4. What Is the Role of the Disciplines In Interdisciplinary Studies? 8/26/04

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES: Students will be able to define disciplinary perspective. Students will be able to identify the perspectives various disciplines and the

phenomena embraced by them. Students will be able to explain how a discipline’s perspective relates to the

phenomena it studies and the theories and methods it uses.

INTRODUCTION

Students are drawn to interdisciplinary studies programs because they provide considerable freedom to design individualized programs of study tailored to their personal academic or career goals. These programs of study generally include coursework in three or more disciplines, but far less coursework than would be required for a “major.” The point of majoring in a discipline is to learn its key elements--its knowledge, theories, methods, and perspective--all of which are essential for researching and writing in that discipline. Though interdisciplinary studies students take less coursework in a particular discipline than those majoring in it, they must have a working knowledge of these key elements in each discipline relevant to the problem, issue or question they plan to investigate. In other words, interdisciplinary students must somehow acquire disciplinary specific knowledge without majoring in the discipline. But how is this possible? How can interdisciplinary studies students achieve both breadth and depth? Admittedly, this is a formidable task and there are no simple solutions. Nevertheless, this chapter presents strategies designed to help students to acquire this essential information in an efficient manner. More particularly, this chapter offers the following:

a definition of disciplinary perspective an explanation of why disciplinary perspective is so important to interdisciplinary

studies the phenomenon, prevailing theories methods and perspectives of various

disciplines linking various disciplines to their perspectives, the phenomena they embrace, and

their favored theories and methods

I. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE?

The English word “discipline” comes from the Latin word disciplina, meaning learningand obedience training (E. L. Cerroni-Long and Roger D. Long, 1995, 47). The processof learning has traditionally involved receiving instruction from one’s elders. The objectof learning was to acquire knowledge that was specialized and valuable.

Today, the term discipline has two principal usages: it refers to a particular branch of

1

learning or body of knowledge [i.e., a discipline]; it also refers to maintaining control over an individual or a group, and may include the threat of physical forms of punishment (Moran, 2002, 2). Our interest is in the former meaning. Specifically we want to know how learning occurs in the disciplines, and how this, in turn, relates to their perspectives.

A. DEFINING DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE

1. Perspective means “the capacity to view things in their true relations or relative importance.” Cerroni-Long (1995, 47) informs us that modern academic disciplines perform two critical functions, both of which contribute to the development of perspective:

they train to systematically use a particular and consistent set of questions for analyzing experience within a coherent frame of reference

they interpret reality by asking a unique set of what and how questions

2. A disciplines’ most distinctive characteristic is the perspective by which it views the world Each discipline has a perspective or way of interpreting and ordering reality. We can compare a discipline to a lens through which to view the world. Each discipline acts like a lens when it filters out certain phenomena so that it can focus exclusively on phenomena which interests it. The discipline of physics, for example, would not be interested in demographic data that would be of great interest to a sociologist. But the discipline of physics would be very interested in data that shows how widely varying temperatures affect the tensile strength of steel cables used to suspend a bridge. Similarly, the discipline of history would likely not be interested in the regulatory hurdles involved in the building an oil refinery, but the disciplines of political science and law would.

Ian Hacking (2004) cautions that merely examining the same object or phenomenon from different disciplinary perspectives does not, by itself, constitute interdisciplinary work, but only multidisciplinary work (emphasis added, 5). The reason is quite simple: having five different people from five different disciplines look at an object will likely yield five different descriptions of the object. This is the nature of multidisciplinarity. What is lacking, of course, is any attempt to integrate these perspectives into a more comprehensive understanding of the object, synthesizing, insofar as this is possible, the various perspectives into one composite description. This synthesized perspective is validated by all the disciplines involved, but is not “owned” by any of them. B. WHY DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE IS SO IMPORTANT TO INTERDISCIPLINARY INQUIRY

The ability to identify disciplinary perspective is critical at three points in the interdisciplinary research and integrative process:

2

Conducting the initial literature review. The purpose of conducting an initial literature review is to determine if the proposed topic/issue/problem/question is “researchable.” A topic is “researchable” in an interdisciplinary sense when there is sufficient, quality scholarship from at least three disciplines. In this exploratory phase, which scholars call the “literature review,” students are reading a variety of materials to gather background information on their topic. There is a pitfall to be avoided here: some students begin their interdisciplinary research by gathering materials on their topic without paying close attention to which disciplines produced the materials. The unintended result of such oversight is to end up with a large amount of material written primarily or exclusively from the perspective of one or two disciplines. Obviously, one cannot conduct true interdisciplinary research under such conditions. In such an event, either the student will have to abandon the topic for want of sufficient material from more than two disciplines, or, the student will have to expand the search to include materials from other disciplines on the topic. We will examine the literature review process in greater detail in a subsequent chapter.

Ascertaining what theory and method is particularly relevant to the question at hand. Rick Szostak (2003c) defines interdisciplinarity in terms of being open to any suitable disciplinary theory and method (_). Different theories, he adds, are suited to different phenomena. For example, some theories describe group processes. Others focus on individual actions, while still others emphasize relationships. Interdisciplinary students, including professional researchers, need guidance as to what sorts of theories to draw upon in particular situations (2004, 6). We provide this guidance later in this chapter. [insert his info from Current Sociology here]

Synthesizing the discipline-specific research findings, taking into account disciplinary-based majority and minority views on the issue, problem, or question at hand. Disciplines are not monolithic. Their members rarely agree on the controversies of the day. For example, scholars from the discipline of education (particularly learning theory) disagree sharply among themselves on the extent to which teachers should use computers in the elementary classroom. This debate is replicated in the disciplines of psychology, communications, and business. The problem for the interdisciplinary student is formidable and requires integrating first within each discipline and then among the disciplines. Later in this text we will show examples of how to achieve synthesis under such circumstances.

II. WHAT ARE THE PERSPECTIVES OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES AND THE THINKING PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH THEM?

We emphasize that interdisciplinary studies students must have at least a general understanding of the fields of study in which they taking coursework and intend to conduct research. Janet Donald, a leading researcher in the field of learning theory at McGill University, Canada, emphasizes that “to understand a field of study [i.e., a

3

discipline], students must learn its perspectives and [thinking] processes. Intellectual development requires linking domain [i.e., disciplinary] knowledge and processes of inquiry” (2002, xii). Yet, as Szostak (2004) observes, “disciplinary perspectives are hard to pin down,” and “steps involving disciplinary perspective are among the most difficult in the entire [integrative] process” (10). It is significant that most of the leading practitioners of interdisciplinary studies have been thoroughly trained in a discipline before engaging in interdisciplinary scholarship. This disciplinary training sensitizes interdisciplinariarians to the importance of mastering the key elements of a discipline—its learning and thinking processes, its perspectives, the phenomena it embraces, and its favored theories and methods.

