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Timeline

1553 July Accession of Mary I

October First Statute of Repeal

1554 February Wyatt’s Rebellion

July Marriage to Philip of Spain

November Second Statute of Repeal (revival of the heresy laws)

1555 February Execution of Bishop Hooper

Execution of Bishops Latimer and Ridley

1556 March Execution of Archbishop Cranmer

1557 War against France

1558 January Loss of Calais

April Negotiations with France

November Mary’s Death

Accession of Elizabeth

What is this unit about?

This unit focuses on the contrasting religious policies implemented by the Tudorqueens, Mary I and Elizabeth I. It explores the aims and methods used by thequeens to achieve their preferred religious settlements and it assesses the degreeto which they achieved success. It highlights the chief differences in policy andapproach and considers key issues of the day such as the importance of marriagefor a queen and in the reign of Mary Tudor, the impact of her marriage on herpopularity and its implications for foreign policy.

You will:

• compare and contrast the aims, policies and achievements of the two queens’religious policies

• discuss the extent to which the policies succeeded and consider the limitationsof the achievements.

Key questions

• What were the intentions of Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I in their religioussettlements and what methods did they employ to achieve their aims?

• How far did Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I succeed in their religious settlements?

UNIT

4 Contrasting queens:conflict and settlement in religion 1553–66S

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1559 February Introduction of religious bills into Parliament

April Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity

Passing of the Injunctions

1563 The Thirty-nine Articles

1566 The vestiarian controversy

The Marian Settlement

Mary’s aims

Of all the Tudor monarchs, Mary’s religious beliefs and aims are the easiest to pinpoint. Mary had been brought up as a strict Catholic and she had maintained her position against all attempts to quash her stanceduring Edward’s reign. She was determined to restore Catholicism toEngland, to return to Rome and to enforce Catholic doctrine includingtransubstantiation. Indeed, she interpreted her accession, in the face of Northumberland’s plot, as divinely ordained and that its purpose was to defeat the Protestant heresy and so save England. Mary believedthat the outburst of popular support that accompanied her accession was a confirmation that the people were eager for a return to the ‘true religion’.In this she was probably mistaken; the adulation that greeted her was morelikely to have been the consequence of support for a true Tudor againstNorthumberland’s attempt to usurp power. However, it is also fair to statethat all her subjects, from the greatest nobles to the lowest classes, were inno doubt that she would halt the progress towards Protestantism andreintroduce Catholicism and that in July 1553 there was no obviousopposition to this.

The restoration of Catholicism

The First Statute of Repeal October 1553

Parliament met in October 1553 and immediately began the task ofdismantling the Protestant Reformation in England. The Act repealed allthe religious legislation passed in Edward’s reign and restored the Churchof England to the position that it had been in during the last year ofHenry’s reign, with doctrine governed by the Act of the Six Articles of1539. The approach taken emphasises the essentially Catholic nature ofreligion under Henry and also demonstrates that Mary was prepared to actcautiously in implementing her aims. At this stage there was no move torestore papal supremacy and the medieval heresy laws were not revived.Indeed, the first attempt to reintroduce these laws was not made by Marybut by Stephen Gardiner in the spring of 1554, in an effort to ingratiatehim with the Queen, whom he had offended by his vociferous objections toher marriage to Philip of Spain. This attempt failed, but Mary experiencedno difficulty in the passage of the Act. The support shown by Parliament

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Protest, Crisis & Rebellion in England 1536–88

Definition

Transubstantiation

This is a doctrine of theRoman Catholic Churchthat refers to thechanging of the elementsof the bread and wine,when they areconsecrated in theEucharist, into the actualbody and blood of Christ.

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was aided by the fact that the bishops Hooper and Ridley and ArchbishopCranmer had been arrested and imprisoned before the session andtherefore the House of Lords was quieter than usual. Overall, it appearedthat Parliament was at the very least prepared to accept that religiouspolicy was to be led by the preferences of the monarch of the day.

The Second Statute of Repeal, November 1554: the restoration of papalheadship

The reintroduction of Catholicism continued apace. In March 1554 thebishops were instructed to enforce the First Statute of Repeal, the mass in Latin was restored and married clergy were made to give up their wives and families or lose their livings if they did not. However, the next great stage in the Marian Settlement had to wait for the arrival ofCardinal Pole, the papal legate whose task it was to restore the EnglishChurch to Rome.

