The Oral Error Correction Techniques

Used by Libyan Secondary School

Teachers of English

Muhsen Abobaker A. Ali

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of

Sunderland for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

October 2008

Abstract

A number of studies have examined the error correction techniques used by teachers and

offered some advice to both teachers and students in order to enhance the effectiveness of

teaching and learning a foreign language. However, few studies have examined the

differences between experienced and less experienced male and female teachers in ways of

correcting students' oral errors, and none have been conducted on Libyan teachers' gender

and/or experience. This study examined the oral error correction techniques used by Libyan

teachers at secondary schools, in particular the 2nd year classes, in Ajelate City. The study

focused on the oral error correction techniques applied by teachers when a student commits

errors during speaking or reading English, to determine whether there were any differences

between male and female / experienced and inexperienced teachers in correcting students. It

also examined whether teachers' ways of error correction affected students' participation in

oral activities.

Sixty classroom observations, 20 semi-structured interviews, 65 questionnaires for teachers

and 200 for students were utilised for the data collection. The triangulation of approaches

were used to investigate the issue from different points and angles. Observations and semi-

structured interviews were audio-recorded and the tapes were then transcribed, translated

and encoded for analysis. In addition, the nonverbal communications used by the teachers

during classroom observation were taken into account by recording them in a form prepared

and designed for this purpose. Teachers' questionnaires were grouped twice, once

according to different genders and the other to different experiences, while students'

questionnaires were classified according to students' genders. SPSS programme and

Weighted Arithmetic Means were used to establish the differences between participants'

responses regarding each item in the questionnaires.

The data yielded a number of interesting findings which showed that there were differences

and similarities between male and female/ experienced and less experienced teachers in the

ways of correcting students' oral errors. Findings also showed that students were affected

by the teacher's gender and experience. At the end of this thesis, recommendations and

suggestions were given.

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Abstract .......................................................................................... I

Dedication .......................................................................................... 11

Table of Contents .................................................................................. III

Appendices .......................................................................................... X

List of Tables ....................................................................................... XI

List of Figures ....................................................................................... XIII

Acknowledgement ................................................................................. XIV

Author's Declaration .............................................................................. XVI

Abbreviations ....................................................................................... XVII

Chapter One ......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1

1.2 Education in Libya .............................................................................. 1

1.2.1 Changes in the Education System ...................................................... 2

1.2.2 The Old System ........................................................................... 2

1.2.2.1 Primary Schools ..................................................................... 2

1.2.2.2 Preparatory Schools ................................................................ 3

1.2.2.3 Secondary Schools .................................................................. 3

1.2.2.4 University Level ..................................................................... 3

1.2.3 New Education System ................................................................... 4

1.2.3.1 Basic Schools ....................................................................... 4

1.2.3.2 Intermediate Education Level: (Secondary) (16-18 or 19 years) ............ 5

1.2.3.3 University Education Level (19-22 years) ....................................... 6

1.2.3.4 Advanced Studies ................................................................... 7

1.2.4 Teaching English in Libya ................................................................. 7

1.2.5 The Goals of Teaching English beside other Subjects at Secondary Schools...... 10

1.2.6 Teaching English at Preparatory Schools ................................................ 11

1.2.7 Teaching English at Secondary Schools ................................................. 11

1.2.8 Teachers of English in Libya ............................................................. 12

1.2.9 Schools and Classes of Secondary Level ................................................ 12

1.2.10 Problems in Teaching English ........................................................... 15

1.3 The Issue of the Study ........................................................................... 16

III

1.4 The Research Questions ......................................................................... 17

1.5 Aims of the Study ................................................................................ 17

1.6 The Scope of the Study ......................................................................... 18

1.7 Significance of the Study ....................................................................... 18

1.8 Contributions of the Study ..................................................................... 19

1.9 The Structure of the Thesis ..................................................................... 19

1.10 Summary and Conclusion ..................................................................... 20

Chapter Two: Correction of Errors .......................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 21

2.2 What is Correction ............................................................................ 23

2.3 Factors Affecting Error-Correction .......................................................... 28

2.3.1 The Teacher ................................................................................ 28

2.3.2 The Teacher ............................................................................... 33

2.3.3 Teaching Methods ....................................................................... 34

2.3.4 The Aims of Language Teaching ..................................................... 36

2.3.4.1 What is Accuracy? ..................................................................................... 36

2.3.4.2 What is Fluency? .......................................................................... 38

2.3.5 Methods of Error Correction ............................................................ 42

2.3.5.1 Feedback ........................................................................... 42

2.3.5.2 Recasts ..............................................................................

45

2.3.6 The Types of Errors to be Corrected ................................................... 46

2.3.6.1 Errors of Intelligibility ............................................................ 47

2.3.6.2 Global or Major Errors ............................................................. 47

2.3.6.3 Minor Errors .........................................................................

48

2.3.6.4 Fossilised Errors .................................................................... 48

2.3.6.5 Errors Related to the Aim of the Lesson .......................................... 48

2.3.6.6 Recognition Errors ................................................................. 49

2.3.6.7 High Frequency Errors ............................................................. 49

2.3.6.8 Pronunciation Errors ................................................................ 49

2.3.6.9 Grammatical Errors in Oral Communication .................................... 50

2.4 Time of Correction ............................................................................... 51

2.5 Who Corrects Errors? ..................................................................................................... 52

2.5.1 Self-Correction .......... .............................................. 53

IV

2.5.1.1 Showing Incorrectness ......................................................... 53

2.5.1.2 Using Correction Techniques ................................................. 54

2.5.2 Peer Correction ........................................................................ 54

2.5.3 Teacher Correction ................................................................... 56

2.6 Techniques of Error Correction ............................................................... 57

2.6.1 Repetition ............................................................................... 58

2.6.1.1 Individual Repetition ........................................................... 58

2.6.1.2 Choral Repetition ............................................................... 58

2.6.2 Provision of the Correct Model ...................................................... 59

2.6.3 Practice .................................................................................. 59

2.6.4 Selection out of Many Options ...................................................... 59

2.6.5 Writing on the Blackboard ............................................................ 60

2.6.6 Using Teaching Aids .................................................................. 60

2.6.7 Using the Student's Native Language ............................................... 60

2.6.8 Using Non-Verbal Communication ................................................ 61

2.6.8.1 Gestures .......................................................................... 61

2.6.8.2 Facial Expression ............................................................... 62

2.6.8.3 Eye Contact ...................................................................... 62

2.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 62

Chapter Three: Errors and Certain Aspects of Error Correction .......................... 64

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................

