4a05 le truong my loc word formation in english and vietnamese

7/29/2019 4A05 Le Truong My Loc Word Formation in English and Vietnamese

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Word Formation in English and Vietnamese 0

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

Instructor : Nguyen Ngoc Vu

Student : Le Truong My Loc

HCMC, 30/12/2008


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ABSTRACT

Language is obviously a vital tool. We use language to serve our demands and activities in every

minute, every second such as communicating, studying, and trading. Language is one of the key

factors, which helps us to improve our life. However, to be frank, language is something very

vague, not concrete and unspecific. What we use every day in every field of life is our words -

more precise and specific than language. No matter language we are speakingmother tongue or

any foreign languages, words we are using come from what we have been heard, seen or taught

before. As a result, we use them instinctively. In fact, everything has its origin. And words do,

too. Every noun, verb, adjective or adverb we use to make up sentences in our speech has its own

ways from which they were formed. As a Vietnamese student, a learner of English and a teacher-

to-be of English, I find that there are some similarities and differences between word formation

in Vietnamese and English. Correspondingly, I do this research and I hope that it will make my

readers clear about all the similarities and differences of word formation in English and

Vietnamese so that they can avoid making mistakes in their translation between these two

languages.


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LITERATURE REVIEW

Words are among the most important and powerful things in the universe. No matter

where we are, what we do, people have to use words to communicate every day. According to

many assumptions, words are rule-governed. Every word we use has its own formation which is

based on a particular way. Similarly, English and Vietnamese have their own ways of forming

words. According to many researches of this kind, there are some similarities and differences of

word formation in English and Vietnamese.

What is a word? As for the Longman dictionary, a word is simply a smallest unit of

language that people can understand if it is said or written on its own. This is just a very simple

definition of a word. However, a word has its own more academic definition. That is a word is a

unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked

more or less tightly together, and has a phonetic value (Wikipedia). According to this definition,

words in English or Vietnamese are formed from morphemes. To some extends, it seems likely

that word formation in English and Vietnamese are alike. In Nguyen Luong Ngocs research, she

supposes there are two kinds of morphemes in English and Vietnamese words: free morphemes

and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can occur alone, form words by themselves and are

found in the central place of word structure. Bound morphemes can not occur by themselves.

However, there are some differences between bound morphemes in English and Vietnamese. In

English, bound morphemes cannot appear alone as separate words and they are prefixes likepre-,

in-, un-, and suffixes like ly, -s, -able, etc.. Meanwhile, bound morphemes in Vietnamese

cannot occur alone but they are separate words and can function as either compounding or

reduplicative elements. As a result, words in English can be formed by one free morpheme only,

such as picture, book, film, cinema, or can be a combination of one free morpheme and two or


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more bound morphemes like readable, unluckily, etc. Words in Vietnamese can consist of one

single morpheme such as my, xe, nh, ca or two free morphemes like nh my, my in ton,

two or more bound morphemes, for example, thi s, quc k, ra-i-, one free and one bound

morpheme such as lm, xanh l.

In short, although both English and Vietnamese words are formed by morphemes, word

structures in these two languages are completely different. In English, in some cases we can add

prefixes or suffixes, which are considered bound morphemes, into a word to form a new word

having the relation of meaning of the origin word, but we cannot do this in Vietnamese cases. In

Vietnamese, when we want to form a new word having the relationship with the origin word, for

most of the cases we have to add another separate word.


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Word Formation in English

English word structure consists of two places: one central place, which is obligatory and

considered the basic part- the root, and some peripheral places which are optional. Many English

words originated from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes quite extensively. Therefore, most

of English words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes. In fact, there are three processes by

which new words in English are formed. They are affixation, compounding, conversion and

other devices such as reduplication, clipping, blending and acronyms.

Affixation

Affixation is the morphological process whereby an affix is attached to a root (SIL

International).

Let us look at some following examples: meaningfulorinability. We find that these two

words are composed by putting together smaller elements to form larger words with more

complex meaning. Obviously, the word meaningful can be analyzed as a combination of the

root noun meaning and the ending ful. Or, the word inability can be analyzed as being

derived from the adjective able by the attachment of the two elements in- and ity. Using

Latin-influenced terminology, -fulority is called suffix and in- is called prefix. Affix is used to

refer either a prefix or a suffix. Even the words prefix, suffix and affix are all formed from fix

by the use of prefixes (u Ottawa):

ad- + fix(attached) = affix

pre- + fix (attached)= prefix

sub- + fix (attached) = suffix

For this reason, a prefix is a type of affix which is attached to the base so that it can

modify or change the meaning of the base. Generally, prefixes do not alter the word class of a


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base and are normally written together at the beginning of a base to form a new single word.