Cardinal Pole arrived in England in November 1554. He pronounced asolemn absolution on England and so prepared the ground for therestoration of papal authority over the English Church. Parliament dulymet and passed the Second Statute of Repeal which repealed all religiouslegislation passed in the reign of Henry VIII after 1529. By this Act themonarch ceased to be Supreme Head of the Church and thus the headshipof the papacy was restored. As a consequence of the repeal, the medievalheresy laws were also revived.

The limitations to the restoration of Catholicism

Although the Second Statute of Repeal had swept away all religiousinnovations since 1529, the clock could never really be turned back. Mary achieved support in Parliament for her policy principally because she did not threaten the position of the gentry and nobility. She wasobliged to accept that the price of support for the return to Catholicism

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Unit 4: Contrasting queens: conflict and settlement in religion 1553–66

Biography

Stephen Gardiner

Stephen Gardiner, born in Bury St Edmunds, became Bishop of Winchester in thereign of Henry VIII and was restored to office (known as a see) by Mary Tudor. He was a doctrinal opponent of the Reformation and had been removed fromoffice during the reign of Edward VI. He spent the latter years of Edward’s reign in the Tower. When Mary took the throne he was released from prison and it wasGardiner who put the crown on Mary’s head at her coronation. He was Mary’smost valued adviser and served on her Privy Council as Lord Chancellor. He supported the revival of the heresy laws but there is no known case ofpersecution in his diocese that led to death during his life. He opposed theSpanish marriage but was overruled. Gardiner died in October 1555.

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was to sacrifice her ambition to restore the monasteries. Monastic landshad been sold by Henry VIII to the laity and many of the beneficiarieswere sitting in Parliament. She realised that she would not gain support fora restoration of the monasteries from laymen who currently held the landsand who would oppose any move to return them to the church. In whatappears to be an uncharacteristic move, Mary compromised on thisdemand, only restoring the monastic lands still held by the crown, valuedat £60,000 a year.

Furthermore, it is possible to speak of papal headship after 1554, but not of papal supremacy. The English monarch and Parliament continued toexercise great control over the Church. The Pope’s leadership was spiritualbut distant and the type of interference in internal affairs that was seenbefore 1529 would not be tolerated. This is demonstrated when, in 1555,Pole was stripped of his position of legate and summoned to Rome to facecharges of heresy. Mary refused to allow the new legate sent by the Popeentry to England and argued that Pole, as an Englishman, could not be facecharges in Rome. She continued to support Pole and he remained theArchbishop of Canterbury until his death in 1558.

Therefore, the English Counter-Reformation did not return England to thesame position as it had been in 1529. The influence of the monarch andlaity in religion would not be halted. Lay control was exercised at bothnational and local level and the success of the Marian Settlement dependedto a great extent on the fact that it was backed by the nobility and gentryrepresented in Parliament.

Cardinal Pole’s reforms

The history of the Marian Settlement is overwhelmingly dominated byMary’s policy of persecution of Protestants; however, the restitution of

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Biography

Cardinal Reginald Pole

Reginald Pole was the son of Margaret Pole, the Countess of Salisbury and thegrandson of George Plantagenet, First Duke of Clarence. He therefore had a claimto the throne in his own right and was implicated in the Exeter Conspiracy of1538. He had refused to support Henry’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon andwent into exile in France and Italy from 1532. Henry took his revenge on thefamily executing his mother and eldest brother. In 1536 Pope Paul III madeReginald a cardinal and in 1542 he was appointed one of three papal legates tothe Council of Trent. In 1554 he returned to England to spearhead Mary’srestoration of Catholicism. Although Pope Paul IV stripped him of his position as legate after 1555, he remained Archbishop of Canterbury and he bears aresponsibility with Mary for the persecution and execution of Protestants. He died on 17 November 1558, just 12 hours after Mary’s death.

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Catholicism was not to be achieved only through fear, but through aprogramme of education modelled on that adopted on the continent. Pole appointed a dedicated team of Catholic bishops who were instructedto visit the parishes of their diocese to supervise the work of their priests.Pole intended to revitalise the education of the clergy by setting upseminaries in every diocese. However, this was only achieved in thediocese of York because considerable funds were needed to set up a systemthat embraced the whole country and Pole’s attempts to restore Churchfinances had not succeeded by the time of his death in 1558. Consequentlythe majority of the clergy remained poorly educated. This may account forwhy very few of the clergy objected to the Elizabethan Settlement after1559. They were not fired with the same zeal as the Marian bishops.