64

3.2 Researchers' Points of View towards Error and Error Correction ...................... 65

3.3 Definitions of Terms Employed in the Study ............................................. 69

3.3.1 Errors and Mistakes ...................................................................... 69

3.3.2 Teachers and Error Correction ......................................................... 72

3.3.3 Teachers' Gender ........................................................................... 76

3.3.4 Teachers Experience ....................................................................... 82

3.3.5 Teacher's and Students' Different Gender ............................................. 86

3.3.6 Learners and Error Correction ............................................................ 88

3.4 The Importance of Error Correction ........................................................... 91

3.5 Summary and Conclusion ..................................................................... 92

Chapter Four: Methods and Instruments of Data Collection .............................. 94

V

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 94

4.21 Research Questions .............................................................................. 94

4.3 The Methodological Approach ................................................................. 95

4.3.1 Design of the Study ........................................................................ 95

4.3.2 Triangulation ................................................................................ 97

4.3.3 Reliability and Validity .................................................................... 97

4.3.3.1 Validity ................................................................................ 98

4.3.3.2 Reliability ........................................................................... 99

4.4 Ethics of the Study ............................................................................... 99

4.5 The Pilot Study .................................................................................... 100

4.6 The Sample of the Participants ................................................................. 103

4.7 Population ......................................................................................... 104

4.8 Teacher Participants .............................................................................. 104

4.9 Student Participants .............................................................................. 105

4.10 Observations ....................................................................................

105

4.11. Interviews ....................................................................................... 109

4.11.1 Semi-Structured Interviews .............................................................. 110

4.11.2 Validity and Reliability of the Semi-Structured Interviews ........................ 111

4.11.3 Power Relation in Interviews ............................................................ 112

4.11.4 Interviews and Ethical Issues ............................................................ 113

4.1 2 Questionnaires ................................................................................... 117

4.13 Procedure of Data Collection and Data Analysis .......................................... 121

4.13.1 Procedure of Data Collection ............................................................ 121

4.13.2 Procedure of Data Analysis .............................................................. 124

4.13.2.1 The Qualitative Method of Data Analysis .................................... 125

4.13.2.2 The Stages of Analysing the Data .............................................. 127

4.13.3 Quantitative Data analysis ............................................................... 128

4.14 Summary and Conclusion ..................................................................... 129

Chapter Five: Results and Analysis: Qualitative Data ..................................... 131

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 131

5.2 Research Question 1 ............................................................................ 131

5.2.1 Observations ............................................................................... 132

5.2.1.1 Correction ......................................................................... 132

VI

5.2.1.1. a Direct Correction Technique ................................................ 132

5.2.1.1. b Correcting Errors within a Sentence as a Direct Correction............ 136

5.2.1. l. c Self-Correction ................................................................ 137

5.2.1.1. d Correcting Students by Giving a Chance for Peer Correction......... 138

5.2.1.2 Feedback .............................................................................. 139

5.2.1.2. a Using a Recast Technique(s) ................................................ 140

5.2.1.2. b Asking Questions ............................................................ 141

5.2.1.2. c Repeating the Student's Answer ........................................... 142

5.2.1.2. d Rejecting (No) ................................................................ 143

5.2.1.2. e Encouraging .................................................................. 145

5.2.1.2. f Praising ........................................................................ 146

5.2.1.2. g Facilitating ..................................................................... 147

5.2.2 Semi-Structured Interviews ............................................................... 150

5.2.2.1 Steps and Techniques of Direct Correction and Feedback ..................... 154

5.2.2.2 Time of Correction .................................................................. 158

5.2.2.3 Who Corrects Errors? ............................................................... 159

5.2.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected ................................................... 161

5.3 Research Question 2 ........................................................................ 162

5.3.1 Classroom Observations ............................................................ 162

5.3.1.1 Time of Correction ............................................................ 166

5.3.1.2 Who Corrects Errors ......................................................... 167

5.3.1.3 Types of Errors to be Corrected ............................................. 168

5.3.1.4 Techniques of Correction and Feedback .................................... 169

5.3.2 The Semi-Structured Interviews ................................................... 170

5.3.2.1 Who Corrects Students' Errors? .......................................... 172

5.3.2.2 Time of Correction ......................................................... 174

5.3.2.3 Attitude to Errors ............................................................ 175

5.3.2.4 Types of Errors to be Corrected .......................................... 176

Sa PPcParch festion 3 ..................................................................... 177

5.4.1 Classroom Observation ............................................................ 177

5.4.2 The Semi-Structured Interviews ................................................... 179

5.4.2.1 Error Correction According to Teachers' Gender ........................ 179

5.4.2.2 The Effect of Error Correction on Students' Participants ............... 181

5.4.2.3 Participants' Views Towards Students Errors ........................... 184

VII

5.5 Summary and Conclusion ....................................................................... 185

Chapter Six: Results and Analysis of Qualitative Data ...................................... 187 6.1 Introduction

....................................................................................... 187

6.2 Teachers' Questionnaire ........................................................................ 187

6.2.1 Research Question 1 ........................................................................ 188

6.2.2 Research Question 2 ........................................................................ 193

6.2.3 Research Question 3 ........................................................................ 206

6.3 Comparison and Contrast ........................................................................ 220

6.3.1 The Similarity .............................................................................. 220

6 . 3.1.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction ................................................ 220

6.3.1.2 Time of Correction ................................................................. 224

6.3.1.3 Who Corrects Errors? .............................................................. 225

6.3.1.4 Language Skill and Components ................................................ 225

6.3.2 The Differences ............................................................................. 226

6.3.2.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction ................................................ 226

6.3.2.2 The Time of Correction ........................................................... 229

6.3.2.3 Who Corrects Errors? .................................................................................. 229

6.3.2.4 Language Skill and Components ................................................ 229

Chapter Seven: Findings and Discussion ....................................................... 234

7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 234

7.2 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................ 234

7.2.1 Findings of Question One ................................................................ 234

7.2.1.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction ................................................ 234

7.2.1.2 Time of Error Correction ......................................................... 240

7.2.1.3 Who Corrected Errors? .......................................................... 241

7.2.1.4 Language Skills and Components ................................................ 243

722 PinclingS of Ouestion Two ................................................................ 248

7.2.2.1 Manner of Oral Error Correction ................................................ 248

7.2.2.2 Time of Correction ................................................................. 257

7.2.2.3 Who Corrects Errors? .............................................................. 258

7.2.2.4 Language Skills and Components ................................................ 259

7.2.3 Findings of Question Three ............................................................... 262

VIII

PAGE MISSING IN

ORIGINAL

Table List of Tables Page

Table 1.1 The subject areas in secondary schools in Libya ........................ 6

Table 2.1 &2.2 The communication continuum ............................................. 37

Table 3.1 Some of the main differences between behaviourists and Mentalists points

of view regarding to errors and error correction .................. 69

Table 4.1 The population and the randomised samples .............................. 103

Table 4.2 Grouping the schools regarding the location distance .................. 122

Table 4.3 Time Matrix of Data Collection ............................................ 122

Table 5.1 The frequency of the common error correction and feedback techniques by

experienced and less experienced teachers in oral error correction during

direct classroom observations ........................................... 169

Table 6.1 The number of participants regarding their sex ................................. 188

Table 6.2 The number of participants and the percentage according each

group years' experience ...................................................... 194

Table 6.3 The distribution of the participants between experienced and

inexperienced teachers as considered in this stud 195

Table 6.4 The number of experienced and inexperienced participants, their gender

and percentage ........................................................................... 195

Table 6.5 The teachers' with 11 or more years' experience' responses in each item

ranked according to their W. A. Ms .............................................. 196

Table 6.6 The teachers' with 10 or less years' experience' responses in each. item

ranked according to their W. A. Ms .................................... 197

Table 6.7 The number of experienced and less experienced teachers who taught the

basic grade ................................................................... 202

Table 6.8 The teachers' number according their experiences and the kind of classes

they are teaching ......................... ... 203

..................... . .....

