characteristic characteristic functions…living, functions…living, leisure, learning e.t.cleisure, learning e.t.c

Activity structure will Activity structure will be affected by be affected by density, topography, density, topography, transportation routes.transportation routes.

OrientationOrientation

This is the logical articulation of the This is the logical articulation of the arrangement of a city’s anatomy arrangement of a city’s anatomy expressed visuallyexpressed visually

A city lacking orientation is confusing A city lacking orientation is confusing and may cause confusion, anxiety and may cause confusion, anxiety and feeling of getting lostand feeling of getting lost

Landmarks are the prime aids in Landmarks are the prime aids in orientationorientation

DetailsDetails These include objects These include objects

of various types for of various types for direct/indirect or direct/indirect or conscious/unconscious conscious/unconscious use: signs, benches, use: signs, benches, waste bims, street waste bims, street lamps, e.t.clamps, e.t.c

The quality of detail The quality of detail should be informed by should be informed by the nature of audience the nature of audience targeted.targeted.

Pedestrian AreasPedestrian Areas These address walking as a These address walking as a

prime mode of prime mode of transportation…transportation…communication and inter-communication and inter-movement.movement.

These should be creatively These should be creatively integrated with motorised integrated with motorised transportation.transportation.

Traffic calming is a specific Traffic calming is a specific concern in design of concern in design of pedestrian areas…low pedestrian areas…low speeds, minimal through speeds, minimal through traffic, one way streets e.t.ctraffic, one way streets e.t.c

Adequacy of pavements: widths, Adequacy of pavements: widths, paving, condition of repair, paving, condition of repair, protection from elements of protection from elements of weather, furniture and fittingsweather, furniture and fittings

Intersections and crosspoints: Intersections and crosspoints: impact on flow rates, continuity, impact on flow rates, continuity, and sequenceand sequence

Vistas and SkylinesVistas and Skylines

VistasVistas are strong visual linksare strong visual links May serve May serve approachapproach or or departuredeparture purposes of urban purposes of urban

areas…i.e views areas…i.e views intointo and and out of out of a city. a city. Some views are gazetted and legally protected as urban Some views are gazetted and legally protected as urban

assetsassets Vistas could be complemented by buildings Vistas could be complemented by buildings (ref. use of axis (ref. use of axis

in renaissance; civic design of Nairobi)in renaissance; civic design of Nairobi)

SkylinesSkylinesSkyline Skyline refers to the (3-refers to the (3-

dimensional) dimensional) compositionalcompositional and and sequentialsequential character of character of urban spaces and buildingsurban spaces and buildings

It is a representation of a It is a representation of a city’s facts of life and city’s facts of life and embraces the maximum embraces the maximum amount of urban form in a amount of urban form in a single visual output.single visual output.

Every building with a Every building with a potential to alter a city’s potential to alter a city’s skyline should be studied skyline should be studied carefully carefully (ref. CBD skyline (ref. CBD skyline exercise, B.A I)exercise, B.A I)

Non-physical AspectsNon-physical Aspects

These are These are non-architecturalnon-architectural aspects aspects of urban character that are still a of urban character that are still a large part of a city’s image and large part of a city’s image and personalitypersonality

Historical aspects, public ceremonies Historical aspects, public ceremonies and eventsand events

Problem AreasProblem Areas

These have to be mapped out during These have to be mapped out during visual survey….visual survey….

The The problem mapproblem map represents urban design represents urban design diagnosis of ills!diagnosis of ills!

It may include: points of conflict It may include: points of conflict (in land (in land use, circulation e.t.c)use, circulation e.t.c); areas with little or ; areas with little or no sense of orientation; non-descript or no sense of orientation; non-descript or grey areas; ugliness; communities lacking grey areas; ugliness; communities lacking form and definition; areas with confusing form and definition; areas with confusing signs; areas of decay and crime; confusing signs; areas of decay and crime; confusing circulation; incomplete routes e.t.ccirculation; incomplete routes e.t.c

Recording Results of a Visual Recording Results of a Visual SurveySurvey

Visual surveys are commonly Visual surveys are commonly recorded as simple maps recorded as simple maps accompanied by sketches, accompanied by sketches, photographs, and descriptive notes.photographs, and descriptive notes.

The sketches, photographs, and The sketches, photographs, and descriptive notes can be attached to descriptive notes can be attached to the map into an aggregate drawing or the map into an aggregate drawing or reportreport

Visual Survey Recording Visual Survey Recording ChecklistChecklist

A set of maps might include the following:A set of maps might include the following:1.1. TopographyTopography2.2. Microclimate – sun , wind, storm directions e.t.cMicroclimate – sun , wind, storm directions e.t.c3.3. ShapeShape4.4. Patterns, textures, and grainsPatterns, textures, and grains5.5. RoutesRoutes6.6. DistrictsDistricts7.7. Landmarks and nodesLandmarks and nodes8.8. Open SpacesOpen Spaces9.9. VistasVistas10.10. Magnets, generators, and linkagesMagnets, generators, and linkages

Visual Survey Recording Checklist Visual Survey Recording Checklist (cont’d)(cont’d)

11.11. Special activity centres and overall activity Special activity centres and overall activity structurestructure

12.12. Hubs of intense visual experienceHubs of intense visual experience13.13. Strong and weak areas of orientationStrong and weak areas of orientation14.14. Sign areasSign areas15.15. Points of conflictPoints of conflict16.16. Historic or special districtsHistoric or special districts17.17. Community structureCommunity structure18.18. Areas of preservation, moderate remodelling, and Areas of preservation, moderate remodelling, and

complete overhaulcomplete overhaul19.19. Places needing clarifying design elementsPlaces needing clarifying design elements20.20. Sketch maps of prominent urban features and formSketch maps of prominent urban features and form

5.2 Urban Design as 5.2 Urban Design as ProcessProcess

Entails City Building action among various Entails City Building action among various partiesparties

Negotiation – by political-economic meansNegotiation – by political-economic means Sectoral issues of importanceSectoral issues of importance Institutional Design; Community Activism; Institutional Design; Community Activism;

eminent domain and their role in designeminent domain and their role in design Linking ideas to action (Urban trialogues); Linking ideas to action (Urban trialogues);

Visions-Strategic urban projects-Co-Visions-Strategic urban projects-Co-production (collective participation of production (collective participation of actors)actors)

Leverage for resources; political processes; Leverage for resources; political processes; community mobilization and involvementcommunity mobilization and involvement

Urban design charters: Urban design charters: commit Government commit Government agencies to achieve good urban design when managing agencies to achieve good urban design when managing public places or creating the public buildings and public places or creating the public buildings and infrastructure that contribute to the qualities of our streets, infrastructure that contribute to the qualities of our streets, squares, parks and waterfronts. squares, parks and waterfronts.

II. Non-Formal/Non-linear Design II. Non-Formal/Non-linear Design ApproachApproach

Implementation modelsImplementation models(urban design as process)(urban design as process)

Functional Analysis (software):

Employment/Occupational structures;Demographic structure; Neighbourhood Lifestyles/perceptions;Procurement/ownership/ use patternsTechnology &materials;Amenity and services;Symbolic & aesthetic order;Socio-political order: Policy, institutions, and, governance.

Character(Socio-spatial)

Physical Analysis (hardware):

-Morphology -Building typology & construction systems

-Image and public realm -Objects & Aesthetic detail-Infrastructural installations

Nature, Intensity, Location, and impact of ModernityCommunity perception of ModernityProjected Areas of (traditional-modern) Conflict and CongruenceAdaptability of traditional to modern functions