There are many groups of prefixes according to their own meaning, e.g. negative prefixes,

reversible prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree and size, prefixes of attitude, prefixes

of time and order, number prefixes and conversion prefixes (see Appendix).

Another type of affix is suffixes. In contrast with prefixes, a suffix is placed after the base

of a word. Suffixes normally can alter the word class of the base. There are two types of suffixes:

inflectional suffixes which carry grammatical information such as s, -ed, -ingand derivational

suffixes which carry lexical information like ly, -ize, -ess. Like prefixes, suffixes can be

grouped into four categories according to the word class. They are noun suffixes, verb suffixes,

adjective suffixes and adverb suffixes (see Appendix).

With the help of affixation, people can form more and more new words, which has

diversified the treasure of English words.

Compounding

The second process to form a new word in English is compounding. A compound word is

made up of two or more words that together express a single idea. In English, words are

combined into compound structures in a variety of ways.

There are three types of compounds. A solid or closed compound consists of two words

that are written together as one word, for example, childlike, softball, secondhand. A hyphenated

compound has words connected with a hyphen, e.g. brother-in-law, two-year-old, mass-produced.

An open compound consists of words that are written separately such as post office, middle class.

In term of function, compounds are classified as permanent or temporary. A permanent

compound is accepted in ordinary usage and can be found in the dictionary, e.g. workshop,


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fieldwork, whereas a temporary compound is once created for a specific purpose in a particular

context (The American Heritage Book of English Usage).

Based on the word class, compound words can be categorized into three sections:

compound nouns, compound verbs and compound adjectives. Compound nouns are words which

have two parts: the second part identifies the person or the object, the first part tells us what type

of person or subject is or what its purpose is. In addition, the first part must modify or describe

the second part. For example, in the word police man, the first part is police which give

information about the type of the person and the second part is man. Compound nouns often

have a different meaning from the two separate words (edufind.com). There are some ways form

compound nouns:

Patterns Examples

noun + verb haircut, waterfall

noun + adverb hanger-on, passer-by

verb + noun pickpocket

verb + verb make-believe, make-do

verb + adverb press down, runaway

adjective + noun fast-food, new generation

adverb + noun overkill, over king

Compound nouns can be countable, uncountable, singular or plural (see some common

compound nouns in Appendix).

Compound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usually written with hyphen

between them to avoid ambiguity and confusion. For example, it is incorrect to write: The black

and blue mark suggested that he had been involved in an altercation . To be correct, we should

rewrite: The black-and-blue mark suggested that he had been involved in an altercation.


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However, in some cases, we do not use hyphen in a compound adjective when the adjectives are

capitalized and when they are a part of a title like in th is example, His book was entitled,

Gender Neutral Language in English Usage,and it revolutionized the way people think about

sex roles. In brief, compound adjectives are often written with hyphens when they are used in

front of nouns and without hyphens when they are used as the complement of a link verb.

Ex: It was free-and-easy relationship.

This book is out of date.

Some common patterns to make compound adjectives are:

Patterns Examples

adjective + noun_ed red-haired, old-fashioned, fair-skinned, absent-minded

adjective + past participle low-paid, high-bred, little-known

adjective + present participle good-looking, beautiful-sounding, easy-going

noun + adjective nation-wide, noteworthy, duty-free

noun + present participle time-consuming, breath-taking

noun + past participle heart-broken, handmade

adverb + past participle outspoken, ill-equipped, well-behaved

adverb + present participle high-sounding, low-flying, well-becoming

There are also some groups of compound adjectives like compound qualitative adjectives,

compound classifying adjectives, and compound color adjectives (see Appendix).

Compound verbs consist of two or more words and they are usually written with hyphens.

Sometimes we often misunderstand between compound verbs and phrasal verbs. So how to

recognize the differences between these two types of verb? Obviously, if we can insert an object


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between the two words, then it is a phrasal verb, otherwise it is a compound verb. For example,

we can say pick something up but we cannot say spoon something feed. Therefore, pick up is a

phrasal verb and spoon feed is a compound verb. Another difference is that the last word of a

phrasal verb is a preposition; meanwhile, it is a verb or a noun for a compound verb. Some

patterns of compound verb formation are:

Patterns Examples

noun + verb sky-dive, spoon-feed, water-ski, baby-sit, tape-record, window-shop

verb + noun do-time, dry-salt

verb + verb kick-start

adjective + verb double-book, dry-clean, ill-treat

adverb + verb overbook, overdo, undergo

Conversion

So far, we have known two ways of forming a new word in English by linking bases and

bases or linking bases and affixes. However, there are some ways to form a new word without

adding or linking. That is conversion.