XI

Table 6.9 The kind of classes teachers prefer to teach ............................... 203

Table 6.10 The number of teachers according to their beliefs towards classes........... 204

Table 6.11 The methods that the teachers' use in teaching English ................... 204

Table 6.12a The male students' responses in each item ranked according to their W. A.

Ms .......................................................................... 213

Table 6.12b The female students' responses arranged according the percentage power of

each item ......................................................................... 214

Table 6.13 The methods of teaching English and how they are used among

teachers ............................................................................. 232

Table 6.14 The type of classes that teachers prefer to teach according to teacher's

experience ......................................................................... 232

Table 6.15 The type of classes that teachers prefer to teach according to teacher's

gender .............................................................................. 232

XII

Figure List of Figures Page

Figure 1.1 The public education system before the revolution in Libya 4

until the late 1980s

Figure 1.2 The changes of the education system in Libya 5

Figure 1.3 Class structure and arrangement in secondary schools in

Ajelate city 13

Figure 4.1 An overview of the research design and methodology 96

Graph 6.1 The number of teachers according to their experience 1 195

means > 10 and 2 means

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Dr. Felicity Breet for all her invaluable guidance, comments, advice, support and encouragement. She provided me with

all I needed to overcome obstacles and she never hesitated in her endless patience to discuss

any issues related to my success. All these have helped me to bring this study to its present

shape.

I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Ahmad Nazari who has given all his support and encouragement which were the source of keeping me on course to finish

this study. He opened his office and heart to listen to my ideas and never ever hesitated to

support me when I needed it. He was like a candle that showed me the way when it got dark

to keep me going to reach my aim and complete this study.

I am especially thankful to all participants without whose enthusiastic cooperation and help

this work could not have been completed. Special thanks are also due to all staff members

at the University of Sunderland for their unlimited support and encouragement. I would like

to express my gratitude to Dr. Elizbeth Atkinson who has supported me during this study.

Thanks are also due to Dr. Alex Dockerty who helped me in statistical analyses.

My thanks and gratitude are also due to the following:

Ms Liz Sandaver with whom I have discussed my work and issues related to this study. Ms

Maddalena Taras, Ms Heidi Gritzan, Ms Kim Willis for their warm encouragement. My

thanks also go to Chris Long, Ms Lucy Marriott, Mr Paul Campbell and Mr David Thomas

for their participation in the pilot study at Sunderland University during summer 2005.

I would also like to express my faithful thanks to all people who are in the education

authority and facilitated my journey in data collection. Very special thanks should go to all

headmasters and all teachers who participated in this study for their warm welcome and

patience in making their valuable contribution. These thanks extend to all the students in all

schools who participated in this study.

Gratitude is owed to all my colleagues in the Department of English at the 7th April

University in particular Dr Sallah Metto, Mr Sadique Bossifi, Mr Salama Embarik, Mr Eid

El-rabi, and Mr Said El-shallali for their assistance and translation into Arabic of some

items of the questionnaire during data collection. I thank all who taught me in any levels of

XIV

my journey from primary until finishing this study. I would like to convey especial thanks

to Dr Widad Aradi, Dr Balhouq, Dr Targi Al-beshti, and Mr Habib Al-rammash at the

Academic Studies in Tripoli who encouraged me to finish my PhD degree.

Finally, special thanks and gratitude to my wife, my mother, my sons Mohamed, Ahmed,

Abobaker, Mahmud and daughters Marwa and Safa whose unlimited patience, support and help were my source during my study in the UK. Great thanks are also due to my brothers

Rasheed, Moftah, Munsof and all my sisters for their support. Special thanks are due to my

father, mother, sisters and brothers in-law for their support, motivation and encouragement.

xv

University of Sunderland School of Education and Lifelong Learning

Author Declaration

I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, all the material in this thesis represents my own

work. In addition, whatever I have cited or paraphrased has been mentioned in my

reference list.

Signature ...........................

Date: .................................

xv'

Abbreviations

EFL English as a Foreign Language

FL Foreign Language

FS Female Student HE Higher Institutes

L2 Second Language

LEA Local Education Authority

MA Master in Arts

MS Male Student

NL Native Language

NNS Non-native Speaker

PhD Doctorate of Philosophy

SLA Second Language Acquisition

SLL Second Language Learning

SLQ Second Language Researchers

SLT Second Language Teaching

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language

W. A. M. Weighted Arithmetic Mean

XVII

CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a brief historical background to the development of the education system in Libya with special emphasis on teaching English as a foreign language. It also discusses the

changes in the education system, comparing the old and the new structured at all stages and levels of the education system. It focuses in particular on teaching and learning English.

This chapter also states the main research questions which the researcher will investigate in

order to find answers to them. It also states the essential aims and limits of the scope of the

current study in which light is shed on the significance of the current study and it shows the

role of the teacher (male-female) when his/her students commit oral errors. It illustrates the

main contribution in the field of teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Finally,

this chapter shows the structure of this thesis and the summary of this chapter.

1.2 Education in Libya

Libya (The Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) is one of the developed countries

which has given education special attention, especially after the September Revolution of 1969, and has made it one of the country's priorities. Education is the right of all Libyan

citizens and it is compulsory for both sexes from the age of six until the age of sixteen. The

education system in Libya has taken two forms, either public or private. Public education is run

by the Secretary of Education and it is free at all levels from primary school to university. The

Secretary of Education is responsible for building schools, employing teachers and supplying

schools with books and students' curricula. In private education, schools have been run by

personal administration and students pay fees for joining the private education system. Schools

in public education have accepted learners from the age of six, whereas schools in the private

education system have more flexibility and may accept students from the age of five. The

private education system has been encouraged by the Educational Authority because it has

been considered as a new concept in Libyan society, which was started in the mid 1990s.

In both systems, students have options to select which course(s) they want to follow. The

majority of Libyan citizens choose the public education system because it is free of charge and

most families have, on average, six children at school, while only a few choose private

1

education. The latter have the ability to pay for their children's education and /or like them to start a little earlier, believing that learning at private schools is much better than at public schools.

1.2.1 Changes in the Education System

The education system in Libya was affected by many of the Educational Authorities' decisions

and changes in order to find a suitable system to cater for the needs of the country and cope with the rapid changes in the world and the modem requirements of the era. Because of The Libyan Educational Authorities' belief that education is the path to human social and technological development and progress, education in Libya has received great attention from

the state at all levels, especially at the legislative level, which organises the educational process

on all paths and levels. This concern with education is clearly evident since the rise of the

Great E1-Fateh Revolution on the first of September 1969. The education system has

undergone many changes and been reviewed many times according to local and international

development. The reviews included all levels in the education system especially the

intermediate level. The Libyan Education Authority sought the help of national and international experts to cope with world developments. The new education system is manly based on the idea of the specialised technical and vocational education at the intermediate

level, to fulfil Libyan society's needs of specialised cadres to cover the requirements of the

labour market. The new educational system has been gradually introduced over the few past

years and completely applied since the academic year 2003-2004, (The Libyan National

Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2004). Therefore, it is worthwhile to divide

the changes according to stages and levels of study with regard to the education system.

