4.2 sonic measurements
TRANSCRIPT
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Advanced Formation Evaluation
October 2012
by Alain Brie
Sonic Measurements
Acquisition and Evaluation
4.2
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Borehole Compensated Measurement
Making a measurement with two transmitters on top andbottom of the receivers achieves borehole compensation.
The BHC measurement is the average of the upper andlower transmitter measurements,
BHC corrects the effect of sonde tilt and boreholeenlargement,
The T-R spacings of the BHC tool are 3 ft- 5 ft
2
LTxUTxBHC
ttt
+=
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Long Spacing Sonic
Short spacing measurements such as the 3 5 ft BHC limitthe depth of investigation and can cause adverse effects onthe measurement.
In very large boreholes the tool can read the mudtinsteadof the formation,
In case of alteration (shale swelling) the log can read thealtered zone instead of the virgin formation,
Increasing the TR Spacing increases the depth ofinvestigation and provides a reliable measurement of theformation,
The Long Spaced Sonic sonde with TR spacings of 8 10 ft
and 10 12 ft was designed for this purpose.
Sh
allowSection
IntermediateSection
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Legacy Sonic Tools
Digital Cartridge
Array SonicBHC LSS
Legacy Sonic Tools can be operated with acommon digital cartridge that digitizes sonicwaveforms downhole.
The BHC sonde has 3 - 5 ft spacing
The Long Spacing Sonde has 8-10 ft and 10-12ft
Spacings, The Array Sonic has 3-5 ft, 8-10 ft spacings and an
array of 8 receivers every 6 in located at 8 ft fromthe upper transmitter.
All these measurements are monopole.
LTx
UTx
LTx
UTx
LTx
UTx
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Slowness-Time Coherence Computation
The Slowness Time Coherence techniquescans the waveforms for all possible timesand move-out to find coherent arrivals inthe waveform.
Coherence is the ratio of coherent energyalong a move-out over the total energy,
Coherence of 1 is perfect correlation, Low coherence means no correlation.
The calculated coherence for each timeand slowness value is plotted on the STPlane.
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ST Plane
TRline
Each point on the ST plane represents theresult of a coherence computation at a certaintime and move-out.
Contours a drawn around zones of equalcoherence,
Low coherences are shown in blue and high
coherences in red, High coherence peaks indicate a highly
correlated event propagating at this time andslowness,
The arrival time of events propagating alongthe borehole should be close to their slownesstimes the TR spacing.
0 Coherence 1
Time s
Slowness
s/ft
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Field STC Processing Results
Field STC processing for monopole P&S (DSI SAM-4).
This display is used to control the quality of theSTC computation.
Track 3 shows the Slowness coherence projectionoverlaid with the resulting DT logs,
Low coherences are shown in blue and highcoherences in red,
Continuous red bands indicate good quality data(good coherence),
DT logs should follow track red bands,
Result logs are shown in Track 2,
Other information is shown in Track 1.
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Monopole Borehole Propagation
Monopole sonic tools measure head waves,
Not body waves
The transmitter sends a pressure pulse thatpropagate as compressional and shear body wavesin the formation,
Body waves induce head waves in the formationwhen they are faster than the mud compressional,
Sonic receivers record the head waves,
The shear headwaveonly exists in fast formations
Other waves propagate in the borehole
? The pseudo-Rayleigh wave,
? The Stoneley wave,
? Normal and leaky modes (borehole arrivals).
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Compressional and Shear Waves
Consider a pile of disks. If we excite a vibration by knocking
vertically on the top it propagates down as acompressional wave,
With a compressional wave particle motionis parallel to the propagation direction,
If we excite a vibration by knocking the pilelaterally it propagates down as a shearwave,
With a shear wave particle motion isperpendicular to the propagation direction,
Compressional
(extensional)
Shear
(flexural)
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Monopole-Dipole Excitation
In monopole excitation one point source sends a
pressure pulse in all directions.