A. THE LEARNING AND THINKING PROCESSES OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES

1. According to Donald (2002), the generally accepted definition of learning is “a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice” (135). Interdisciplinary studies students should ponder this definition of learning for two reasons: (a) to conduct research in a discipline, students should invest sufficient time in a discipline to be conversant with its thinking process, the phenomena it embraces, its perspective, and its favored theories and methods, and (b) the more time a student spends in a discipline, the more difficult it is, generally, to break out of that discipline’s mold of thinking. As these reasons are at cross purposes, interdisciplinary students should strive for balance between depth in a discipline(s) and breadth among disciplines.

2. The first step in understanding a discipline is to know, at least in general terms, the thinking process that characterizes it. In the table below we link disciplinary categories—the sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities--with general statements about the thinking process that characterizes that category.

THE LEARNING AND THINKING PROCESSES OF DISCIPLINARY CATEGORIES

CATEGORY DISCIPLINE THE LEARNING AND THE THINKING PROCESS

THE SCIENCES PHYSICS “Learning in the sciences is inductive, knowledge-intensive, and analytic, going from specific phenomena to explanation that requires developing an extensive vocabulary to describe elements and relations between them.”

CHEMISTRYBIOLOGYGEOLOGYENGINEERING (NCLUDES IT VARIOUS FIELDS)

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

PSYCHOLOGY Learning in the social sciences involves developing a new abstract vocabulary, theoretical frameworks, analytic reasoning and research methods that emphasize theory construction, measurement, and textual analysis.

LAWSOCIOLOGYANTHROPOLOGYPOLITICAL SCIENCEHISTORYEDUCATION

4

THE HUMANITIES ENGLISH LITERATURE

“In the humanities, learning is concerned with understanding human culture—with aesthetics, where meaning is found in the contemplative perception of particular significant things, and synoptics, where meaning is comprehensive and integrative.”

ART & ART HISTORYMUSICTHEATER

Based on Donald, 97, __, 232

In the second table, we link specific disciplines with specific thinking processes. Students who have had coursework in these disciplines will, no doubt, recognize these learning and thinking processes.

THE LEARNING AND THINKING PROCESSES OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINESCATEGORY DISCIPLINE THE LEARNING AND THE THINKING

PROCESSTHE SCIENCES PHYSICS “Ability to represent physical phenomena in different modes, from

graphic representation to equations.”ENGINEERING “Representation is important but must be applied to understanding

[real-world] problems.”CHEMISTRY “Conceptual problem-solving, laboratory work, concept-mapping and

algorithmic application of formulas to solve problems.”BIOLOGY “Learning involves progress through alternating patterns of inductive

and deductive thinking, with the use of inferential skills, particularly changing perspective. Students need to understand the process behind the derivation of biological information.

SUMMARYSTATEMENT:

Physics, engineering, and chemistry place a priority on learning to problem-solve; in biology, more general reasoning and induction are important because of the complexity of the field.

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

PSYCHOLOGY Empirical analysis and theory construction, use of metaphors, paradigms

LAW “The methods of analysis depend on a history of practice that must be learned.”

EDUCATION Students need to understand the disciplines they are responsible for teaching, and how to design instructional practices to fit learners’ needs.”

THE HUMANITIES ENGLISH LITERATURE

“Analyze texts for their meaning and apply an aesthetic criterion in addition to others.”

Based on Donald, 104, 122, 127, 272

B. THE PHENOMENA EMBRACED BY VARIOUS DISCIPLINES

1. The second step to understanding a discipline is knowing the phenomena it embraces. Armed with this knowledge, interdisciplinary studies students will be able to identity disciplines relevant to the topic they wish to investigate. For example, a student wanting to research the topic, computer-assisted education, would identify disciplines dealing with the following phenomena: classroom teaching, communication technology, and learning theory. The relevant disciplines in this example would include education (because it deals with classroom teaching), communications (because it deals with computers), psychology (because it deals with learning theory) and business (because of the importance of the education software industry).

2. The following table shows the linkage between various disciplines and disciplinary categories and to the phenomena each embraces.

5

THE DISCIPLINES AND DISCIPLINARY CATEGORIES LINKED TO THE PHENOMENA THEY EMBRACE

DISCIPLINES PHENOMENA EMBRACEDPHYSICAL SCIENCES (physics, chemistry) NON-HUMAN ENVIRONMENT:

Soil, Topography, Climate, Flora, Fauna, Resource Availability, Water Availability

NATURAL SCIENCES (biology, geology) HUMAN & HEALTH:Genetic Predisposition, Nutrition, Disease/Injury

ENGINEERING (includes its various subfields) BUILT ENVIRONMENT:Transport infrastructure, technologies (communication, computational, entertainment)

LAW LAWS & LEGAL AGENCIES:Government regulations, court rulings, legal relationships

BUSINESS (includes its various subfields) ECONOMY:Income distribution, economic ideology, economic institutions(ownership, production, exchange, trade, finance, labor relations, organizations)

PSYCHOLOGY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:Abilities (physical, physical appearance, energy level, intelligences), Personality (sociability, emotionality, consciousness, affection, intellectual orientation, disorders, sexual orientation, schemas, interpersonal relationships

EDUCATION LEARNING:Academic skills, social skills, recreation skills.

SOCIOLOGY SOCIAL STRUCTURE:Genders, family types, kinship, classes, ethnic/racial divisions, social ideology, occupations

ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURE:Languages, religions, stories, expressions of culture, values

HISTORY PAST:Events, personalities, developments

COMMUNICATIONS (includes its subfields) ALL FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS:Technical communications, rhetoric

POLITICAL SCIENCE (includes its various subfields)

POLITICS:Political institutions, political ideology, nationalism, public opinion, crime, regulatory issues

LITERATURE FICTION:Novels, plays, poems, stories

ART, ART, MUSIC, THEATER NON-REPROCIBLE ART:Painting, sculpture, architectureREPRODUCIBLE ART:Photography, film, music, dance, theater. ART HISTORY:Period art

Based, in part, on Szostak 2001, 217-219

C. THE PERSPECTIVE OF VARIOUS DISCIPLINES

1. The third step to understanding a discipline is knowing its perspective. Earlier in this chapter we stated three reasons for knowing a discipline’s perspective. We now introduce a fourth reason: disciplinary perspective reveals the kind of evidence that a scholar uses to support his/her argument for or against the topic/issue/problem/question under investigation. To illustrate the close connection between disciplinary perspective and the kind of supportive evidence used in scholarship produced by the discipline, we examine three essays by experts from three different disciplines on the question, “Should schools adopt computer-assisted education?” When investigating complex and controversial issues, the interdisciplinary studies student should expect to encounter conflicting views from a variety of disciplinary perspectives as exemplified here.

a. DISCIPLINE #1: COMMUNICATIONS/INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY.