1.2.2 The Old System

The system of education in Libya consisted of primary schools, preparatory schools, secondary

schools, and university.

1.2.2.1 Primary Schools

This was the name of this stage of education before and after the revaluation from 1969 until

the late 1980s. The admittance age to these schools was six years and over. Hence, the period

of study in primary schools lasted six years when, at the end of this level, pupils would receive

2

a certificate for completing primary education. Teachers at these schools were graduates from

teachers' institutes and the majority of them were men.

1.2.2.2 Preparatory Schools

After pupils had finished the primary grades, they transferred to preparatory schools when they

reached the age of twelve years or over. This phase required three years of study and, at the

end of the third year, the student would receive a certificate for completing the preparatory level after they had passed the final exam. Subsequently, students had the option, either to

continue their studies at university, through secondary level, or to choose vocational institutes.

1.2.2.3 Secondary Schools

However, at the secondary level, students' ages might be sixteen years or over. This level

lasted three years and at the end, students obtained a certificate for completing secondary level.

This certificate gave the right to students to join university.

1.2.2.4 University Level

At university level the students' age was seventeen or over. It consisted of four years and at the

end of this stage, the students would get their degree with which they could then obtain a good

job. The majority of university staff members were foreigners who came to teach at university

level. However, education in Libya was compulsory until the age of sixteen; and children from

the age of six had to go to public schools.

3

Primary School for six years

Preparatory Schools for three years

Teachers Training Institutes for four years

Secondary schools for three years

Vocational Training varies according to the programme 2-4

University levels for four years and over

Figure 1.1 illustrates the public education system before the revolution in Libya until the late 1980s

1.2.3 New Education System

1.2.3.1 Basic Schools

Libya has witnessed great changes and transformations since 1980, with the aim of re-guiding

education to serve and fulfil 21s' century demands (The Libyan National Commission for

Education, Culture and Science, 2001: 62). The new education system was started late in the

1980s and the primary system was replaced by the basic system which consists of nine years,

whereas the preparatory level has been cancelled. The Basic Education level is divided into

three parts:

A) The first part consists of four years and enrols the age group of seven to ten years.

B) The second part consists of two years and enrols children in the age group of eleven to

twelve years.

C) The third part consists of three years and enrols children in the age group of thirteen to

fifteen.

The majority of teachers in the last twenty years in this level are Libyan females.

4

Basic Educational Schools. 9 years

Teachers' Secondary Institutes specialist schools 5 years 4 years

Vocational institutes 4 years

Work, part Years of university vary time study according to the field of study

(From 4 to 6 years)

Work, part time study

Figure 1.2 shows the changes in the education system in Libya

1.2.3.2 Intermediate Education Level: (Secondary) (16-18 or 19 years) The secondary level has faced wide changes in the length of the period of study and the

material to be learnt. Therefore, the years of study have been changed and instead of three,

they have become four, and instead of general subjects, they have become specific. The new

education system at this level opened a large window to students to choose any subject they are

interested in, which prepares them for suitable universities. They are able to choose a branch of

knowledge which will enable them to specialise in i. e. education, medicine, computing,

physics, engineering, maths and general science of life. It is divided into the following:

A) General Secondary Education. It is one type of education system which aims to prepare a

student, after three years, for university. The students can choose to study different branches of

knowledge in a variety of subjects, but they must study some compulsory subjects.

B) Specialised Secondary Schools. This extends from three to four years and becomes

gradually an alternative to public secondary education. Students at specialised schools study

general subjects in the first year, after which they specialise according to the following table, as

cited from The Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science (2004):

5

Secondary Schools The School subject areas School of Life Sciences , Medical Sciences Agricultural Science

School of Basic Sciences, Biology- Chemistry Physics-Math

School of Engineering Sciences, Building Electricity & Electronics, Mechanics, Natural Resources

School of Economical Sciences, Administrative Financial Sciences & Banking Information & Sciences Statistics School of Social Sciences, Arabic language Religious Sciences, English Language, Social

Sciences School of Arts& Media, Fine & Practical Arts Medial Arts

Table 1.1 shows the subject areas in secondary schools, in Libya

In Libya, the teaching of English language, mainly in the secondary stage, is directed towards

preparing students for the post-secondary stage which attracts most of the school levels.

English is the medium of instruction in university education, especially in the field of medical

science, engineering and business. Thus, the admission of students to study in faculties in

universities dealing with these fields requires a good standard of English. Students at

secondary level resort to overcome their weakness in English by having intensive private

courses, mostly by qualified teachers, to meet the needs of desired faculties when they finish

their secondary school stage.

1.2.3.3 University Education Level (19-22 years)

This includes universities, higher institutes and higher technical and vocational centres. It lasts

for three years in some centres or institutes and for six years in some university faculties (The

Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2001,16). Higher education

follows a natural overall plan adjusted to the present and future needs of Libyan society. It is in

full accord with the drive of developments in all aspects of life spheres, and is aimed at

reconstructing social and economic life according to globalisation and modernity. University

education aims ultimately at providing society with experts and specialists in different fields of

life i. e. teachers, lawyers, engineers, researchers and experimenters.

6

1.2.3.4 Advanced Studies

Advanced studies were begun locally (inside the country) during the latter part of the last decade and includes MA (Master's) degrees, and PhD (Doctorate) degrees. Many graduates of MA and PhD degrees have joined teaching staff at higher institutes and universities to fulfil the

shortage of staff members and replace foreigners.

1.2.4 Teaching English in Libya

The value and benefit of foreign language learning has been approved by Libyan society. In the 1940s, English, Italian and French were introduced as compulsory subjects at different levels

of the Education System. Many students from Libyan schools gradated with ability to speak English, Italian and French fluently. The English language was a priority among these three

foreign languages because of the large population of young people in Libya who had a great interest and desire to learn English. As a result of that, English has been widely spread among Libyan people and especial attention has been given to improving teaching and learning the

English language rather than other foreign languages (see Al Moghani, 2003: 18,34). The

desire to learn a FL led to an increased demand for English. This demand was met by many

schools, institutes and universities which were opened during the 1970s and the early 1980s.

Many students were sent to study English outside Libya, to countries in which English was the

native language such as the UK, Canada and the USA. During that time there was great

cooperation between some universities in Libya and others in the UK and the USA. Many

students who have graduated from Britain, the USA and Canada are now teaching the English

language at Libyan universities.

Since 1940 the English language has formed a prominent part of the curriculum. The main

objectives behind the introduction of English into the Libyan educational system, as Gusbi

(1984) states, are to enable students to use what they learn to express themselves; to read

simple English passages and textbooks with comprehension (v). He says "To achieve this

important goal, the pupils should learn to listen to the teacher carefully, imitate what he says

correctly, use what they learn to express themselves, speak clearly, spell right and write

legibly" (ibid: vi).