Religious persecution: a case study of ‘Bloody Mary’

Mary Tudor’s historical reputation is that of ‘Bloody Mary’; the motivatingforce behind the brutal persecution of Protestants that resulted in the deathof 284 men and women, burnt at the stake as heretics in the period1555–58. Although Eamon Duffy has more recently attempted torehabilitate Mary’s reputation, arguing that her actions were neitherextreme nor disproportionate for the time, the traditional view has stuck.The revival of the medieval heresy laws provided the legal justification for this action whilst Mary’s belief that the removal of persistent promotersof lewd and seditious ideas was essential for the well being of the countryand to demonstrate to the population at large the folly of pursuing heretical practices, provided the moral justification. Although Mary wasclearly a force behind the executions, she was not alone in advocating thepolicy; she was supported by Pole, who advised her not to be afraid to take up the sword in defence of the Catholic faith and by Bishop Bonner of London, as well as by zealous magistrates who organised nocturnal raids on the homes of suspected heretics. The accounts of the executionshave been immortalised in John Foxe’s Act and Monuments, morecommonly known as the Book of Martyrs, which was first printed in 1560and rapidly became a best seller. The majority of those executed were from the lower orders, and most came from London, the south-east andEast Anglia. The most notorious executions were those of the Edwardianbishops, Hooper of Gloucester, burnt in February 1555, Latimer ofWorcester and Ridley of London, burnt in October 1555 and ArchbishopCranmer, burnt in March 1556 after he had retracted his recantation of the Protestant faith. Although the executions did not lead to the outbreakof rebellion and were by and large accepted by the population, there wereindividual protests in crowds where Protestants had gathered and even theSpanish Ambassador, Simon Renard, suggested in February 1555, thatanother approach might be taken, perhaps imprisonment or secretexecutions that would not attract the same attention.

The scale of the burnings sanctioned by Mary and her councillors is limitedif they are compared to the executions on the continent during theCounter-Reformation of the sixteenth century, however, during the period

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Definition

Calvinist

This refers to thedoctrines taught by JohnCalvin in Switzerland. His particular emphasiswas upon the sovereigntyof God, the authority ofthe Scriptures andpredestination: the beliefthat God chose thatcertain souls were to besaved.

February 1555 to November 1558, they averaged at six a month which inthat time frame was considerably higher than on the continent and thus itis difficult to claim that Mary’s policy was moderate. However, there isevidence to suggest that they were effective. The number of deaths peakedin June 1557 and began to decline thereafter. Furthermore, becauseProtestants were executed in their own districts, many people in thecountry will never have experienced the policy of persecution firsthandand their perception of Mary’s reign will have been very different to thosein communities were Protestantism had taken a hold during Henry’s andEdward’s reign. In the case of committed Protestants, Mary’s policy had alimited impact. The scale of persecutions led to some more wealthyProtestants leaving England to join colonies of Protestants on the continent.In time this would strengthen the Protestant faith and imbue men withCalvinist ideas that ultimately resulted in a more radical form ofProtestantism being introduced into England in the reign of Elizabeth. In England the burnings did not lead to an increase in the number ofProtestants, in fact it would be fair to conclude that the majority of thepopulation was Catholic in November 1558, but it did lead to an morecommitted resistance to Catholicism in the now underground Protestantcommunities and this did seriously undermine Mary’s popularity.

How successful was the Marian Settlement?

Traditionally historians have tended to see the Marian Settlement as afailure, as an aberration in the march towards Protestantism that began in1529 and that was completed by the Elizabethan Settlement. This argumentthat was promoted by G.R. Elton and A.G. Dickens who argued that thetriumph of Protestantism was inevitable, because Protestantism wasalready so established, that it would be impossible for Catholicism to berestored to England. There has been recent criticism of this position,particularly by Catholic historians Christopher Haigh and Eamon Duffy.They argue that, far from being well-established, Protestantism had only a loose hold on the population, particularly outside of the south-east andthat in many places the revival of Catholicism was genuinely popular.

SKILLS BUILDERWork with a partner to research the evidence for ‘Bloody Mary’. Makea list of the reasons why Mary executed Protestants. Use textbooks andthe Internet to examine the executions of:

• Latimer, Ridley and Hooper

• Cranmer.

Consider what alternative methods she could have used to enforceCatholicism. Compile your results as a PowerPoint presentation forclass discussion.