6

Clifford Stoll argues in The Disciplined Mind: What All Students Should Understand (1999) that schools should not adopt computer-assisted education. His expertise in the field of information technology extends to the business aspect of it, and this is reflected in the kind of evidence he presents to support his case: the hidden financial costs of computers, reference to the disciplinary journal, Education Technology News, examples of schools having to make hard choices between making needed repairs and buying technology, and careful examination of the mythical cost savings derived from automating education administration (Torr, 2003, 16-21). b. DISCIPLINE #2: PSYCHOLOGY (LEARNING THEORY). The National Research Council (NRC) is the research arm of the National Academy of Sciences, a private, nonprofit scholarly society that advises the federal government in scientific and technical matters. It’s study, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (1999) argues that computer-assisted education can enhance learning. The kind of supportive evidence used by the NRC includes references to state-of-the-art learning software, and several experimental projects like GLOBE that are gathering data from students in over 2,000 schools in 34 countries. The NRC report is also full of disciplinary (learning theory) jargon such as “active environment,” “problem- solving environment,” “technology environment,” and “computer scaffolding”(Torr, 2003, 22-36).

c. DISCIPLINE #3: EDUCATION. In 1999, The Alliance for Childhood, a partnership of individuals and organizations, published a report, Fool’s Gold: A Critical Look at Computers and Childhood, that argued that computer-assisted education does not benefit young children. The kind of evidence presented by The Alliance was entirely reflective of the discipline of education, and included the Education Department’s own 1999 study of 9 troubled schools in high poverty areas, and extensive references to studies by a host of education experts, including Stanford Professor (Education) Larry Cuban, John Dewey, Rudolf Steiner, and MIT professor Sherry Turkel. 2. This linkage between discipline and evidence, used by members of a community of scholars, is common and natural. We want interdisciplinary studies students to be aware of this linkage as they conduct their literature review and when they begin the challenging process of integrating these conflicting sources, evidences, and perspectives. The integrative process (the subject of two later chapters) is the most demanding and the most rewarding aspect of interdisciplinary study.

3. In the following table we show the linkage between various disciplines and their perspectives. These perspectives are stated in the form of overarching “what” and “how” questions that each discipline asks.

.THE LINK BETWEEN VARIOUS DISCIPLINES AND THEIR PERSPECTIVES

7

STATED IN TERMS OF THE KIND OF OVERARCHING QUESTIONS ASKEDDISCIPLINE PERSPECTIVES

STATED IN TERMS OF THE KIND OF OVERARCHING QUESTIONS ASKED

PHYSICS What is the context or framework of the problem?ENGINEERING How is the product, structure, system to be designed? CHEMISTRY What are the relationships of the components to each other and how do they

relate to the whole?BIOLOGY What are the diverse consequences of the hypothesis?PSYCHOLOGY What is the probable behavioral outcome and how can we control it? LAW Who is responsible?EDUCATION How can learning occur?HISTORY What factors led up to this event?ENGLISH LITERATURE What is the basis of authority?

4. The key question that the student needs to ask when the writer’s discipline is known (using psychology as an example) is this: “What characterizes the lens of a psychologist?” When a writer’s disciplinary perspective is not obvious the student should ask the following questions:

a. On what does the writer focus his/her attention? b. What counts as evidence? c. What kind of language is used? d. What assumptions are at work? e. Altogether, what is the world view of the writer?

D. APPLICATION OF DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES TO COMPLEX PROBLEMS

1. The very premise of interdisciplinarity is that disciplines can rarely explain all aspects of an issue/problem or question (Szostak, 2004, 10). Using the example of acid rain, we can see how each discipline’s unique perspective allows it to focus on only one facet of this complex problem.

DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES ON THE COMPLEX PROBLEM OF ACID RAIN

DISCIPLINE DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE ON THE ISSUE OF ACID RAIN

PHYSICS May see acid rain as an example of basic thermodynamic principles underlying the operation of an electrical-generating power plant.

ENGINEERING May see acid rain as a power plant design problem.CHEMISTRY May see acid rain as a chemical formation process.BIOLOGY May see acid rain as posing a biological problem on downwind flora

and fauna.PSYCHOLOGY May see acid rain in terms of its impact on the emotional health of

those negatively affected by it.LAW May see the destructive effects of acid rain on property as a question

of who is responsible and thus liable.EDUCATION May see acid rain as an issue to be included in high school science

curriculum.

8

SOCIOLOGY May see acid rain as harmful to certain demographic groups.HISTORY May see acid rain as a recent historical phenomenon related to

industrializationPOLITICAL SCIENCE (PUBLIC POLICY)

May see acid rain as a regulatory problem.

ECONOMICS (BUSINESS) May see acid rain as the result of the behavior of that portion of the economic system that drives decisions about the use of coal in power plants.

ANTHROPOLOGY May see acid rain as a result of cultural materialism.

Based in part on Newell, 2001, 16ff

2. Our second example, computer-assisted education, shows that simply because an issue is complex, controversial, and may have generated a great deal of scholarly attention, this activity may be limited to scholars from only a few disciplines. Why this limited interest in computer-assisted education from other disciplines? As we have shown, certain phenomena are either embraced or not embraced by a discipline. Physics, for example, simply does not view this issue as within its disciplinary domain. Consequently, the bulk of the research and writing on computer-assisted education has been done by experts in the disciplines of education, communication (information technology), psychology (learning theory), and business (the education software industry). However, this does not preclude the publication of an occasional essay or monograph by a physicist, for example, who happens to be intensely interested in the subject. The lesson for interdisciplinary studies students in what we have discussed here is this: be careful to identify those disciplines that are most relevant to the issue under investigation.