With dipole excitation two point sources side-by-side pulse in opposite phase creating a lateral
push-pull effect.
Quadrupole excitation uses four point sources;
one diagonal pulses in phase opposition with the
other diagonal.
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Dipole Shear Sonic Imager
DSI Tool String
The DSI, dipole shear imager tool acquiresboth monopole and dipole measurements.
Its main features are:
Two dipole transmitters in perpendiculardirections,
One monopole transmitter with high and low
frequency drives, Array of 8 receivers stations with dipole and
monopole capability,
Long spacing for reading past altered zones,
Isolation joint to prevent direct wavetransmission through the tool body.
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Electrodynamic Dipole Transmitter
There are various ways to generate dipole excitation in the borehole.
The electrodynamic transmitterworks as a loudspeaker, pushing
the mud laterally,
The push excites
the borehole in
flexion,
Flexural wave propagates verticallyalong the borehole, while particle
motion is transverse; it is therefore
close to a shear wave.
Propagation
DisplacementElectrodynamic Transmitter Flexural Wave
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DSI Upper Dipole (SAM-2)
Dipole DSI Waveforms
Flexural
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Flexural Wave Dispersion
Flexural Dispersion Curves in 8 in. Borehole
Inflection Point
The flexural wave is linked to the wellboreand varies with frequency. This is calledfrequency dispersion.
At low frequency the flexural slownessreaches the formation shear slowness,
At higher frequencies the flexural slowness
increases, The maximum amplitude of the flexural is
at the inflection point,
Dispersive STC processing accounts fordispersion and outputs formation sheardirectly.
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Dipole Processing Quality Control Display
Quality control plot for dipole shearprocessing..
ST Projection with log tracking results ispresented in Track 3,
Coherence in Track 1,
Arrival frequency and filter band in Track 2,
Filtered waveform and reconstructed sheararrival time in Track 4.
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Sonic Scanner Tool
TheSonic Scannertool is the latest development in Schlumberger sonic technology. The
SScan benefits from the experience acquired with the DSI-1 and DSI-2 tools and offers
superior dipole as well as monopole measurement capabilities.
The Sonic Scanner is modular, in the basic configuration it replaces all prior monopole
tools: BHC, LSS and AS.
In the full configuration it replaces the DSI and adds new capabilities for anisotropic and
inhomogeneous formation analysis.
The Sonic Scanner tool was designed by computer modeling, it has predictable acoustics
allowing full characterization of its response and frequency behavior for high fidelity answers.
S i S B i C fi i
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Sonic Scanner Basic Configuration
Minimum Service Sonde
Basic Configuration
Monopole only tool to replace old technology sondes.
True BHC with upper and lower monopole transmitters.
Large 13 receivers array provide robust measurement and
multiple spacings from 1 to 7 ft.
Cement bond log (CBL) and variable density log (VDL)
measurement Improved behind casing monopole measurement with
CBL/VDL simultaneous acquisition
Measurements
Monopole P&S
Cement Evaluation Altered zone evaluation
S i S F ll C fi ti
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Sonic Scanner Full Configuration
Full Service
Configuration
Basic configuration measurements plus:
Long-spacing 10.8 to 16.8 ft monopole with MF transmitter.
Low frequency monopole Stoneley measurement.
Wideband dipole measurements from X and Y transmitters.
All modes including BCR acquired all the time.
Improved behind casing dipole measurement with CBL/VDL
simultaneous acquisition.
Measurements
Dipole X&Y and anisotropy
Monopole P&S and Stoneley
Cement Evaluation
Stress Eval
Altered zone
S i S W f
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Monopole Far (MF)
Sonic Scanner Waveforms
High quality, high consistency waveforms; Very wideband dipole waveforms for high quality answers, especially in cased hole and new
applications (formation alteration and stress evaluation).