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They offer the response of the Edwardian bishops to the Marian Settlementas evidence that there was limited genuine adherence to Protestant ideasand a clear willingness to embrace Catholicism once more. Only seven ofEdward’s bishops were deprived of their livings by 1554 as a result of theirrefusal to accept the restoration of Catholicism. This compares favourablyto the response of the Marian bishops to the Elizabethan Settlement whereall but one of them refused to take the Oath of Supremacy. Furthermore,only 800 members of the lower clergy were deprived or their livings, themajority because they were married men and not because they opposedthe religious change. The bulk retrieved their livings by ending theirmarriages. Consequently, Haigh argues that the Marian Settlement was a success. Although all Protestants could not be crushed and enthusiasmwas patchy in places, there is evidence from the parishes that there wasconsiderable and continuing support for traditional services andcelebrations and recruitment to the clergy was the strongest it had been for 30 years.

The research of Haigh and Duffy has helped to provide greater balance to an argument that has been driven by the hindsight of the triumph ofProtestantism. However, it is important not to exaggerate the success. Mary reigned for only five years and she died without leaving a Catholicheir. Pole’s reforms had been only partially implemented, considerablyhampered by the lack of finances required to restore the churches to thepre-reformation condition and to provide an effective education for theclergy. Although it is possible that if Mary had lived longer England mayhave been fully restored to Catholicism, the inescapable fact is that she did not and the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559 put England firmly on thepath to embracing Protestantism. In the long run, Mary’s policy ofpersecution, coupled with her unpopular marriage to Philip of Spain, would help ensure that Catholicism was associated with intolerance andwas considered to be un-English. Therefore, the success that Mary didenjoy was short-lived.

The Spanish marriage and its impact

Reasons for Mary’s marriage to Philip of Spain

Mary was determined from the outset of her reign that she needed ahusband to offer advice and to father the Catholic heir that was necessaryfor her restoration of Catholicism to be complete. It is perhaps natural thatthe daughter of Catherine of Aragon should have sought a husband amongher Spanish relatives who had been her strongest supporters during theprevious two reigns. In 1553 she discussed the possibility of marriage toCharles V’s son Philip with Renard. Although the Spanish were not theenemy that they would become by 1588, Mary was ignoring the advice ofher Privy Council, including her most trusted councillor, Stephen Gardiner,that the marriage could prove unpopular with those who objected toSpanish Catholicism and those who suspected that England could become a mere pawn in Spanish ambitions to dominate the continent. The House

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Discussion point

Examine the attitudes andthe responses of theCatholics and Protestantsto both the Marian andElizabethan Settlements.To what extent do theyreveal support and/oropposition to thereligious changes?Explain the reasons why.

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of Commons also raised strong objections. Nevertheless Mary stubbornlypursued the marriage and the agreement was reached in January 1554.The marriage treaty did offer some advantage to England as well assafeguards. The heir of Mary and Philip would inherit the Low Countries aswell as England and this offered the possibility of England, establishing asecure and substantial empire of the continent. Furthermore, Philip wasprohibited from exercising any power in England and from appointing anySpaniards to English offices. Nevertheless, it was the proposed Spanishmarriage that was the catalyst for the only rebellion of Mary’s reign.

Wyatt’s Rebellion February 1554

Although Sir Thomas Wyatt sought to appeal to religious fears in the wake of Mary’s accession, and many of his Kentish rebels do appear tohave had Protestant sympathies, the revolt originated among courtiers andcouncillors who feared losing influence if the Queen proceeded with herplanned marriage to Philip of Spain. The leading conspirators alongsideWyatt were Sir James Croft, who had been Lord Deputy of Ireland duringNorthumberland’s administration and Sir Peter Carew (see pages xxx–xx)MP for Devon and a close associate of Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon.Courtenay’s father, the Marquis of Exeter, had been executed in 1538,probably because of his close links with Cardinal Pole (then exiled to Romeand seeking help for an invasion of England). Courtenay himself had beenimprisoned in the Tower of London for some years, and the original planwas to marry him to Mary. However, her insistence on the Spanish matchseems to have persuaded the conspirators to substitute Elizabeth, and when protests in Parliament failed to change her mind, to turn to rebellion.The plot was also encouraged by the French ambassador, who feared thegrowth of Spanish influence in England.