3. From these examples, we can make this important observation: When dealing with complex problems and controversial issues like acid rain or computer-assisted education, no single discipline is equipped to approach it comprehensively—i.e., to see the contradictory and/or complimentary relationships between aspects of the of the problem. As Newell (2001) explains,

Because the larger system is complex, the portion of the overall behavior pattern one discipline observes in its local context may be quite different from what another discipline sees….The engineer may decide there is nothing wrong with the design of a power plant and criticize instead the economic decision to burn high- instead of low-sulphur coal. The task of the interdisciplinarian is to focus more broadly on the pattern of acid rain modeled by the complex system as a whole, redefining the problem accordingly” (emphasis added, 16).

III. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE, PHENOMENA EMBRACED, AND THE THEORIES AND METHODS USED?

We have examined various disciplines and have linked them to the phenomena embraced by each, their unique perspective, and the thinking/learning process each requires. We now need to link these “domains of knowledge” (i.e., disciplines) to the theories and

9

methods disciplines typically use to structure, acquire, and use knowledge in their respective domains.

A. HOW A DISCIPLINE’S PERSPECTIVE RELATES TO THE PHENOMENA IT STUDIES, AND THE THEORIES AND METHODS IT USES 1. Szostak (2003) explains the relationship between a discipline’s perspective and the phenomenon, theory and method it favors at any point in time: The theory [of each discipline] will be applied in a manner congenial to the method(s) and phenomena embraced by the discipline; overall philosophical and ideological outlooks [i.e., perspective] will both influence and reflect the theories, methods, and phenomena” (9).

This tendency should thus inform the interdisciplinarian’s reading of the literature in each discipline.

2. Interdiscipinarians have to determine if the phenomenon studied by a particular discipline is best examined by that discipline’s prevailing theory and method. The interdisciplinarian may find that theories and methods outside that discipline do as good or better job of illuminating the phenomenon under investigation (Szostak, 2004,10). For example, a finding that economic decision-making is influenced importantly by cultural materialism would signal that the discipline of economics places serious limitations on our understanding of acid rain.

B. HOW DISCIPLINES RELATE TO THE METHODS THEY GENERALLY USE.

1. We now arrive at our ultimate goal of linking various disciplines (or groups of disciplines) and the phenomena embraced by them to the prevailing theories and methods of inquiry favored by them. We begin with general methods of inquiry in different disciplinary groups as shown in the chart blow.

DISCIPLINE(S) GENERAL METHOD(S)PHYSICAL SCIENCESNATURAL SCIENCES,ENGINEERING

Scientific method: Consists of universal standards for knowledge claims, common ownership of information, disinterestedness or integrity in gathering and interpreting data, and organized skepticism. Skepticism is the active attempt to disconfirm knowledge claims and is how science proceeds, implying deduction. Problem-solving: a set of steps for formulating or representing a problem,Selecting the relations pertinent to solving the problem, doing the necessary calculations, and verifying the logic used to see if the final answer makes sense. Creates a strategy for dealing with the problem.

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, ENGLISH LITERATURE

Critical thinking: includes components of logic, problem-solving, and abstraction, including the use of metaphors. For example, the criticalthinker would state the underlying assumption(s), examine them, and infer their effects.

Based on Donald, 2002, 24,25

2. Clearly it is important for the student to use methods that are appropriate to the

10

disciplines that are deemed relevant to the issue/problem/question at hand. Szostak (2003) reminds us that disciplines can be identified at any point in time in terms of the phenomena they study and the theories and methods they use (Szostak, 2003, 9).

Last entry 8/27/04

11

C. HOW DISCIPLINES AND THE PHENOMENA THEY EMBRACE RELATE TO THE THEORIES THEY COMMONLY USE

1. We come, finally, to the climatic point in our discussion, that of showing the linkage between the various disciplines and the phenomena they embrace to the theories they commonly use.

DISCIPLINE PHENOMENA EMBRACED

CURRENT PREVAILING THEORIES

PHYSICALSCIENCES (physics, chemistry)

NON-HUMAN ENVIRONMENT:Soil, Topography, Climate, Flora, Fauna, Resource Availability, Water Availability

NATURAL SCIENCES (biology, geology)

HUMAN & HEALTH:Genetic Predisposition, Nutrition, Disease/Injury

ENGINEERING BUILT ENVIRONMENT:Transport Infrastructure, technologies (communication, computational, entertainment)

PSYCHOLOGY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:Abilities (physical, physical appearance, energy level, intelligences), Personality (sociability, Emotionality, Consciousness, Affection, Intellectual orientation, Disorders, Sexual Orientation, Schemas, Interpersonal Relationships

LAW LAWS & LEGAL AGENCIES:Government regulations, court rulings, legal relationships

ECONOMICS ECONOMY:Income distribution, economic ideology, economic institutions(ownership, production, exchange, trade, finance, labor relations, organizations)

EDUCATION LEARNING:

SOCIOLOGY SOCIAL STRUCTURE:Genders, family types, kinship, classes, ethnic/racial divisions, social ideology, occupations

ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURE:Languages, religions, stories, expressions of culture, values

HISTORY PAST:Events, personalities, developments

POLITICAL SCIENCE POLITICS:Political institutions, political ideology, nationalism, public opinion, crime, regulatory issues

LITERATURE PROSE & POETRY:

ART NON-REPROCIBLE ART:Painting, sculpture, architectureREPRODUCIBLE ART:Photography, film, music, dance, theater. ART HISTORY:Period art,

12

Based on Szostak 2001, 217-219

Copyrighted 2004: AFRAll rights reserved

END

know enough about each relevant discipline as though they were majoring in it.

13

attempts to e purpose of this chapter is

How can they acquire this essential knowledge without taking substantial coursework in each relevant discipline? same time acquiring depth of knowledge(at least as far as these key elements are concerned) without sacrificing interdisciplinary breadth? e purpose of this chapter is to answer this question

Though interdisciplinary studies students take only a handful of courses in each of several disciplines relevant to their academic or career goalr less than what would constitute a major) it is critically important that they become aware of each discipline’s perspective, thinking process, behaviors, theories and methods. The purpose of this chapter is to provide this Newell: “An interdisciplinary course needs to be conceptualized as covering disciplinary perspectives the way a disciplinary course covers subject matter”(1998, 15).

Newell (2001a 14-15) argues that interdisciplinary researchers need not master every relevant discipline, but simply gain a “feel” for the perspective of relevant disciplines and master their theories and methods.