Dipole (XD)
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Alt ti E l ti F Di l Di i
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Alteration Evaluation From Dipole Dispersion
Chemical or mechanical alteration of the formationnear the wellbore increases the dispersion of thedipole flexural wave.
Evaluation of dispersion provides:
More accurate formation shear,
Information on formation weaknesses and potentialfailure,
Formation stress information.
Dipole Anisotropy Radial Profiling
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Dipole Anisotropy Radial Profiling
Systematic acquisition of XD and YDdipole waveforms provides shear slownessin the fast and slow directions in case ofanisotropy.
More accurate shear determination forformation evaluation,
Dispersion analysis further provides stress
information,
This is essential information for rockmechanics evaluation.
Elastic Waves Velocities
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Elastic Waves Velocities
GKVp
+= 34
Compressional Shear
GVs=
GKV
t
p +
==3
4
8.3048.304
GV
t
s
s
8.3048.304==
Units: KandG in GPa in g/cc Vp ansVs in km/s t andts ins/ft
Sound waves are elastic waves that propagate in the ground as vibrations.
In an isotropic, homogeneous (HI) medium only two moduli and thedensity are necessaryto determine the velocity of the compressional and shear body waves.
K is the bulk modulus, G is the shear modulus and r is the density
ElasticWavesAnalogywithSpring Mass Systems
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Elastic Waves Analogy with Spring-Mass Systems
Propagation of a vibration in asystem of spring and masses.
Displacement of masses.
Density
Moduli
Elastic MediumSpring-Mass System
Spring Stiffness
Mass
Velocity
Slowness
Elastic Moduli
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Elastic moduli represent the resistance of amaterial to deformation.
Bulk modulus is the resistance to compression
Shear modulus is the resistance to distortion
Elastic Moduli
cK=
sG=
Compression
Shear
Elastic Moduli
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Young Modulus and Poissons ratio are oftenused in rock lab and rock mechanics.
Young Modulus is the resistance to uniaxialcompression (as in a press)
Poissons ratio characterizes lateral expansion asthe sample is compressed
1
3
1
2
==
1
uE=
Uniaxial Compression
Elastic Moduli
PoissonsRatio is linked toVp/Vs
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Poissons ratio is linked to the Vp/Vs ratio.
The physical limits of Poissons Ratio are:
Poissons Ratio and Vp/Vs are linked as:
From which the physical limits for Vp/Vs(isotropic material) are:
Poissons Ratio is linked to Vp/Vs
5.00
VsVp/2
1/
2/
2
12
2
=VsVp
VsVp
soft
Elastic Moduli Equivalence
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Elastic Moduli Equivalence
-Poissons Ratio
-Lame Constant
-
-
E
G
K
-Youngs Modulus
Shear Modulus
Bulk Modulus
K, G E, ,
K
K
3
9
+
)3(2
23
+
K
K
++ )23(
)(2
+
3
23 K)21)(1(
+E
)21(3 E
)1(2 +E
32+
Two elastic constants are sufficient to describe elastic properties of a HI medium
(Homogeneous Isotropic),
Young modulus and Poissons ratio are used in rock mechanics,
The Lame constants and are used in theoretical physics.
DynamicElasticModuli
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Dynamic Elastic Moduli
Factorsof InfluenceonSonicSlowness
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Porosity
Lithology (mineralogy) including clay content
Pore fluid
Pore shapes
Micro structure Stress (pressure) and compaction
Factors of Influence on Sonic Slowness
Sizes of pores and grains have no influence (Sonic wavelength is much larger)
Equations that do not account for all effects are approximate and limited,
Most equations only account for Porosity and Lithology effects,
Elastic Moduli are needed to account for fluid effect (GassmannEquation).
WyllieSonicPorosity
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Wyllie Sonic Porosity
In 1950 MrWyllie proposed a simple time-average response equationbased on a
correlation of laboratory measurements to linktand porosity:
mf
m
S tt
tt
=
mf
m
S tt
tt
Cp
=
1
In unconsolidated sands the Wyllie Porosity is larger than true porosity. A
compaction factor (multiplier) is added:
Cp: compaction factor is 1 in well consolidated sands
up to 2 in loose sands.
mf ttt += ).1(.