Plans were made to coordinate risings in Herefordshire under Croft, Devon under Carew, Leicestershire under the Duke of Suffolk (father ofLady Jane Grey) and Kent under Wyatt, but news and rumours of the plotleaked in January 1554, before the preparations were complete. Renardseems to have alerted Gardiner, who extracted details from Courtenayhimself. Although all the plotters left Court in early January, it was onlyWyatt in Kent who was able to raise a significant force, taking advantage of unrest caused by a depression in the cloth industry and strong anti-Spanish attitudes there to raise a force of about 3000. Compared to thenumbers involved in 1536 and 1549 this was a tiny force, but proximity to London and the unpopularity of Spanish influence allowed him to march unimpeded towards the city, and a force of 500 London Whitecoatssent to stop him at Rochester deserted and joined the rebels. His plan wasto seize the Queen and force her to change her intentions. If she refusedhe would proclaim Princess Elizabeth in her place, and may well havesecretly intended this anyway. The threat was real enough for Mary toconsider leaving London, but an offer to negotiate delayed Wyatt’s force at Blackheath and gave Mary time to appeal to the citizens of London for support. However, when Wyatt reached Southwark on 3 February,

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no attempt was made to stop him. The rebels crossed the Thames atKingston and marched towards the City, with royal forces under the Earl ofPembroke allowing them to pass. Only when they reached Ludgate andfound the gates closed did they meet real opposition. Wyatt was forced toretreat and the citizens begin to harry his forces until he became trappedwith about 300 of his men. Of these about 40 were killed before Wyattsurrendered. The government behaved with cautious leniency towards the rebels. For once executions were largely confined to the politicalleaders who were undoubtedly guilty of conspiracy, and to the unfortunateLady Jane Grey and her husband who had served as political pawns oncetoo often.

The Spanish marriage and foreign affairs

Ultimately, Mary’s marriage to Philip in July 1554 was a disaster. By 1555 it was evident to Philip that there was no possibility of Mary bearing achild and he returned to Spain, which he had inherited on his father’sabdication that year. When he returned for a brief visit to England in 1556,it was solely for the purpose of persuading Mary to join him in war against France. Mary’s infatuation with her husband coupled with hersincere belief that she needed him for advice would lead England into awar that resulted in the loss of Calais in 1558, England’s last foothold onthe continent.

The French War 1557–58

War between Spain and France began in January 1557. Initially, Englandremained neutral but the revelation of French plots to depose Mary, tippedthe balance and in June 1557 the Privy Council sanctioned the despatch of7000 troops, led by Pembroke, to fight in France. Although, the majorvictory of Spain over France had already been achieved, the English weresuccessful in the battle of St Quentin in which they captured the town andhanded it over to the Spanish. If the war had ended at this point Mary’sconduct of foreign affairs would have been regarded favourably. However,unexpectedly in mid-winter, the Duke of Guise led a revenge attack on the

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Discussion point

Why did the Wyattrebellion fail?

SKILLS BUILDERWorking with a partner, compare the threats to the monarch from thefollowing rebellions:

• The Pilgrimage of Grace 1536

• The Western Rebellion 1549

• Kett’s Rebellion 1549

• Wyatt’s Rebellion 1554.

Which rebellion was the most significant and why?

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Discussion point

How far did Mary’sforeign policy differ fromthat of her father andbrother?

fortified town of Calais. The commander of Calais, Lord Wentworth wascaught by surprise, and it seems that it was his failure to take the Frenchthreat seriously rather than the condition of the Calais defences thataccounts for the defeat and loss in January 1558. Whilst Mary was alive,Philip insisted that the return of Calais to England was included in thepeace negotiations, but after her death in November 1558, he ceased topush for it and in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in April 1559 Calaisremained in the hands of the French.

An assessment of Mary’s marriage and conduct of foreign affairs

The attitude to Mary’s marriage may well have been very different if shehad produced the longed for heir. Her religious reforms would have beensafeguarded and England’s position on the continent would have beensignificantly strengthened by the takeover of the Low Countries. However,in this she failed and this has led her reign to be regarded as a failureoverall. The fear, albeit voiced by a minority at the time, that Philip woulduse England to pursue his ambitions against France, became reality, andalthough the loss of Calais was not the disaster that it was regarded at thetime, the argument that England would benefit financially because shewould no longer need to maintain its three fortresses, could not be used toovercome the sense of national humiliation. By the time Mary died, fewpeople mourned her passing. Her stubborn attitude to pursue policieswithout the fully support of her Privy Council and her politicalinexperience that led to ineptitude meant that her reign was not regardedas a success and her sister’s accession was greeted with celebration andsome relief.