Conversion zero derivation- is the creation of a word from an existing word without

any change in form (Wikipedia). For instance, we can turn nouns into verbs without adding

anything into the base. Take this for an example, water is a noun, but we can use it as a verb with

the meaning provide water.

In English, conversion is fairly used.


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Other devices: reduplication, clipping, blending

Reduplication is the use of a repeated sound segment in a lexeme (The phrase finder), e.g.

chock-a-block, chit-chat, mumbo jumbo. It plays a small role in English word formation.

Clipping is the abbreviation of a word, and it is a mark of informal language. For

example, instead of saying pantaloons we can use pants, or taxi for taximeter, phone for

telephone.

Blending is the use of a word formed from parts of two other words. For example, smog

is the word formed from two words smoke and frog. There are some methods for forming blends.

The first is the beginning of one word is added to the end of other.

Ex: broccoli + cauliflower broccoflower

Breakfast + lunch brunch

Education + entertainment edutainment

Another way, we can combine the beginning of the two words.

Ex: cybernetic + organism cyborg

Word Formation in Vietnamese

Words in Vietnamese are single units and the largest units in the language system. In

contrast with English, words in Vietnamese are not formed by adding affixes but there are three

methods of word formation: conversion, compounding, and reduplication.

Conversion

According to professor Do Huu Chau, conversion is the method used to change the

meaning of a word without changing its form. The new word and the original word have the

same spelling and pronunciation but they have completely different meaning.


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The method conversion happens based on the two basic methods: metaphor and

metonymy. Let us take the word leg (chn) for example. The original meaning is a part of a

body. However, we can use the word chn to refer to other meanings such as the position in

an organization (c chn trong ban gim hiu), or a job of a person (chn th k). Another

example, we can use some words which means the state of fruit like non, gi, chn to

imply the degree of measurements such as non mt cn, gi mt cn, orsuy ngh cn non,

suy ngh gi dn.

In short, by conversion, the form of a word remains but the meaning has been changed

through metaphor and metonymy.

Compounding

Another method of word formation in Vietnamese is compounding. Compared to English,

compounding in Vietnamese and English are similar to some extends.

Compound words are made up from two or more single words, which have relationship

of meaning. There are two types of compound words in Vietnamese: coordinated compound

words (tghp ng lp) and principal-and-accessory compound words (t ghp chnh ph).

Coordinated compound words are words in which components have equal meanings. For

example, n and are the two words which have the meaning when they are alone, and

they have equal meaning to some extends. Therefore, when we compound these two words, we

have a new word n . Principal-and-accessory compound words are words in which one

component depends on another component. The accessory component has the role of modifying

the principal component. Let us take tu ha for example. Ha is the accessory component

which tells us the function of this machine.


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Similar to English words, compound words in Vietnamese are also divided into three

groups according to word class: compound nouns, compound verbs, and compound adjectives.

As you know, Vietnam used to be dominated by Chinese. Therefore, Vietnamese

language has been influenced by Chinese. For this reason, compound nouns in Vietnamese are

mostly created based on Chinese words. Compound nouns can be two Han-Viet words which are

in the same category and the meanings of the two words are interdependent.

Ex: t tng (t: ngh, tng: ngh ngi)

y phc (y: o, phc: trang phc)

Compound nouns in Vietnamese can consist of two or more Han-Viet words, in which one word

has the main meaning and others modify the main component.

Ex: n nhn (nhnis the major word, n is the modifier fornhn)

hng khng mu hm (hm is the major word, mu is the modifier for

hm, and hng khng is the modifier formu hm)

Not only are Han-Viet words used in noun compounding, Nm can be used. Therefore,

compound nouns can be made up from two Nm words to have a new word which has a general

meaning, e.g. qun o, bt da, nh ca, rung vn. Another way of forming compound nouns

is to combine one noun and one idiomatic phrase, such as phng gi o ti cm, kry y

mai , bn mi quc cu vinh(Vn phm Vit Nam 1992).