DISCIPLINES PHENOMENA EMBRACEDPHYSICS Energy (in all of its forms), physical behavior of objects under varying conditions,

mechanics, motion CHEMISTRY Chemical reactions

BIOLOGY (includes its various subfields)

Extremely diverse in the phenomena it studies which includes all living organisms, ecology, nutrition, pollution, diseases, human anatomy & physiology, genetics, cloning,Forestry

GEOLOGY Earth history, earth systems (weather), factors that affect climate change, spatial information systems (used for mapping)

ENGINEERING (includes its various subfields)

All manmade objects, technologies of all kinds, design of physical structures (architecture)

BUSINESS (includes its varioussubfields)

Administration theory and practice, finance

PSYCHOLOGY Human behavior, abnormal behavior, neuroscience, learning theory, human development,

LAW Negligence,

SOCIOLOGY

B. THE PHENOMENA, THEORIES AND METHODS GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS DISCIPLINES AT A GIVEN POINT IN TIME?

14

The particular “worldview” or perspective of a discipline will shape how its prevailing theory and method are applied, and results interpreted, and should thus inform the interdisciplinarian’s reading of the literature (Szostak, 2003, 9)

DISCIPLINE PHENOMENA EMBRACED PERSPECTIVE

Before we make these linkages explicit, however, we need to define the term, epistemology, which means “theory of knowledge, its methods, and validation.” Two examples of epistemology are Atomism (the theory that knowledge consists of units that are linked to each other), and Constructivism (the theory that we construct our own knowledge). Epistemology deals with the search for knowledge in different disciplines (Donald, 2002, 2). Interdiscipinary studies students

disciplines are not static entities; they are evolving, and therefore, disciplinary perspective is sometimes hard to pin down (Szostak, Issues, 2003, 10). Also, Newell (2001a 14-15) argues that interdisciplinary researchers need not master every relevant discipline, but simply gain a “feel” for the perspective of relevant disciplines and master their theories and methods.

----------------------2. Based on the foregoing examination of how the disciplines teach students to think, we can modify our earlier definition of discipline as follows:

“A body of knowledge with a reasonably logical taxonomy [i.e., general principles of scientific classification], a specialized vocabulary, an accepted body of theory, a systematic research strategy, and techniques for replication and validation.” (Donald, 7)

15

It should be evident from the information provided on the thinking processes and behaviors of disciplines that different disciplines focus on different aspects of inquiry, inquiry meaning the active process regulated by logic, theory, and resulting in solutions to problems.

FOUR REASONS WHY INTERDISCIPINARY PERSPECTIVES ARE IMPORANT:

1. Interdisciplinary studies students must understand those disciplinary domains that bear most directly on the problem/issue/question under investigation. This requires that they understand how learning occurs in these disciplines. FOCUS ON THE PHENOMENA EMBRACED. [DISCIPLINE or disciplinary category) + DEFINITION OF LEARNING + OBJECT/PHENOMENA OF LEARNING]

2. Intellectual development requires linking domain knowledge/phenomena with prevailing methods and theories. [DISCIPLINE + PERSPECTIVE] FOCUS ON THE METHODS [

THEN: DISCIPLINE + PERSPECTIVE + THEORY + METHOD]

3. Students must be able to conduct a proper literature review [SUBJECT FOR A LATER CHAPTER]

4. Students must ascertain what theories and methods are particularly relevant to the topic at hand [THIS CHAPTER?? DEPENDING ON SZOSTAK] HOW TO DO THIS??SHOULD WE EXPECT 2301 STUDENTS TO ENGAGE IN THIS??]

We will discuss each of these in this chapter.---------------------red means eliminateStudents are increasingly drawn to interdisciplinary studies programs because they provide considerable freedom to design individualized programs of study. Students select their coursework on the basis of its applicability to their personal academic or career goals. Their programs of study include representative coursework in several disciplines, but far less than what would be required to obtain a “major” in each discipline.

The point of majoring in a discipline, of course, is to learn its content and understand its unique “worldview” or perspective, meaning its thinking process and behaviors. These are essential skills for researching and writing in the discipline. However, if, as is generally the case, interdisciplinary studies students take only a handful of courses in each of several disciplines represented in their program of study (far less than what would constitute a major), then it is most unlikely that they will learn much about each discipline’s perspective, thinking process, behaviors, theories and methods.

16

Interdisciplinary studies students must know the “worldview” or perspective of each discipline relevant to the problem, issue, or question under investigation for three reasons: (1) students must be able to conduct a proper literature survey of their topic which first requires identification of relevant disciplines, (2) students must be familiar with the phenomena embraced and the theories and methods applied by these disciplines, and (3) in reading the disciplinary literature, the student must be aware how a discipline’s perspective shapes its theories and methods, applies these to the issue at hand, and interprets the results. [+ assumptions of disciplines Newell, Issues, 2001,19]

The problem, therefore, is how to enable interdisciplinary studies students to acquire this essential disciplinary-based knowledge in an efficient manner. The purpose of this chapter is threefold:

To explain how the disciplines teach students to think by identifying the seven thinking processes and behaviors that are common to the disciplines, and show examples of how professors in various disciplines used these to teach their majors how to acquire knowledge,

To define disciplinary perspective and provide an example of how various perspectives may be applied to a particular complex problem.

To identify various disciplines in terms of the phenomena studied and the theories and methods applied.

I. HOW DOES LEARNING OCCUR IN VARIOUS DISCIPLINARY DOMAINS? [THE DISCIPLINES TEACH STUDENTS TO THINK]

A. First, the thinking processes and behaviors generally used across disciplines;B. then we will particularize these processes and behaviors to 3 disciplines, one from each of the three main groupings of disciplines.C. then we will

A. THE THINKING PROCESSES AND BEHAVIORS GENERALLY USED ACROSS DISCIPLIES

Students enroll in ...There are three reasons why students enroll in courses: (1) they are required (either by the institution or by the academic department); (2) they are part of the “major” or “minor” that the student wants; or (3) in the case of interdisciplinary studies students, they contain information and teach skills that relate directly to the student’s program of study.

What students, including students new to interdisciplinary studies, do not generally realize, however, is that by taking a series of courses in a discipline they are being introduced to a particular way of thinking, of knowing, of learning and of perceiving the world. Unless this information is clearly articulated and reinforced in each course, students will leave these courses with only a vague awareness of this important information.