7

The curriculum designers have attempted to achieve a perfect balance between the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Their endeavour is also to enable students to

understand the language readily and to speak fluently, as well as to enable them to express themselves clearly in writing. The objectives are related to the achievement of both accuracy

and fluency in English with more emphasis on fluency, as students are meant to be able to

recognise and produce spoken English forms in everyday life situations.

Teaching and learning the English language has faced many changes. For instance: in 1968, the

English language was established in the curriculum of primary schools. The authority decided

on teaching English to the fifth year grade when pupils were aged eleven. The decision found

wide acclaim from the majority of society but this did not last long when the Libyan revolution

started on 1St September 1969. However, most of the teachers and inspectors at that time were from the UK and the USA.

After the Libyan revolution in 1969, teaching English was taken off the primary school

curriculum but was kept at all other levels in the education system. There was great concern

during the revolution about teaching English in Libya, so the revolution continued the

collaborative attempts between Libya and the native speakers' countries. It kept the door open

to English teachers from different countries to teach English in Libya. During this time

teaching the English language has undergone immense development and great progress.

In 1973, the Libyans launched a Cultural Revolution in schools, universities and institutions

aimed at increasing students' awareness of the importance of their native language (Arabic

language). The revolution has taken this decision to keep society close to its culture and

identity. As a result of the Cultural Revolution, Libyan authorities introduced major reforms to

the educational philosophy and curricula of the educational textbooks. English language

textbooks were "Libyanised" and became oriented toward local culture aiming to reflect

Libyan social, economic and political life (see Al Moghani, 2003: 4). This was the case till

1985 when the Education Authority took the unexpected decision to suspend teaching the

English language in the basic education system and in the first two years of Libya's

intermediate education system as a result of the political situation. This was the case until

8

1991, when the Education Authority decided to restart teaching English language to the

seventh year of the basic level. Furthermore in 2005, the English language became a compulsory subject for the students in year three, who are around nine years of age. Teaching English has been eagerly received on the part of the Education Authority, who have revised the

old curriculum which was unworthy and out of date. Therefore, they devised the alternatives to

suit learners' needs and provided up-to-date textbooks which are modernising and expanding the technical and vocational views of students. Consequently, the Libyan Education Authority

cooperated with some famous companies to design syllabuses and textbooks to replace the old textbooks at preparatory and secondary levels and cope with the needs of the era. As we have

seen, the changes did not stop at the basic level but went further to the secondary level in

which students are involved in teaching modern English language.

The traditional view of the syllabus was nothing more than a specification of the linguistic

features to be taught purely at all stages. This procedure of syllabus has been under attack for

many years. Dissatisfaction with the traditional view of syllabus design led to redefining the

concepts of that syllabus to reflect its adjustability and emphasise the non-linguistic features in

syllabus construction (Mohamed, 1987). Viewing the traditional syllabus from different sides

and angles led to a revolution in language teaching, whereby the traditional methods of

teaching, such as the grammar translation method, direct method and audio-method, began to

lose ground and was submerged, to be replaced by the communicative approach.

Unfortunately, traditional methods and approaches to language teaching are still used by some

teachers in some schools.

Now, Libyan schools in different branches of the education system require teachers to teach

English language through up-to-date approaches. The new textbooks are designed according to

new concepts and theories of teaching and learning language. The complementary theories of

Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner were taken into consideration in presenting the new curriculum.

The new version of the curriculum is based on interaction and communication approaches to

encourage learners to learn language through real situations and avoid the traditional methods

in teaching a foreign language. The idea of these theories which was adopted is the concern

with students' participation and their cognitive development. These theories adopted the view

9

that action led to the formation of thought and not vice versa, taking into account the role of social structure and environment (Cameron, 2001). Plaget realised that students need to create a learning community to support their learning, from their environment, at home and at school. Bruner emphasised the role of the teacher to let students think, work and focus on what they

are learning by scaffolding them. Vygotsky also emphasised that social interaction was

necessary and the key to success in learning. Students learn more and more in collaboration

with parents, friends and others than they can do by themselves (ibid: 2001; Lantolf and Appel,

1994; Lantolf, 2001). The new course books are designed and written specifically for Libyan

students. The tasks and contents have been carefully prepared to meet the specific needs of

students at each level. The new approaches encourage students to work together and help each

other to produce language with a communicative purpose.

Teaching English has faced global changes with a strict evaluation in teaching materials and

equipment but there was another big problem floating on the surface which, till now, has not

been solved. Many schools are still suffering from the shortage of qualified teachers who could

teach the new curriculum, because the new curriculum is based on new approaches which most

of the teachers have no idea about. This problem was highlighted because most of the teachers

had graduated from teacher training institutes a long time ago and most of them did not come

across the new approaches in the past. Therefore, most of them are not satisfied with their role

in teaching English, especially at secondary schools.

1.2.5 The Goals of Teaching English alongside other Subjects at Secondary Schools

The main goals that the education authority in Libya seeks are summarised by Al Faloughi and

A1Ghadafi (1990: 7) as follows:

1. Secondary level prepares Libyan students to continue their education at university.

2. Provide Libyan students with the necessary skills needed for learning and work.

3. Improve students' knowledge of languages (English and Arabic).

4. Improve students' abilities to communicate with others who know these languages and

acquaint the students with contemporary English usage, and with literature which has

vitalised the English language.

5. Enhance employment possibilities for students who could not continue their studies.

10

6. To utilise the Libyan and Arab background as far as possible to facilitate the linguistic

objectives. 7. To ensure that English studies at school are a source of interest, pleasure and pride to

students.

Generally speaking, Libyan society is aware of the importance of teaching English language at different levels in the education system due to the fact that English is widely spread among

countries all over the world and it is the language of science, machinery and technology.

Libyans are also aware that English is of great value to people who go abroad to finish their

studies, or even to those who travel abroad for their private business. Students and their

families are conscious that people who speak English have great opportunities to find a job

more easily than others who do not speak English. Nowadays, society employs large numbers

of translators, interpreters and clerks in the tourist and foreign service departments. The chance

of employment in private tourist companies is also worth mentioning.

1.2.6 Teaching English at Preparatory Schools

English is a compulsory subject taught for six periods a week during the three years at

preparatory school. Teaching English in Libya began in preparatory schools where students are

around twelve years old. Each lesson lasts forty-five minutes which equals the other subjects

such as the Arab language, Islamic education, History, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, and

Biology.

1.2.7 Teaching English at Secondary Schools

At this level, English is taught in a variety of time scales according to the students' field of

specialism. At this level, students choose either human science or practical science. In both, the

length of the English lesson is different, e. g. students in human sciences have at least three

lessons out of seven timetable slots a day. This stage prepares students to join English

departments at the university to be specialists in teaching English at secondary schools. The

study at this level takes three years, three years, at the end of which, the student receives his

certificate to enrol at the university.

11

1.2.8 Teachers of English in Libya

Teachers who teach English language at basic and secondary levels of education either graduated from teacher training institutes or English departments at the university. Teachers

who teach these levels should be trained and well prepared for the level they teach. However,

teachers training institutes, which prepare teachers to teach the Basic Level, faced some changes in 1980 (Abofarwa, 1988). Five-year teacher training programmes have been

established since1980 as an alternative to four-year teacher training courses for the Basic Level. The main purpose of the new alternative system is a major improvement and a positive

step towards raising the quality of teachers in particular (ibid). Teachers at secondary level are

graduates from English departments at universities or higher teachers' institutes (see figure

2.1). The latter have been established since 1992 to prepare teachers for secondary level. All

these changes have been implemented to develop and raise the quality of teachers at Basic and Secondary Schools.