TheWyllie sonic porosity is this obtained as:
( ) mf
tCptCpt
+= ..1..
SonicPorosityEquations
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Sonic Porosity Equations
Raymer-Hunt-Gardner Equation - RHG
mf ttt
+
=
2)1(1
)1(11
=
sttm
)(1
t
tt
s
m
=
s = 1.45 in sandstones1.60 in carbonates.
Velocity Equation - VelC
and
with
Sonic Porosity Chart Por-3
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Sonic Porosity Chart Por 3
Porosity Evaluation from Sonic (Por-3)
V, ft/s t, s/ftWater 5300189
26000 38.5
Dolomite 23000 43.5
Limestone 21000 47.6
Hard Sands19500 51.3Soft Sands 18000 55.5
HardSa
ndston
es
SoftS
andsto
nes
Lim
esto
ne
Do
lomite
UncompactedSandstones
Mineral End Points
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e a d o s
1.5378.255.52.65Soft sand
1.8492502.98Anhydr ite
1.73116.5672.16Salt1.878.543.52.87Dolomite
1.8688.547.52.71Limestone
1.598851.52.65Hard sand
Vp/VsmtsmtmmEnd points
End points for Wyllie Equation
These are slightly different from mineral values.
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Sonic Porosity Equations In Sandstones
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y q
Slowness in Unconsolidated Sandstones
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Compressional slowness in shallow unconsolidated sands
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Sonic Porosity Equations In Carbonates
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Crossplot compressional t-porosity in a water-bearing limestone
y q
SSPI =
62 s/ft
15 PU
10.5 PU
t= 62 s/ft, Sonic = 10.5 PUND = 15 PU
Secondary Porosity Index
SPI = 15 10.5 = 4.5 PU
Porosity Evaluation from Slowness
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Porosity Evaluation Recommendations
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Well compacted sands
Unconsolidated sands
Carbonates
Metamorphic and igneous rocks
Both Wyllie and VelCare adequate
Moderate unconsolidation: VelC
Substantial unconsolidation: calibrated Wyllie with Cp
VelCis a good average
Can use a dual porosity model : intergranular / isolated pores
Wyllie often gives good results for unfracturedblock
Vp/Vs Crossplot in Shaly Sands -Effect of Gas
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Original Crossplot for Gas Sands.
Brie et al. -SPE 1995
Vp/Vs vst crossplot
Updated Vp/Vs Crossplot for Sands and Carbonates
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p p p
Vp/Vs vst crossplot
UpdatedVp/Vs Crossplot
Includes:
- Effect of water salinity in sands,
- Water and gas trends in carbonates
Brie, SPWLA-2001
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Live Oil Slowness
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Effect of Live Oil on Vp/Vs
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Live oil has an effect ont andVp/Vs.Although intuitively oil is liquid like water, it ismore compressible.
At high GOR the effect of live oil on sonictandVp/Vs is comparable to that of gas.
Sands with live oil, gravity 35 API, at 200Fand 5000 psi
For different GOR
Evaluation of Gas Effect on Sonic Slowness
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Elastic physics govern sound propagation in materials and rocks.To understand the
effect of the pore fluid, especially that of gas, on sound velocity and slowness we haveto go back to the elastic properties of the rock. We have seen that sound velocity are
linked to elastic moduli and density with the relations:
23
42 sbpb VVK = 2
sbVG =
Where K is the bulk modulus,G the shear modulus andb is the rock density.
and
and
GKVp
+= 3
4
GVs=
Starting from the logs K and G can be obtained with the expressions:
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Partially Saturated Rocks
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In partially saturated rocks the effective fluid bulk modulus,
Kfe, must be entered in the Gassmannequation.Geophysicist useWoods Law , a compliance law to evaluate
Kfe.