Another type of compound words is compound adjectives. Like compound nouns,

compound adjectives are mostly formed by the same methods. Here are some patterns

Patterns Examples

Han-Viet + Han-Viet anh hng, thanh nh, chnh trc, lch duyt

Han-Viet (major) + Han-Viet (minor) i quc, hiu ha


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Han-Viet (minor) + Han-Viet (major) v l, phi ngha, bt hiu

Nm + Nm

(equal meaning)

Ti tt, m du, khe mnh

Han-Viet idiomatic phrases (thi ) mc h v nhn

Nm idiomatic phrases (cu ni) hng tm hng c

nouns (t tng) quc gia, (hot ng) vn ha

verbs (t tng) tin b, (hnh ng)phn bi

(Bi c Tnh 1992: 87-89)

Vietnamese compound verbs has no exception, they are influenced by Chinese words.

Here are some common patterns by which compound verbs are formed:

Patterns Examples

Han-Viet + Han-Viet khch l, quan st

Han-Viet adjective/ noun + ha gin d ha, qun sha, n l ha

Nm verb + Nm verb bun bn, thng yu, n , n ung

Nm verb (major) + Nm verb (minor) nh la, ni thch, n xin

verb + noun nh bc, hnh ti, bit n

verb + adjective lm giu, lm kiu

verb + adverb vo trong, i ra, n ngoi

verb phrase Ni i ni li, dn i dn li

nouns Cbc, ru ch

adjectives Ln, ngc

idiomatic phrases Ging ng kch ty, ry y mai

(Bi c Tnh 1992: 98-100)


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In brief, compounding is totally different from conversion. The conversion just impacts

on one words, whereas the compounding impacts on the two words so that we have a new word

which has not been existed before.

Reduplication

Reduplication in Vietnamese is somehow similar to reduplication in English. This

method impacts on one component and produces minor component. There is a relationship

between the root component and the minor component. The combination of these two words is

called reduplicative word.

According to the information of the Net Ngon Ngu website, the length of reduplicative

words is two words for minimum and four words for maximum. There are types of reduplication

words. In the first type, the two components are completely the same, such as ba ba, co

co, khng khng. The second type is the reduplication of the rhythm. The components of

the two words are totally similar, but the rhythm is different, e.g o , phi phi, thoang

thong. The last one reduplicates the rhyme. In this type, the first rhyme or the second rhyme of

the two components is repeated, e.g. cm cp, hm hp.

By reduplication, new words which have never been existed before are formed.

Reduplicative words are used in literature and music at most.

Common Errors

Because we are native Vietnamese people and we are learners of English, making errors

when transforming our ideas in native language into foreign language is common and obvious.

The most common error we meet is using wrong words, although we have been clear about the

word formation of each language.


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Errors with nouns

Firstly, Vietnamese students have problems with nouns when they translate from

Vietnamese to English and vice versa. When the Vietnamese students study English nouns, they

tend to focus on the lexical meaning of the nouns and they ignore their potential grammatical

meaning, such as count nouns, non-count nouns, singular or plural nouns. Besides, the

occurrence of English nouns and determiners is obligatory, whereas that of Vietnamese is

optional. Therefore, Vietnamese students tend to produce nouns alone, without any determiners.

For instance, in Vietnamese we say Ti mun bnh and Vietnamese students translate this

sentence into English like this I want cake (instead ofI want a cake), or another example,

in Vietnamese: Con ch ang sa, in English sentence of Vietnamese students: Dog is

sparking. (instead of The dog is sparking.). More seriously, they may also misunderstand

and using wrong determiners for nouns. For example, they tend to use many for money

(instead of much money), or much for people (instead of many people) . Another mistake

is that, the Vietnamese learners may place English nouns in wrong position. Some students will

say a house new in English to express their thinking mt ngi nh mi. Similarly, when

Vietnamese students translate from English to Vietnamese, they also face some problems. They

cannot find the equivalent determiners in Vietnamese. Let us take these comparisons as example:

English Vietnamese

book sch

a book mt sch

five books nm sch


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Moreover, some English nouns are considered to be count but they turn into non-count nouns in

Vietnamese and vice versa. For instance, nouns of animals, fruits, trees are count nouns in

English but non-count nouns in Vietnamese. Some nouns are countable in Vietnamese but

uncountable in English, for example, work, news, advice, thought, and hope. In

Vietnamese, it is grammatically right to say mt li khuyn hay mt tin tc. However, it is

completely wrong if we say one advice or one news.