1.2.9 Schools and Classes of Secondary Level

It is useful to give a description of secondary schools and where students have opportunities to

learn English. This may help the reader to get a clear picture where a secondary student spends

their time during school days. Libya is one of the countries which have realised the important

role of education in speeding up the pace of human development of society and due to the

increase of demographic development for Libyan population, schools are built to help students

cope with changes to society. They have increased rapidly and are established everywhere after

1969 at all levels. However, the specialised secondary schools are assigned to replace the

public secondary ones and were distributed according to the demographical structure of the

population. There are also developments in number and equipment during the last few years

while for example reached 1100 schools in 2004 (see the Libyan National Commission for

Education, Culture and Science, 2004: 20). The aim of every school is simply to make classes

ready to meet the needs of all students: in other words all people try for prepare suitable classes

for both students and teacher. Schools are designed basically for teaching and the number of

classes varies from 12 to 30. These classes are large enough to have forty or forty five students.

Students sit in rows and they are usually in three or four rows. The following figure (1.3) may

illustrate how classes are arranged. Every student has a table and a chair and can sit close to

12

another student in rows. However, boys and girls sit in separate rows. In this way the different

sexes are separated. The number of classes varies from school to school due to the school location from students' houses and the school reputation. The average student number is

twenty five in each class. Students receive seven lessons a day in different subjects such as Arabic, history, geography and English. Students receive intensive English lessons four periods

a week and each period is forty five minutes.

owl

B

R

off 8 ail 0B 0 eg O

a

1

16 c>EI '2 EI T]

Figure 1.3 represents class structure and arrangement in secondary schools in Ajelate city

The Libyan students all share the same cultural, linguistic background as well as the same

environment where learning processes take place, and these factors may influence learning.

The secondary education system includes four years of study and enrolment covers the age

group of (16 to 19) years old (see subsection 1.2.3.2). This system consists of general

secondary education and vocational centres and institutes. Secondary schools are divided into

six specialisations (see table 1.1 page 5). English classes at secondary level have four periods a

week and each period takes 45 minutes. In their first year of secondary school, students study

books covering general English while for second year and beyond different books have been

written for each of the six specialisations to prepare students for a level of specialisation at

university or higher institutes.

Students in Libya have limited access to use English outside the classroom and when they meet

they speak their mother tongue which is Arabic. Nevertheless, some students have a few

opportunities to communicate in English possibly only when they travel with their family

13

during the summer holiday. From what I have said, English lessons in the classroom are vital for students' learning and language development.

Although there are specific textbooks assigned for each secondary year teachers, face some

obstacles such facilitated equipment in their teaching, i. e. power point, labs, transparency paper

or recorders. Therefore, teachers are highly dependent on their own materials and resources in

teaching English to help their students gain better understanding. This may indicate that there

are some differences between teachers in the ways of presenting materials of teaching.

Moreover, teachers are also under pressures of different factors such as time, the need to cover

the syllabus, the requirements of the examinations and the large number of classes. These

factors may lead teachers to encounter difficulties when engaging some teaching practices such

group work or free communication activities.

Teachers who teach English at secondary should hold licences or a Bachelor degree. This

means that Libyan teachers who teach at this level (secondary and/ or intermediate) are

university graduates. Teachers who teach different subjects at this stage are supposed to be

skilful enough to develop students' abilities and prepare them to enter university. This is

because the secondary phase often requires teachers to offer students a broad area of

knowledge that covers the curriculum Moreover, teachers who teach in this level should also

develop their role as facilitators and managers of learning; it is essential that they should be

able to direct their students to engage in the learning process. Having said this, teachers need

especial preparation to join the education field and be aware of students' needs.

Unfortunately, in Libya some teachers who teach English at the secondary phase are not well

prepared to teach secondary students. This does not mean that the teachers who teach in this

stage are not university graduates but some of them are not graduates from suitable

departments, i. e. some teachers are graduated from the Faculty of Arts and are supposed to be

translators or work in other fields because they have not studied teaching methods or gone

through pre-service training. Such teachers are employed in the education field because there is

shortage of English teachers who are qualified to do so. The teachers who come to the

education sector and are not aware of the principles and the methods of teaching may affect

their role in the ways of teaching students and correcting their oral errors.

14

The teaching load for Libyan teachers at secondary schools varies between 8 to 12 lessons per week. It is rare to find a teacher's load reaches 16 or 18 lessons a week. However, the load of every teacher is supposed to be between 18 and 24 lessons per week. This may indicate that all the teachers who participated in this study have 12 lessons or fewer. In Libya most teachers,

especially the females, do not go to school everyday because they are accustomed that if they do not have lessons their presence is not important. This does not mean the principles and the

education rules allow teachers who do not have classes to be absent from the school during

working days but it is a custom wide-spread among teachers, headmasters/ mistresses and

society.

1.2.10 Problems in Teaching English

In the school system, the major and difficult problem encountered by the Education Authority

in every City is the shortage of qualified Libyan teachers, especially at secondary schools, in

the field of English language teaching (see the Libyan National Commission for Education,

Culture and Science, 2004: 16). Teaching English in the secondary stage, is carried out mainly

by Libyan teachers who received their academic qualification from Libya. It follows that the

students exposure to English and the opportunity to actually use it for communication purposes

were very limited due to the fact that their training was away from the English environment.

They were trained in an environment where English is hardly used. Moreover, students were at

the age of puberty and needed to be treated gently.

Nevertheless, there are some other obstructions which face teachers teaching English in Libya

at this level such as:

1. The communicative approach has recently reached Libya with the introduction of new

course books which recommended the use of this approach in teaching, while the

majority of the teachers have not enough information on the way of using it.

2. Many schools face the lack of teaching equipment, for example, overhead projectors,

language laboratories and sometimes even tape-recorders.

3. Most of the time, students do not have the opportunities to interact inside the classroom

for two reasons; either for the lack of the time or for the overcrowded classes.

4. Teachers are suffering from a shortage of in-service training to cope with up to date

changes and research developments in teaching and learning foreign languages.

15

5. In the last ten years, some graduates from English departments are not prepared or trained to be teachers of English at secondary schools (see the Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and Science 2004: 16-19).

Although they may have a vast knowledge, outstanding cultural awareness and speak English fluently, that does not necessarily mean that they are able to teach English, stimulate students' interest.

1.3 The Issue of the Study

My choice of this topic does not come about by chance or by luck, but it is a result of more

than ten years' experience as an inspector of English language at the secondary and preparatory level in my country. Through this journey of experience I have realised that Libyan teachers of English language at secondary level worry too much when their students commit errors during

oral activities, such as answering questions, reading a passage and acting out a dialogue.

Teachers try to offer their oral error correction to their students at any time, even when it may

be unnecessary, and sometimes they may go further than that and deliberately seek out errors.