However Woods Law is too abrupt at sonic frequency where
a more gradual change is observed.
A realistic approximation is provided by thepower mixing
law:
The exponente is usually around 5.Note that when saturation is less than 50% the fluid bulk
modulus is practically that of gas.Fluid Mixing Laws (low pressure)
Kfe
= Kmf
Kg( )Sxo e + Kg
0 100Liquid Saturation %
0
2.5
PoreFlu
idModulus
GPa
Woods
Law
Powe
rMix
ingLaw
g
xo
mf
xo
fe K
S
K
S
K
+= 11
Effect of Gas on Vp/Vs
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( ) ( ) 3
422
+== G
K
mVs
Vp
dryVs
Vp dry
In shaly sands theVp/Vs of the dry rock is constant andequal to theVp/Vs of the minerals; 1.5 to 1.58(depending on additional minerals).
This expression provides a link between dry bulk
modulusKdry and the shear modulusG, obtained fromtshear.
Kdry can then be used to estimate the hydrocarbon
volume fromt, ort at different saturation conditions(fluid substitution).
Effect of Gas ont Slowness
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Light hydrocarbon effect is large in
porous, unconsolidated formations.
The effect of gas on compressionalt issmall to negligible in low porosity, compact
formations.
Vp/Vs Crossplot in Tight Gas Sands -Algeria
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Although the porosity is very low, the
effect of gas on Vp/Vs is visible in tight
sands with porosities of 10 PU or less.
Vp/Vs Crossplot in Low Porosity Oil Sand
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Although the effect is small, the effect of live oil on
Vp/Vs is visible in tight sands with porosities of 6 to11 PU.
A quicklookmethod can be used to detect oil
bearing intervals in the field.
A polynomial correlation is adjusted to fit the Wet
Sand line on theVp/Vs crossplot
The wett can then be calculated fromtshear.
Live Oil properties:
41 deg API1301 cuft/bbl260F
4500 psi
Chardacet al. SPE-2003
432.... sssswet tetdtctbat ++++=
In the example shown: a = -0.8482
b = 0.7665
c = -1.450 10-3
d = 1.391 10-6
e = -5.364 10-10
t Overlay for HC Detection in Low Porosity Sands
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The wett calculated fromtshear. with the polynomial
calculation is drawn with the measuredtlog
A separation betweentlog andtwet indicate the
presence of light hydrocarbon in the formation.
There is good agreement with the subsequent ELAN
evaluation.
Chardacet al. SPE-2003
Vp/Vs Crossplot in Limestone
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Comparison of model curves with data
from a clean limestone with some gasintervals.
Wet Vp/Vs varies little and does not
depend on spherical porosity fraction,
Dry (gas bearing) Vp/Vs decreases with
porosity and with decreasing spherical
porosity fraction.
Generalized DryVp/Vs for Complex Lithology
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In shaly sandsVp/Vsdry is constant around 1.53, but in carbonates it changes with porosity and
spherical pores fraction. A generalized equation forVp/Vsdry is given by the expression:
)9.01()53.1/(1.3/)/( spfVsVpVsVpVsVp mmdry =
Vp/Vsm :Vp/Vs of the minerals
(solids),
spf: Fraction of spherical
pores (molds or vugs) inthe porosity
Vp/Vsm The generalizedVp/Vsdry allows us to
evaluate the hydrocarbon effect and
do fluid substitution on the sonic logs
in all lithologies.
Sonic Applications
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Seismic
Time Depth curveSynthetic seismogram
AVO/AVA calibration
Anisotropy
Cased Hole
Cement Bond Evaluation
Rock Mechanics
Pore pressure
Stress orientation and magnitude
Hydro-FracdesignWell bore stability evaluation
Sanding prediction
Petrophysics
Porosity-Lithology (especially in CH)Gas detection
Fractured reservoir evaluation
Permeability
Sonic Imaging