17

As we stated in the introduction, interdisciplinary studies students must know the thinking processes, behaviors and perspectives of the disciplines because they will have to draw upon this information in order to conduct disciplinary-based research. Gail Donald, professor in the Center for University Teaching and Learning at the Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology at McGill University, Canada, identifies the six thinking processes and behaviors common to all disciplines as follows:

1. Description: Identifies context, states conditions, facts, functions, assumptions, and goal(s). Identifying the context may include setting up the general framework for a problem, recognizing what kind of problem one is dealing with, or recognizing the history of the period in which the text was written. Stating assumptions is critical to solving a problem, recognizing bias, perspective, considering the steps to be taken or persons to be taken into account. [Donald, 2003, 26,283]

2. Selection: Chooses relevant information, order information in order of importance, identifies critical elements and critical relationships.

3. Representation: Describes the structure of the discipline, and provides its conceptual framework, recognizes its organizing principles, organizes its elements [i.e., knowledge] and relations, illustrates its elements and relations, and modify its elements and relations.

4. Inference: Discovers new relations between elements, discovers new relations between relations, discovers equivalencies, categorizes, orders, changes perspective, hypothesizes.

5. Synthesis: Plays a critical role across all disciplines. It means combining parts to form a whole, elaborates, generates missing links, and/or develops a course of action. [Note: So central to interdisciplinary research is synthesis that several chapters are devoted to examining how it is achieved.]

6. Verification: Compares alternative outcomes, compares outcome to standard, judges validity, uses feedback, confirms results. [Donald, 26-27; 283]

Students should also be cognizant of the three conditions that are working against their developing essential thinking processes. The first is the sheer quantity of knowledge that threatens to overwhelm the learning and research process. Second, more students are less well prepared or have less well-defined learning goals. Third, specialization and increased amounts of knowledge have led to an increased emphasis on learning content (facts) to the detriment of development of thinking processes. In consequence, says Donald,

many students approach their studies in a superficial manner—memorizing without developing the knowledge structures or representations that will allow them to retrieve, relate, and use their knowledge at a later date. Their study strategies actually prevent them from learning—that is, changing and expanding their

18

knowledge structures and thinking processes. (xii)

B. LEARNING TO THINK IN THE SCIENCES (PHYSICAL AND NATURAL)

The sciences include the disciplinary domains of physics, engineering (in its varioussub-fields), chemistry, biology, geology and mathematics.

In the physical sciences (physics, engineering, chemistry and geology), objectivity is based on the assumption that a phenomenon exists in the real or sensible world, and hence observable or verifiable by the scientific method. (Donald, 132). Physics, engineering, chemistry and mathematics place a priority on problem-solving. (Donald, 127).

“Learning in the…sciences is inductive, knowledge-intensive, and analytic, going from specific phenomena to explanation and requires developing an extensive vocabulary to describe elements and relations between them.” (Donald, 97)

1. PHYSICS: Students entering the field of Physics are expected to have prior knowledge in logic, mathematics, and abstract thinking (visual conceptualization) which are essential to problem-solving.

In physics, learning is defined in terms of students acquiring an overarching conceptual framework.

PHYSICS

2. ENGINEERING: Engineering is used here as an umbrella term for diverse areas of engineering including mechanical, chemical, electrical, civil, and computer. Students entering engineering are expected to have the same prior knowledge as physics students. This knowledge, combined with learning in engineering courses, is then applied to solving concrete problems. (Donald, 129)

Learning in engineering is defined in terms of the students’ ability to solve real-world problems.

ENGINEERING

3. CHEMISTRY: The kind of prior knowledge most valuable to chemistry students is not what is required for physics and engineering students but rather hands-on-experience using chemical compounds.

In chemistry, learning is defined in terms of mastering specific content, inductive reasoning, going from specific phenomena to the general law. (Donald, 111)

4. BIOLOGY: In biology, emphasis is placed on more general reasoning and induction

19

because of the complexity of the field. The challenge for students is to learn a vast vocabulary and varied frameworks for organizing it.

In biology, learning is defined of mastering systems, describing the components of each system, and the use of inferential skills, particularly changing perspective. (Donald, 96, 111) continue with 127

B. LEARNING TO THINK IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES [don-131ff]

The social sciences are intermediary to the physical sciences and the humanities. According to Donald, “there is now recognition of a continuum from hard (as quantitative as possible) social sciences, such as economics and psychology, to soft social sciences that are more closely related to the humanities in presuppositions, methods, and values.” [don-132] In addition to the psychology and economics, the social sciences include sociology, political science (including its various sub fields), history, art history, and anthropology. Students entering each of these disciplines need to have mastered certain intellectual skills or “prior knowledge” at the time of entry.

1. PSYCHOLOGY: Psychology is defined as the study of consciousness, mind, or behavior (psyche is spirit, soul, or mind). It deals with fundamental issues pertaining to human and animal processes. Subfields include social psychology, abnormal psychology, educational psychology, organizational psychology, political psychology, and clinical psychology. Many of these subfields make important contributions to and interact with other disciplines. In psychology and its sub-fields, knowledge is defined in terms of prediction and control, although knowledge is also viewed as a means of understanding and change. Entering students are expected to have the ability to think logically, independently, and abstractly. Students must learn methods of empirical analysis and theory construction, a new abstract vocabulary (Donald, 134,272).

In Psychology, learning is define in terms of students’ ability to engage in critical analysis and evaluation of previous research in the field, identify issues and problems to be investigated or hypotheses to be tested, and to determine whether conclusions are logically and adequately supported by data. (Donald, 149)

PSYCHOLOGY

2. LAW: According to Donald, “law is distinct from other social sciences in its use of central or overriding concepts, such as precedent or the reasonable person, and in its method in inquiry or validation processes, which provide structure (Donald,174). [Students must learn methods of analysis that depend on a history of practice, analyze factual situations and appreciate variable legal results produced by factual nuances have prior knowledge in ssee 273 …]

20

In law, learning is defined in terms of students having the ability to analyze facts and appreciate the variable legal results produced by factual nuances (evaluation), to separate a problem into its component parts (analysis), to assemble facts into a meaningful whole (synthesis), and to find the features in a problem situation relevant to its resolution (description and selection) (Donald, 185-186). See 195

logic, mathematics, and abstract thinking (visual conceptualization). This critical knowledge and abilities are needed in order to problem-solve.

3. EDUCATION: Students need to understand the disciplines they are responsible for teaching and how to design instructional practices to fit learners’ needs. [see chart 272]…..