Some teachers may also believe that a good teacher is one who does not leave any single error

without correction and they may still believe the behaviourists' theory regarding error

correction which states that errors should be corrected immediately, for fear of becoming

acceptable. Besides, they may be aware of old methods of error correction only, such as

grammar translation method, direct method or audio-lingual method, and unaware of others

such as the interactional method (see Harmer, 2007: 48-49). The number of students in the

classroom is still high in a large number of schools, which may deprive students of the

opportunities of collaborative and communicative work. Teachers are not encouraged to use

various techniques in error correction such as self and peer correction in oral activities. All

those issues engaged my mind for a while and made me think deeply of this problem and

where I could find any justification for what is going on inside secondary classes during

English lessons, when students commit errors and their teachers correct them, to answer the

research questions (see subsection 1.4). Little research has been done on how male and female

teachers correct students' errors in oral activities during English lessons. Little comparison has

also been carried out on the ways experienced and less experienced teachers correct their

students' oral errors. The students' attitudes towards error correction and how this may affect

16

their L2 learning have not been researched in-depth either. Therefore, I decided to work on this issue to find answers by investigation into what is going on inside the classroom.

1.4 The Research Questions

In this thesis the researcher will investigate the following questions: 1. Are there any differences between male and female Libyan teachers in the ways of correcting students' oral errors? What are these differences, if any?

2. Do experienced teachers pay more or less attention to the process of oral error correction than less experienced teachers? If yes, how and why?

3. How do teachers' gender and experience affect students' participation in oral activities in

the classroom?

In regard to these questions, I believe gender difference is one of the variables associated with

teaching and learning in Libya and it may cause discrepancy among teachers (see Mussa,

1988). It is also essential to shed light on whether teachers' gender is so important that it

influences their ways of error correction during English classroom activities at secondary level.

Moreover, teachers' years of experience in teaching English is another variable that is worth

considering. It is claimed that teachers with a lot of experience usually correct their students'

errors more than those of short experience (see Trigwell et al., 2005), at a time when there is a

counter claim that beginners try to show more seriousness in teaching English and duly enable

their students to achieve better success (ibid).

1.5 Aims of the Study

Error correction is one of the most important aspects of foreign language learning and teaching

(Bartram and Walton, 1991; Edge, 1993; Ellis, 1995; James, 1998; Mitchell and Myles, 1998;

Brown, 2000; Gass and Selinker, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Block, 2003; Rydahi, 2005).

According to Sunderland (1994: 166-7), male and female teachers often look at error

correction in different ways. The literature review I have done shows that the factor of a

teacher's gender in error correction is under-researched. As Einarsson and Granstron (2002

cited in Houtte 2006: 3), point out most research concerning classroom interaction has focused

on students' gender, neglecting the gender of the teacher.

17

Experience is also an important factor in learning and teaching as it can support or undermine teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning (see Sato and Kleinsasser, 2004: 803). Research

shows that experienced teachers criticise less experienced ones on their teaching activities whereas less experienced teachers do not criticise more experienced ones (see Sato and Kleinsasser, 2004: 804). The factor of teaching experience in oral correction, according to the literature review I have done is also under-researched. As these two factors seem to be under-

researched and because learners can be affected by teachers' experience and gender (see Hall

and Hewings, 2001: 282), the focus of this thesis is on these two variables, namely gender and

experience, in oral error correction. In this research, the researcher aims to explore oral

correction techniques used by Libyan teachers during English lessons at Ajelate secondary

schools by trying to find answers to the research questions (see subsection 1.4).

1.6 The Scope of the Study

This study is concerned with how teachers correct oral errors committed by students in English

language lessons at Ajelate Secondary Schools (intermediate level). The choice of this level in

particular is due to the fact that it is a transitional level where students are neither beginners,

nor advanced, i. e. at primary level, teaching English is generally labelled as weak and

ineffective (see Al Moghani, 2003: 39), therefore teachers may need to do a lot of correction,

or at the university level where teachers are expected to do less oral error correction.

This study is focused on the way in which teachers correct oral errors, i. e. errors committed in

speech during English lesson activities. Such errors usually occur when students are acting out

a dialogue, giving answers to questions posed by teachers or by another student, practising

pronunciation, and/or reading exercises. In the current study, it is believed that teachers of

English at the secondary level have more options in terms of their adaptation of some particular

methodological strategies (see the Libyan National Commission for Education, Culture and

science 2004: 64-65), among which the correction of oral errors forms a paramount

component.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study deals with one of the most important issues and processes in teaching and learning

EFL. It shows the role of the teacher (male or female) when his/her student commits oral

18

errors. It presents what exactly a teacher does or does not do to correct students' errors; what their perspectives are and how s/he acts towards students' errors.

This current study serves to provide a picture about how experienced and less experienced teachers correct students' errors and how their correction techniques encourage their students'

participation. It explores the different methods which are used by teachers according to their

gender and experience. This study is significant because it is the first in Libya which investigates whether there are any differences between male and female and experienced and less experienced teachers in correcting students' oral errors. My findings will feed into

building a more complete EFL error correction theory.

1.8 Contributions of the Study

This research will contribute to the field of teaching EFL by:

1. The comparison of male and female teachers in oral error correction techniques in TEFL

because there is not much research concerning teachers' genders in correcting students'

oral errors.

2. The comparison between experienced and less experienced teachers in oral correction.

3. Offering certain findings for building a more complete EFL error correction theory.

4. The improvement of EFL teachers in error correction techniques (especially Libyan

teachers) in how to deal with their students' errors during oral activities.

1.9 The Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter one begins with the introduction and a

description of the Libyan education system, the status of teaching English language and the

aims of the current study. Besides, it outlines the scope of the study, the significance and

contribution of the research. Chapters two and three contain reviews of literature related to

errors and error correction. Chapter two shows the meaning of oral error correction and factors

which affect correction. Chapter three sheds light on FL and learning problems. Chapter four

describes and constructs the methods and the tools of data collection. Chapters five and six

exhibit the data analysis. In chapter seven, the final findings will be summarised and discussed.

In chapter eight, the conclusions and recommendations will be recorded.

19

1.10 Summary and Conclusion

This chapter has introduced the education system in Libya with special emphasis on the way of learning and teaching English as a foreign language. It has been pointed out that the English

language has been affected by various decisions and changes. It has been mentioned that the

education system is divided into two parts the old system and the new one. This chapter has

formed the three main research questions in which the researcher will examine, and has

clarified the aims, of why the researcher has decided to undertake the current study.

This chapter has also explained the significance of the present study and it is considered as a

precursory study in Libya, especially at secondary level and particularly in Ajelate city.

Besides, it has pointed out contributions in the field of teaching and learning English with

special emphasis on the comparison between male and female, and experienced and less

experienced teachers in the role of oral error correction.

20

Chapter Two: Correction of Errors

2.1 Introduction

Many researchers and teachers feel strongly that errors are crucial, central and essential, as

well as an inescapable fact of language learning and teaching (see Bartram and Walton, 1991: iii). This does not mean that an ill-formed piece of language is better than the accurate form but

this changes the traditional notion that errors are `bad habits' (see Mitchell and Myles, 2004:

15). The researcher strongly believes that an obsession with errors affects students in general

negatively. The researcher also believes that the basic problem is not why or when a learner

commits an error, but what techniques and methods are needed to correct that error. The

researcher also considers correction is a response to errors, but how much correction do

students need to correct students and what types of correction should we follow? Gass and

Selinker (2001: 292) clarified "corrections cannot occur with all incorrect forms".