Errors with adjectives

The second error that Vietnamese learners of English often face is about adjectives. The

function of adjectives in English and Vietnamese is sometimes different. In Vietnamese,

adjectives can occur alone to become the subject of a sentence, but it is not grammatically right

in English cases. In Vietnamese, it is safe to say Bun ru c hi cho sc khe. However, this

sentence Sad is harmful for health cannot be found in English. More importantly, it is very

dangerous if Vietnamese students translate word by word for cases of adjectives. For example,

we say Hc sinh ny rt thng minh v chm ch orC ca sny ht hay and they will

translate these sentences into English: This student very intelligent and studious, This singer

sings beautiful (instead of writing This student is very intelligent and studious, This singer

sings beautifully). Translating word by word is completely harmful in negative forms. In

Vietnamese language, we put negators, such as khng, cha, chng after the verb. For

example, we can say C y khng p orC y ca khng hay. As a habit, they will rewrite

these sentences: She not beautiful or She sings not beautiful. Another error that we should

pay attention to is comparative and superlative. In English, we have to attach suffixerinto the

base and Vietnamese learners may forget to attach these suffixes.


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Errors with verbs

Both Vietnamese and English verbs share the same function in the sentence. However,

Vietnamese verbs have more freedom than English verbs. Vietnamese verbs are not governed by

auxiliary and modal verbs. In English we have to pay attention to suffixes such as s, -ed, -ing

and in Vietnamese language we are free to say. For example, we can say C y khng i hc

but we cannot say She not go to school, which is completely wrong. In the cases of tense

aspect, Vietnamese language allows to use modifying words such as , s, which is

quite different from English language. Besides, some verbs in English require prepositions to go

with, whereas in Vietnamese we do not need. For example, in Vietnamese it is common to say

Ti th sch, Ti nghe i. However, if Vietnamese students transform these sentences

word by word into English like I am scared dogs or I listen the radio, it is totally wrong and

confused. In some cases, both English and Vietnamese verbs can be the subject of a sentence.

Vietnamese verbs can be placed in the subject position without changing their forms. But it is

incorrect if we remain the base of verbs in English. For instance, Nghe nhc l sthch ca ti,

this sentence is very grammatical in Vietnamese, but if we translate it into English Listen to

music is my hobby, it has no sense of grammar.

All in all, Vietnamese and English are completely different in the way of using forms of

word. To use English successfully, we have to master the word formation in English carefully

and the way to use it.


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CONCLUSION

English and Vietnamese are the two different cultures. For this reason, the word

formation of English and Vietnamese are not the same at all. In general there are some

similarities between word formations of these two languages; however, there are still some

differences. The most invisible difference between English and Vietnamese is that English can

be formed by adding affix, meanwhile this situation cannot be found in Vietnamese. Most of

words in English and Vietnamese words are formed by compounding, conversion (more in

Vietnamese), and reduplication. To master a language, a learner must acknowledge how the new

words are formed and how they are used in sentence.


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REFERENCES CITED

(1996). The American Heritage Book of English Usage. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Bi c Tnh. (1991). ng t. Vn phm Vit Nam (98-100). Vietnam: Hochiminh City.

Bi c Tnh. (1991). Tnh t. Vn phm Vit Nam (87-9). Vietnam: Hochiminh City.

Compound Adjectives. Nov 19, 2008, fromhttp://www.sohoavn.com.

Conversion.Nov 19, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.

Hu Chu. (2004). Gio trnh tvng hc Ting Vit. Vietnam: University of Education.

Nguyn Lng Ngc. (1997).A Contrastive Study of Vietnamese and English. India

Nouns. Nov 19, 2008, fromhttp://www.edufind.com.

Reduplication. Dec 20, 2008, fromhttp://www.phrases.org.uk.

Word Formation.Nov 19, 2008, fromhttp://www.arts.uottawa.ca.

