5 qualitative methodology (dr mai, 2014)

5Qualitative Research

McGraw-Hill/IrwinBusiness Research Methods, 10e Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Qualitative Research in Business

Job Analysis

Advertising Concept

Development

Productivity

Enhancement

New Product

Development

Benefits Management

Retail Design

Process

Understanding

Union Representation

Market Segmentation

Sales Analysis

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The Roots of Qualitative Research

Psychology

Anthropology

Communication

SociologySemiotics

Economics

Qualitative

Research

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Qualitative

Research

and the

Research Process

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Formulating

the

Qualitative

Research

Question

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Qualitative Research Question

Exploratory foundation

How? Why?

Phenomenology

Essence of experience; affect on meaning and

behavior

Grounded theory

Elements of experience; generating models or

theories

Adopt from Dr. John L. Hoffman, CSUF (2012)

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Qualitative Research Question

Narrative Inquiry

Analyzes people’s stories about experience;

creates a collaborative story for a purpose

Ethnography

Uses an ethnic group as the unit of analysis

Case study

Uses a program, event, or process as the unit

analysis

Adopt from Dr. John L. Hoffman, CSUF (2012)

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Mixed methods Research question

Convergent

In what ways do the quantitative and qualitative

findings complement or contradict one another?

Explanatory/Exploratory

Based on an intentional sequence (e.g. QUAN

QUAL)

In what ways do the qualitative findings confirm,

disconfirm, and/or extend the quantitative

findings?

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Focus Groups

Qualitative Research

Ethnography

ObservationData

Collection

Techniques

IDIs

Case Studies

Action

Research

Grounded

Theory

Group

Interviews

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Data Sources

People

OrganizationsTexts

Environments

Events and

happenings

Artifacts/ media

products

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Pretasking Activities

Use product in home

Bring visual stimuli

Create collage

Keep diaries

Construct a story

Draw pictures

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Choosing a Qualitative Method

Types of

participants

Researcher

characteristics

Factors

Schedule

Budget

Topics

Project’s

purpose

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NonProbability Sampling

Purposive

SamplingSnowball

Sampling

Convenience

Sampling

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Qualitative Sampling

General sampling rule:

You should keep conducting

interviews until no new insights are

gained.

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The Interview Question Hierarchy

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Interviewer Responsibilities

Recommends topics and

questions

Controls interview

Plans location and

facilities

Proposes criteria for

drawing sample

Writes screener

Recruits participants

Develops pretasking

activities

Prepares research

tools

Supervises

transcription

Helps analyze data

Draws insights

Writes report

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Elements of a Recruitment Screener

Heading

Screening requirements

Identity information

Introduction

Security questions

Demographic questions

Behavior questions

Lifestyle questions

Attitudinal and

knowledge questions

Articulation and

creative questions

Offer/ Termination

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Interview Formats

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured

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Requirements for

Unstructured Interviews

Distinctions

Developed dialog

Interviewer skill

Probe for

answers

Interviewer

creativity

In-depth or semi-structure

To help you decide whether or not to use in-depth or

semi-structure interview

Does the purpose of your research suggest to use in-depth or

semi-structure interview?

Will it help to seek personal contact in terms of gaining access

to participants and their data?

Are your data collection questions large in number, complex or

open-ended?

Will there be a need to vary the order and logic of

questioning?

Will it help to be able to probe interviewees responses to build

on or seek explanation of their answer?

Will the data collection process with each individual involve a

relatively lengthy period?

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The Interview Mode

GroupIndividual

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IDI vs GroupIndividual Interview Group Interview

Research Objective

Explore life of individual in depth

Create case histories through repeated

interviews over time

Test a survey

Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and

the language of the field

Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and

behaviors

Observe a process of consensus and

disagreement

Topic Concerns

Detailed individual experiences, choices,

biographies

Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety

Issues of public interest or common concern

Issues where little is known or of a

hypothetical nature

Participants

Time-pressed participants or those difficult to

recruit (e.g., elite or high-status participants)

Participants with sufficient language skills (e.g.,

those older than seven)

Participants whose distinctions would inhibit

participation

Participants whose backgrounds are similar or

not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or

discomfort

Participants who can articulate their ideas

Participants who offer a range of positions on

issues

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Types of Research Using IDIs

Cultural

interviews

Sequential

interviewing

Types

Life histories

Critical

incident

techniques

Oral histories

Ethnography

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Group Interviews

Dyads

Triads

Mini-Groups

Small Groups (Focus Group)

Supergroups

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Determining the Number of Groups

Scope

Number of distinct segments

Desired number of ideas

Desired level of detail

Homogeneity

Level of distinction

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Group Interview Modes

Teleconference

Online

Videoconference

Face-to-Face

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Combining Qualitative Methodologies

Action ResearchCase Study

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Case Study Yin (1984:23) defines the case study research method

“as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary

phenomenon within its real-life context; when the

boundaries between phenomenon and context are not

clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of

evidence are used.”