In human language, oral communication is the most common form which takes place every day

(see Lynch, 1996: 105; Martin and Miller, 2003: 1). Teachers and students communicate and

interact orally while they read, discuss topics, ask or answer questions. 2). In some L2 lessons,

teachers and students learn to communicate by using the target language to express themselves.

Therefore, in order to communicate in L2 clearly, they may integrate components of their L1

such as sound, grammar, choice of words and meaning levels together with the FL (ibid: 3).

During the students' interaction with their teachers, students commit various types of errors

which need to be corrected. Bartram and Walton, (1991) pointed out, all students make errors,

and all teachers react to them. Some teachers react by doing nothing; others react too severely.

The ones who react by doing nothing maybe more or less concerned with fluency rather than

accuracy. The other reason could be that they do not like to demoralise students by error

correction, but they like to encourage their students to use the language. Hendrickson (1987)

points out, the emphasis is on the creation of an atmosphere in which students want to talk.

Such emphasis leads learners to feel free during their speech without fearing the occurrence of

errors (388). Those who react too severely to their students' errors, pick up every single error

and correct immediately without distinguishing between major and minor errors. Major errors

or global errors are those errors which involve the overall structure of a sentence and those

21

errors hinder communication of the speaker's message while minor or local errors are those

which affect a particular element but the message of the speaker may be still understood (see Burt and Kiparsky, 1975; Lengo, 1995; Moss, 2000).

Personally, I strongly reject this technique because this sort of teacher does not encourage students to build up their self confidence, but students feel that error correction is a kind of punishment rather than a step towards learning the TL. Each teacher acts according to his/her

attitude towards errors. Therefore the attitude towards oral error correction varies among learners and teachers of the foreign language.

In Libya teachers are sometimes confused about how to help their students when they commit

errors during oral activities. Some teachers still have a tendency to provide explicit and

elaborate grammatical correction to students' oral activities. They may do that in order to

improve students' accuracy regardless of the type of errors and the time of correction.

In my experience some teachers spend much time in correcting students' oral errors without

realising that error correction may not help students improve their accuracy when

communicating in the classroom. They correct students' errors directly by providing the correct

form to all errors by themselves. In my experience, they justify that error correction is their job

and do not leave any single error without correction. Some teachers may also feel proud when

they grasp the student's errors and correct them while some teachers emphasise how students

perform accurately in the final exam to get high marks regardless of the students' fluency.

Moreover, some teachers may be surprised when they are asked not to correct all errors during

oral communication in FL. That is to say, Libyan teachers have various understandings of error

correction techniques used in oral activities; it is not surprising that Libyan teachers may have

different teaching behaviours and different reaction towards errors and error correction. In my

experience, some teachers may think if they do not correct students' errors they may lose their

students' trust.

In some respects, the borderline between what is to be corrected and what is not to be corrected

is not clear; it is valuable to know what correction precisely means. This chapter will discuss

the definition of error correction presented by many researchers and how they distinguish

22

between different kinds of error correction. This chapter will also shed light on the factors

which may affect error correction. Consequently, the following section presents some definitions of the term correction.

2.2 What is Correction?

The literature review has shown that researchers have defined correction or error correction in

many ways related to the type of error, the aim of the activities and how serious the errors are. There is no consensus among researchers for one overall definition. The following are some definitions presented by various researchers, for example: Gainer (1989) in his article "Clozing

in on oral error" argued that correction is provided in the oral language classroom to help

students to identify difficult areas and reformulate rules in their minds in order to produce language more accurately, but he added that many correction techniques seem to frustrate and intimidate students rather than enlighten them (1). Gainer's definition concerns pronunciation

errors rather than written ones.

Saxton (1997 cited in Lochtman (2003) pointed out that error correction is a form of input

(273). Lochtman (2003) also added that error correction is the way to inform the learner that

the language just used needs repair and helps the learner to try again to get the form right. The

discussion of the role of error correction is part of a large discussion on the role of focusing on

form, especially in teaching L2. Lochtman's definition emphasises accuracy in all aspects of

language and gives a chance to the learner to participate in the operation of correction to avoid

teachers' correction. Lochtman's definition was similar to Baker and Westrup's definition

(2003), who pointed out that correction during speaking activities should always be done

positively and with encouragement, to let students participate and overcome the fear of

committing errors (34). In both definitions, emphasis was placed on students' participation in

order to involve themselves positively in oral error correction.

Arnold (1998) points out that "correction can be defined as feed-back on errors" (261), while

Edge states (1989), "Correction is a way of reminding students of the forms of Standard

English. It should not be a kind of criticism or punishment" (20), But according to James

(1998) the term correction has been used in three senses:

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1. Feedback which informs the learners that there is an error, and leaves them to discover it

and repair it themselves.

2. Correction-proper which provides treatment or information of the specific instance of error without aiming to prevent the same error from recurring later. The corrector can give a hint but without getting to the root of the problem. This is like doing a temporary

repair on your car, just to get you home.

3. Remediation which provides the learners with information that allows them to revise or

reject the wrong rule (235-40).

These definitions of error correction as presented by Arnold (1998), Edge (1989) and James

(1998) did not make a clear cut distinction between direct and indirect error correction. They

tried to emphasise the role of correction to help the learner to correct him/herself in producing

accurate language, rather than as a way of criticism or punishment. Consequently, Karolina

(2000) pointed out that error correction is the direct intention of pointing the student's attention

towards an error and giving him/her time to think about the nature of the error. In other words,

error correction should be used with the purpose of drawing the student's attention to notice the

error and understand the correction.

From the above-mentioned definitions it can be derived that correction can lead the learner to

know the correct or appropriate forms of language, whatever the method of correction is.

James (1998) pointed out that correction can be divided into `surface correction' and `deep

correction'. The first deals with the correction of the error without addressing the source of the

problem, while the latter involves explaining the reason behind the error (237). The target aim

of teachers in oral error correction is to encourage students to speak accurately and avoid

errors, as Green (2000) reported that "Indeed normal speech can be seen as the successful

avoidance of error" (409). In chapter three, more explanations and various views about

correction will be discussed.

Mitchell and Myles (2004) put correction in the frame of `negative evidence' which is

necessary and helpful in second language development. By negative evidence, they mean some

kind of input that lets the learner know that a particular form is not acceptable according to the

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target language norms. Correction according to interaction theory takes different forms of correction, ranging from formal correction offered by a teacher, to a more informal one offered by a native speaker during communication with him/her (ibid: 22). Regarding Mitchell and Myles' (2004) definition, there is a great similarity with Gainer and Lochtman's (2003) and Baker and Westrup's (1989) in which all emphasise that error correction is not limited to teachers only but they gave the opportunity for self-correction and peer correction.

According to current theories, Mitchell and Myles (2004: 22) suggest that any natural language

is learnt from positive evidence alone and corrective fee