Word. Oct 29, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.
http://www.sohoavn.com/http://www.sohoavn.com/http://www.sohoavn.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://www.edufind.com/http://www.edufind.com/http://www.edufind.com/http://www.phrases.org.uk/http://www.phrases.org.uk/http://www.phrases.org.uk/http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/http://www.phrases.org.uk/http://www.edufind.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.http://www.sohoavn.com/


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APPENDIX

PREFIXES

1. Negative Prefixes un- unfair, unadorned non- non-confomist, non-existence in- invisible, illogical a(n)- amoral, atheist dis- disloyal, disobey

2. Reversible Prefixes un- undo, undress, unhorse de- defrost, depoliticize dis- discouraging, disheartened, disinterested

3. Pejorative Prefixes

mis- mishear, misconduct, misleading, misrepresentation

mal- maltreat, malformed, malfunction pseudo- pseudo-scientific, pseudo-classicism

4. Prefixes of Degree and Size arch- archduke, archenemy super- supermarket, superman out- outlive, outdo, outrun sur- surcharge sub- subnormal, substandard over-/ under- overdo, undertook


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hyper-/ ultra- hypersensitive mini-/ macro-/ micro- microwave

5. Prefixes of Attitude co- cooperative, co-director counter- counter-espionage, counter-attack anti-/ pro- anti-nuclear, anti-democracy

6. Locative Prefixes super- superstructure,

sub- subway, subconscious, subdivide

inter- international, intermarry, interweave, interplay trans- transatlantic, transplant

7. Prefixes of Time and Order fore- foretell, foreman, forewarn pre-/ post- pre-historical, pre-marital ex- ex-minister, ex-wife, ex-husband re- rebuild, relocation, re-eligible

8. Number Prefixes uni-/ mono- monosyllable, unilateral bi-/ di- dichotomy, bifocal multi-/ poly-/ pluri- multiracial

9. Conversion Prefixes be- bewigged, bewitch, bedazzle, befriend en-/ em- endanger, empower


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a- afloatSUFFIXES

A. NOUN SUFFIXES1. Occupational Suffixes

-eer engineer -ster gangster, gamester, trickster -er Londoner, banker

2. Diminution and Feminine Suffixes -let booklet, owlet, piglet -ette cigarette, kitchenette -ess countess, hostess -y Johnny, daddy, pussy

3. Status, Domain Suffixes -hood boyhood, brotherhood, falsehood, likelihood -ship friendship, companionship -dom, -ocracy, -ery, -ry seldom

4. Quantity Suffixes -ful handful, spoonful

5. Noun/ Adjective Suffixes

-ite Israelite, Raphaelite

-(i)an Shakespearian, Elizabethan -ese Japanese, Chinese -ist novelist, violinist, typist


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-ism Communism, Imperialism6. De-verbal Suffixes

-er worker, onlooker, drinker -ant inhabitant, occupant -ation operation, exploration -ment arrangement, argument -al approval, refusal -ing swimming, shopping, living, painting

-age package, shortage, peerage

-ee trainee, employee7. De-adjectival Suffixes

-ness: goodness, happiness, selfishness -ity/ -able/ -ible/ -al readable, readability, sentimental, sentimentality

B. VERB SUFFIXES -ify certify, indentify -ize scandalize, organize -en blacken, widen, sadden

C. ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES -able readable, drinkable -al chemical, criminal, special -ful beautiful, plentiful -ed blue-eyed, odd-shaped -en wooden, leaden


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-ic Germanic, specific -ish foolish, boyish, snobbish -less helpless, hopeless -like childlike

D. ADVERB SUFFIXES -ly happily, freely, instantly -wards onwards, eastwards

COMPOUND NOUNS

1. Countable Compound Nounsaddress book

air conditioner

air-raid

baby-sitter

bank-account

brother-in-law

bus-stop

heart attack

high school

human being

letter-box

passer-by

pen-friend

polar bear

police station

2. Uncountable Compound NounsBritish control

Central heating

Common sense

Dry-cleaning

Family planning

Fancy dress

Fast-food

Income tax


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Lost property

Mail order

Make up

Old age

Remote control

Social security

First aid

Water-skiing

3. Singular Compound Nounscost of living

fire brigade

generation gap

human race

mother-tongue

public sector

solar system

welfare state

4. Plural Compound Nounsarmed forces

civil rights

high heels

human rights

luxury goods

road works

social services

winter sports

yellow pages


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COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

1. Compound Qualitative Adjectivesabsent minded

easy-going

low-paid

nice-looking

old fashion

open-minded

second class

starry-eyed

tender-hearted

well-behaved

well-dressed

well-known

2. Compound Classifying Adjectivesaudio-visual

brand-new

built-up

deep-sea

duty-free

long-distance

made-up

north-east

one-way

second-hand

tax-free

top-secret


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3. Compound Color Adjectivesblood-red

bottle-green

nut-brown

royal-blue

sky-blue

snow-white

4a05 le truong my loc word formation in english and vietnamese

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