EDUCATIONC. LEARNING TO THINK IN THE HUMANITIES

“In the humanities, learning is concerned with understanding human culture—with aesthetics, where meaning is found in the contemplative perception of particular significant things, and synoptics, where meaning is comprehensive and integrative” (Donald, 232).

1. ENGLISH LITERATURE: Entering students are expected to have the ability to think logically, independently, and abstractly. Students will learn to analyze texts for their meaning and apply an aesthetic criterion.

Thinking in this discipline can be summarized as close textual analysis, traveling along the line of a particular work in order to respond to it, and doing justice to theauthor’s intent. “In English literature courses, the process of inquiry extends fromidentifying the context in which the text is placed to judging the validity of aninterpretation.” (Donald, 269).

ENGLISH LITERATURE

D. COMPARISON OF LEARNING IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

1. Scholars in these areas ask four finds of questions:

a. Why do people behave the way they do? b. Who is responsible? c. How can we help people learn? d. What is genuine authority?

21

2. Note that these questions share three characteristics: a. They are abstract and emphasize conceptual frameworks or questions rather than specific concepts, as in the sciences. b. They are socially driven c. Their focus of study is human experience

C. THE PHENOMENA EMBRACED BY VARIOUS DISCIPLINES

3. The following chart compares the disciplines we have reviewed with its nature, the phenomena embraced, the skills required by entering students, and the instructional methods generally used:

Comparison of Learning in Social Science and Humanities DisciplinesDISCIPINE NATURE OF

DISCIPLINEWHAT IS TO BE

LEARNED(PHENOMENA EMBRACED)

SKILLS REQUIRED OF ENTERING

STUDENTS

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Psychology Ranges from hard to soft, highly structured to complex; multifaceted, pure to applied, young preparadigmatic; intermediate convergence

New abstract vocabulary, theoretical frameworks; analytic reasoning; research methods: observation, experiment, measurement, analysis, theory construction

Ability to think logically, independently, abstractly

Lecturing seminars, discussion, reading reference material; applying science to human experience, problem-solving, organizing conceptual frameworks

Law Insular; soft; applied profession dominates academy; intermediate (limited) convergence

Abstract technical terminology; logic, analysis, analogy; how the reasonable person would act; statute and precedent; professional practice, skills and values

Ability to describe a legal situation, choose information relevant to the case, think logically

Socratic questioning in lectures, casebook. Open to a variety of opinions and values, teams working on case studies, joint venture exercise, computer exercise.

Education Soft, applied, comprehensive, diverse; metascience, social science, amalgam of disciplines pr profession?

Understanding the conceptual frameworks of the subject matter disciplines, the institutional context, how to represent and adapt subject matter to learners, how to design instructional processes for optimal learning

A relatively fragmented knowledge of their subject areas; ability to think logically, in an internally consistent manner, independently

Class discussion, cooperative learning, group projects, student development activities, student-selected topics. Interviewing of following a learner, constructivist framework, apprenticeship

English Literature Soft, unbounded, pure, argumentative, interpretative, diveregent

Technical language, assessment of value of literary texts, decoding text, training in sensibility, modes of perceiving

Intuition and sensibility rather than logic.

Lectures, tutorials, group work, performance, engage in controversies, analysis of inquiry process

Source: Donald, 2003, 273-274

I. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DISCIPLINARY “WORLDVIEW” OR PERSPECTIVE?

Having closely examined the thinking processes and behaviors of various disciplines, we are now ready to apply this knowledge to the concept of disciplinary perspective. It bears repeating that disciplines are not static entities; they are evolving, and therefore,

22

disciplinary perspective is sometimes hard to pin down (Szostak, Issues, 2003, 10). Also, Newell (2001a 14-15) argues that interdisciplinary researchers need not master every relevant discipline, but simply gain a “feel” for the perspective of relevant disciplines and master their theories and methods.

A. DEFINING DISCIPLINARY “WORLDVIEW” OR PERSPECTIVE “A body of knowledge with a reasonably logical taxonomy [i.e., general principles of scientific classification], a specialized vocabulary, an accepted body of theory, a systematic research strategy, and techniques for replication and validation.” (Donald, 7)

3. Missing from this definition, however, is the critical element of disciplinary “worldview” or perspective. The disciplines are distinguished from each other in three important ways:

a. by the questions they ask about the world b. by their “worldview” or perspective (how they interpret reality)

c. by the methods which they use to create and order knowledge (defined as facts, concepts, and theories), around a certain subject matter (Newell & Green, 1998, 25).

4. A discipline’s most distinctive feature is the perspective by which it views the world. Each discipline has a perspective or way of interpreting and ordering reality. We can compare a discipline to a lens through which to view the world. Each discipline acts like a lens when it filters out certain phenomena so that it can focus exclusively on phenomena which interests it. Physics, for example, is not interested in demographic data that would be of great interest to a sociologist, but is very interested in data that shows how widely varying temperatures affect the tensile strength of steel cables used to suspend a bridge.

5. Interdisciplinary students should be aware that examining the same object or phenomenon from different disciplinary perspectives does not, by itself, constitute interdisciplinary work, but only multidisciplinary work (Hacking, the complacent discioplinariam,5). This important qualification will become clear when we explore the differences between disciplinarity, multidisciplinarity, and interdiscipinarity in the following chapter. B. FOUR REASONS DISCIPLINEARY PERSPECTIVE IS SO IMPORTANT TO INTERDISCIPLINARY INQUIRY

1. It should be evident from the information provided on the thinking processes and behaviors of disciplines that different disciplines focus on different aspects of inquiry, inquiry meaning the active process regulated by logic, theory, and resulting in solutions to problems.

2. The ability to identify disciplinary perspective is essential to the task of conducting

23

interdisciplinary research at two critical points:

a. The first is at the beginning of the research process when one is trying to determine if the proposed topic/issue/problem/question is researchable and appropriate to an interdisciplinary approach. In this exploratory phase, students are reading a variety of materials to gather background information. A pitfall to be avoided here is to randomly gather information without properly classifying and evaluating it (a later chapter provides scholarly criteria by which to evaluate each source). However, our purpose here is limited to focusing on how to identify the disciplinary perspective of each source.

b. The second point at which disciplinary perspective becomes important is when one begins to synthesize the discipline-specific research findings, taking into account disciplinary-based majority and minority views on the issue/question/problem at hand. 3. The following chart shows disciplinary perspective stated in terms of the kind of overarching questions asked:

C. APPLICATION OF DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES TO A COMPLEX PROBLEM: THE EXAMPLE OF ACID RAIN

1. Using the example of acid rain, we can see how each discipline’s unique perspective allows it to focus on only one facet of this complex problem:

2. From this example, we can make this important observation: When dealing with complex problems like acid rain or global warming or terrorism, no single discipline is equipped to approach it comprehensively—i.e., to see the contradictory and/or complimentary relationships between aspects of the of the problem. As Newell (2001) explains,

Because the larger system is complex, the portion of the overall behavior pattern one discipline observes in its local context may be quite different from what another discipline sees….The engineer may decide there is nothing wrong with the design of a power plant and criticize instead the economic decision to burn high- instead of low-sulphur coal. The task of the interdisciplinarian is to focus more broadly on the pattern of acid rain modeled by the complex system as a whole, redefining the problem accordingly” (emphasis added).

III. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE AND THE PHENOMENA, THEORIES AND METHODS GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS DISCIPLINES AT A GIVEN POINT IN TIME?

24

The particular “worldview” or perspective of a discipline will shape how its prevailing theory and method are applied, and results interpreted, and should thus inform the interdisciplinarian’s reading of the literature (Szostak, 2003, 9)

A. HOW A DISCIPLINE’S PERSPECTIVE RELATES TO THE PHENOMENA IT STUDIES, AND THE THEORIES AND METHODS IT USES 1. Szostak explains the relationship between a discipline’s perspective and the phenomenon, theory and method generally associated with it: The theory [of each discipline] will be applied in a manner congenial to the method(s) and phenomena embraced by the discipline; overall philosophical and ideological outlooks [i.e., perspective] will both influence and reflect the theories, methods, and phenomena” (Szostak, 2003, 9).

This tendency should thus inform the interdisciplinarian’s reading of the literature in each discipline. The key question that one needs to ask when the writer’s discipline is known (using psychology as an example) is this: “What characterizes the lens of a psychologist?” When a writer’s disciplinary perspective is not obvious one should ask the following questions:

a. On what does the writer focus his/her attention? (i.e. irrational human behavior) b. What counts as evidence? c. What kind of language is used? d. What assumptions are at work? e. Altogether, what is the world view of the writer?

2. Interdiscipinarians have to determine if the phenomenon studied by a particular discipline is best examined by that discipline’s prevailing theory and method. The interdisciplinarian may find that theories and methods outside that discipline do as good or better job of illuminating the phenomenon under investigation (Szostak, 10). For example, a finding that economic decision-making is influenced importantly by cultural materialism would signal that the discipline of economics places serious limitations on our understanding of acid rain.

B. THE PHENOMENA, THEORIES AND METHODS GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS DISCIPLINES AT A GIVEN POINT IN TIME?

It bears repeating that disciplines can be identified at any point in time in terms of phenomena studied and theories and methods applied (Szostak, 2003, 9). This fact is born out in the following chart showing these relationships.

DISCIPLINE PHENOMENA STUDIED

THEORIES METHODS APPLIED

PHYSICALSCIENCES

NON-HUMAN ENVIRONMENT:

25

Soil, Topography, Climate, Flora, Fauna, Resource Availability, Water Availability

NATURAL SCIENCES

HUMAN & HEALTH:Genetic Predisposition, Nutrition, Disease/Injury

ENGINEERING BUILT ENVIRONMENT:Transport Infrastructure, technologies (communication, computational, entertainment)

PSYCHOLOGY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:Abilities (physical, physical appearance, energy level, intelligences), Personality (sociability, Emotionality, Consciousness, Affection, Intellectual orientation, Disorders, Sexual Orientation, Schemas, Interpersonal Relationships

LAW LAWS & LEGAL AGENCIES:Government regulations, court rulings, legal relationships

ECONOMICS ECONOMY:Income distribution, economic ideology, economic institutions(ownership, production, exchange, trade, finance, labor relations, organizations)

EDUCATION LEARNING:

SOCIOLOGY SOCIAL STRUCTURE:Genders, family types, kinship, classes, ethnic/racial divisions, social ideology, occupations

ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURE:Languages, religions, stories, expressions of culture, values

HISTORY PAST:Events, personalities, developments

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICS:Political institutions, political ideology, nationalism, public opinion, crime, regulatory issues

LITERATURE PROSE & POETRY: Textual analysis

ART NON-REPROCIBLE ART:Painting, sculpture, architectureREPRODUCIBLE ART:Photography, film, music, dance, theater. ART HISTORY:Period art,

Based on Szostak 2001, 217-219

END

3. aS Newell (2001, 18) comments, “The goal in applying each discipline is to develop an understanding of how the behavior pattern produced by the relevant portion of the subsystem it studies is related to its components and their

26

relationships.”

ISCIPLINE DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE ON THE ISSUE OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLEIGENCEPHYSICSENGINEERINGCHEMISTRYBIOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYLAWEDUCATIONSOCIOLOGYHISTORYPOLITICAL SCIENCE (PUBLIC POLICY)

aS Newell (2001, 18) comments, “The goal in applying each discipline is to develop an understanding of how the behavior pattern produced by the relevant portion of the subsystem it studies is related to its components and their relationships.”

JUNKYARDINTRODUCTION [see Donald-xii]5. WE WANT STUDENTS TO BE ABLE TO READ AN ESSAY AND IDENTIFY THE WRITERS’ DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE; ALSO TO IDENTIFY THE KIND OF DISCIPLINARY EVIDENCE THE WRITER USES TO SUPPORT THESIS AND MAIN POINTS

Definition of Terms ExamplesEpistemology: Theory of knowledge, its methods and validation. Constructivism: We construct our

own knowledge.Discipline: “A body of knowledge with a reasonably logical taxonomy, a specialized vocabulary, an accepted body of theory, a systematic research strategy, and techniques for replication and validation.”

Physics, chemistry

Field: Phenomenon studied relatively unrestricted, methods, diverse; also general branch of learning, as in field of study.

Engineering, education

Domain: Sphere of influence of a field or discipline; includes recognition of an area bounded but not necessarily restricted.

Cognitive domain, scientific domain.

Pure: Uses specific models or theories. PhysicsApplied: Open to environmental complexity. Engineering, educationHard: Logically constructed, uses models or theoretical frameworks, has an acknowledged methodology.

Physics

Soft: Unrestricted or relatively unlimited field of phenomena… Environmental studies, English

27

literature

disciplines. [Mc-6] Our purpose I the chapter is to explain as objectively as possible the role of the disciplines in student intellectual development.....

28