Through case study methods, a researcher is able to go

beyond the quantitative statistical results and understand

the behavioral conditions through the actor’s

perspective. By including both quantitative and

qualitative data, case study helps explain both the

process and outcome of a phenomenon through

complete observation, reconstruction and analysis of the

cases under investigation (Tellis, 1997).

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Case Study Design

single-case where events are limited to a

single occurrence

multiple-case design numerous sources of

evidence through replication

Generalisation of results from case studies, from

either single or multiple designs, stems on

theory rather than on populations (Yin,1994)

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Case Study Design

case study method, through interviews or journal entries, must be able to prove that:

it is the only viable method to explore implicit and explicit data from the subjects

it is appropriate to the research question

it follows the set of procedures with proper application

a ‘chain of evidence’, either quantitatively or qualitatively, are systematically

recorded and archived particularly when interviews and direct observation by the researcher are the main sources of data

the case study is linked to a theoretical framework (Tellis, 1997)

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Action Research

Action research is “learning by doing”: a group of

people identify a problem, do something to

resolve it, see how successful their efforts were,

and if not satisfied, try again. While this is the

essence of the approach, there are other key

attributes of action research that differentiate it

from common problem-solving activities that we

all engage in every day.

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Action research process

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Action research process is a spiral

QUALITATIVE DATA

COLLECTION

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Data recording - Converting Raw Data to

Computer Files

Audio Recording

transcribing all tapes and typing the transcriptions into computer files

Before transcription, the tabs on the tapes should be punched to prevent them from being recorded over.

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Converting Raw Data to Computer Files

Handwritten field notes: handwritten notes include a wide range of information: casual and structured observations

verbatim quotes

paraphrases of participant responses

interview and focus group backup documentation

the researcher’s questions

questions, conclusions, and observations discussed during the staff debriefing sessions

Transcription of recordings and typing of field notes should begin as soon as possible after the data collection event.

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Converting Raw Data to Computer

Files

Use standard conventions for identifying the researcher

and individual participants throughout the transcript.

These conventions should be detailed in a transcription

protocol which precisely outlines procedures and formats

for transcribing recorded data.

Transcription protocol you develop for your own study

should reflect any formatting or other requirements of the

software that you will use.

Data Analysis Strategies

Identifying themes

Begin with big picture and list “themes” that emerge.

Events that keep repeating themselves

Coding qualitative data

Reduce data to a manageable form

Often done by writing notes on note cards and

sorting into themes.

Predetermined categories vs. emerging categories

EDUC 7741/Paris/Terry

Coding Data

Open Coding

Assign a code word or phrase that accurately

describes the meaning of the text segment

Line-by-line coding is done first in theoretical

research

More general coding involving larger segments of

text is adequate for practical research (action

research)

Systematic Coding

Categories are created ahead of time

from existing literature

from previous open coding

Code the data just like open coding

Ron Wardell, EVDS 617 course notes

How to make coding manageable

Make photocopies of original data

Why?

Read through all of the data.

Attach working labels to blocks of text

Cut and paste blocks of text onto index cards.

Group cards that have similar labels together

Revisit piles of cards to see if clusters still hold

together.

Affinity Diagramming

Goal: what are the main themes?

Write ideas on sticky notes

Place notes on a large wall / surface

Group notes hierarchically to see main themes

Holtzblatt et al., 2005

Example: Calendar Field Study

Neustaedter, 2007

Families were given a digital calendar to use

in their homes

Thoughts / reactions recorded:

Weekly interview notes

Audio recordings from interviews


Step 1: Affinity Notes

go through data and write observations down on

post-it notes

each note contains one idea


Step 2: Diagram Building

place all notes on a wall / surface



move notes into related columns / piles


Step 3: Affinity Labels

write labels describing each group




Calendar placement

is a challenge




Calendar placement

is a challengeInterface visuals

affect usage




Calendar placement


affect usage

People check the

calendar when not

at home


Step 4: Further Refine Groupings

Calendar placement


affect usage

People check the

calendar when not

at home


Why themes?

It is best to write a qualitative report providing

detailed information about a few themes rather

than general information about many themes

Themes can also be referred to as Categories


Naming the Themes or Categories

The names can come from at least three

sources:

The researcher

The participants

The literature

Most common: when the researcher

comes up with terms, concepts, and

categories that reflect what he or she sees

in the data


Themes should…

Reflect the purpose of the research

Be exhaustive--you must place all data in a category

Be sensitizing--should be sensitive to what is in the data

i.e., “leadership” vs. “charismatic leadership”

Be conceptually congruent- the same level of abstraction should characterize all categories at the same level

For instance, you wouldn’t have produce, canned goods, and fruit


Types of themes

Ordinary: themes a researcher expects

Unexpected: themes that are surprises and not expected to surface

Hard-to-classify: themes that contain ideas that do not easily fit into one theme or that overlap with several themes

Major & minor themes: themes that represent the major ideas, or minor, secondary ideas in a database Minor themes fit under major themes in the write up

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Exercise 4 (Group)

Develop qualitative research question(s) for

your group project

Design an in-depth interview protocol:

Interview purpose?

Interviewee? (any selection criteria?)

Questions? (screening, leading, probe questions)

Practice the interview skill

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Observation and the Research Process

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Selecting an Observation Data Collection

Approach

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Research Design

How?

Where?

Task Details

What?

(event or

time)

When?

Who?

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Content of ObservationFactual Inferential

Introduction/identification of salesperson and

customer.

Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of

customer.

Time and day of week. Convenience for the customer. Welcoming

attitude of the customer

Product presented. Customer interest in product.

Selling points presented per product. Customer acceptance of selling points of

product.

Number of customer objections raised per

product.

Customer concerns about features and

benefits.

Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection. Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal

attempts.

Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls. Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt.

Consequences for customer who prefers

interaction.

Length of interview. Customer’s/salesperson’s degree of

enthusiasm for the interview.

Environmental factors interfering with the

interview.

Level of distraction for the customer.

Customer purchase decision. General evaluation of sale presentation skill.

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Data Collection

Watching

Listening

Touching

Smelling

Reading

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Using Observation

Systematic planning

Properly controlled

Consistently dependable

Accurate account of events

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Observation Classification

Nonbehavioral

Physical condition

analysis

Process or Activity

analysis

Record analysis

Behavioral

Nonverbal

Linguistic

Extra-linguistic

Spatial

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Nonverbal observation is the most prevalent and refers to recording physical actions or movements of participants. These behaviors can be measured with the human eye and with several mechanical or digital devices.

Linguistic observation is the observation of human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or interaction.

Extra-linguistic observation is the recording of vocal, temporal, interaction, and verbal stylistic behaviors of human participants.

Spatial observation is the recording of how humans physically relate to one another.

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Selecting an Observation Data Collection

Approach - Non-behavioral

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Nonbehavioral Observation

Record

Analysis

Physical Condition

Analysis

Physical Process

Analysis

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Selecting an Observation

Data Collection Approach…Behavioral

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Behavioral Observation

“We noticed people scraping

the toppings off our pizza

crusts. We thought at first

there was something wrong,

but they said, ‘We love it, we

just don’t eat the crust

anymore.”

Tom Santor, Donatos Pizza

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Systematic Observation

Encoding

observation

information

Structured

Systematic

Trained

observers

Standardized

procedures

Recording

schedules

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Flowchart for Checklist Design

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Mechanical/ Digital Behavioral

Observation

Eye camera

Devices

Audio recorder

Video camera

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Observer-Participant Relationship

Direct or indirect

observation

Presence is known

or unknown

Observer involved or

not involved in events

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Extralinguistic Observation

Vocal

Temporal

Interaction

Verbal Stylistic

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Extralinguistic Observation

Vocal

Temporal

Interaction

Verbal Stylistic

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Desired Characteristics for Observers

Concentration

Detail-oriented

Unobtrusive

Experience level

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Errors Introduced by Observers

Observer DriftHalo Effect

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Errors Introduced by Observers

Halo Effect: inexperience can be an advantage if

there is a risk that experienced observers may have

preset convictions about the topic or if prior

observations will influence what is perceived in a

current observation.

Observer Drift: observers can also introduce error

when fatigued, which can result in observer drift.

Observer drift is error caused by decay in

consistency and accuracy on recorded observations

over time, affecting categorization.

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Evaluation of Behavioral Observation

Strengths

Securing information that

is otherwise unavailable

Avoiding participant

filtering/ forgetting

Securing environmental

context

Optimizing naturalness

Reducing obtrusiveness

Weaknesses

Enduring long periods

Incurring higher

expenses

Having lower reliability of

inferences

Quantifying data

Keeping large records

Being limited on

knowledge of cognitive

processes

5 qualitative methodology (dr mai, 2014)

Education

research process

qualitative findings

research tools

creative questions

interview question hierarchy

unit analysis

semistructure interview

purpose ethnography