What were Mary’s achievements?

Mary did not succeed in the twin aims of her reign. Her physical andmedical conditions prevented her from bearing a child and the shortness of her reign meant that although England was largely Catholic in 1558, this situation was only temporary and her half-sister resumed the marchtowards Protestantism in 1559. Furthermore, her system of governmentwith a greatly expanded Privy Council of 43 members has been describedas unwieldy and ineffective. However, in some ways Mary left the countryin a better condition than she had found it in 1553. Her Privy Council may have been large but in effect it operated with an inner core of trustedadvisers and special committees to deal with specialised issues.Furthermore, her financial reforms including the improvement of revenuecollection, a more effective collection of customs duties after theintroduction of a new Book of Rates and the plans to revalue the currency,put crown finances on a more sound footing than they had been in thereign of Edward. Finally, her revival of the army and navy played a vitalrole in enabling Elizabeth to resist the Spanish in 1588. Therefore, Mary’sreign cannot be entirely dismissed as a disaster.

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Elizabeth: the accession of Elizabeth I November 1558

Mary fell ill in August 1558, a victim of the season influenza thatexacerbated her underlying medical condition. By the end of October she was growing weaker and her chances of recovery seemed slim. On 28 October she added a codicil to her will that she would be succeededby ‘my next heir and successor by the laws of this realm’. Although shecould not bring herself to name Elizabeth, she had accepted that she wouldnot produce an heir and so bowed to the inevitability that her Protestanthalf-sister would succeed her. In early November, Mary despatched herlady, Jane Dormer, to inform Elizabeth and to ask Elizabeth to pay herdebts and keep the re-established Catholic religion. Elizabeth’s response to this is unclear. Jane Dormer reported that Elizabeth had declared herself a ‘true Catholic’ whilst Protestant accounts state that she agreed notto change anything that could be ‘proved by the word of God’. Elizabethwould in time prove herself to be a pragmatic politician and it is quitelikely that she sent back to Mary the assurances that she needed andcirculated a different account to her Protestant supporters whom she wouldcall upon after her accession.

According to David Starkey’s account, however, Elizabeth was leavingnothing to chance. Her servants were positioned around the country incountry houses and even at court. They had stockpiled weapons and laidplans for raising troops in the event of Mary diverting the succession awayfrom Elizabeth. This according to Starkey raises questions over Elizabeth’sproclaimed innocence in the various plots in which she was implicatedduring Mary’s reign. However, in the event, Elizabeth’s succession was on

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SKILLS BUILDER‘Positive achievements there were none.’

How far do you agree with this judgement of Mary’s reign?

This type of question invites you to consider both the positive and thenegative aspects of Mary’s reign. In order to cover all aspects of thequestion, you will find it helpful to draw up a table, like the onebelow, and divide Mary’s achievements appropriately. Remember youwill need to consider Mary’s policies from the point of view of thepeople from the sixteenth century. Use this to help you make ajudgement as to whether Mary’s reign was completely negative orwhether there were positive achievements.

Positive achievements Negative aspects of Mary’s rule

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of the smoothest since that of Henry VI. Parliament was already assembledand on 17 November, when they were informed of Mary’s death, Lords andCommons proclaimed Elizabeth as Queen.

Government by a queen

Contrasting characters

Elizabeth was not the first Tudor queen, but she is regarded as exercisingmuch more control over the government than her sister did. In some ways this is the result of her very different character. Whereas the study of Mary’s reign tends to leave one with the impression of a stubborn bigot,determined to force through her own prejudices at whatever cost, Elizabethappears as a ruler prepared to listen to advice and to compromise her aimsin order to reach long term goals. The truth is probably much more inbetween for both queens. In some areas Elizabeth’s pragmatism may wellbe the consequence of procrastination whilst Mary’s determination was in part driven by her failing health and the urgency that she felt incarrying though her policies. Elizabeth had other advantages apart from her longevity; she was young and vibrant and in the early years of herreign, before she had fully established her authority, she was more able to use her feminine charms to win support in a manner that was not open to her middle-aged sister. There were also similarities about thesisters; both were politically inexperienced on their succession and bothrelied heavily on the advice of their counsellors. What counted next wasthe ability to accept and act upon advice. Elizabeth appears to have beenbetter equipped to do this.

The question of marriage

The accession of a queen was not such a shock to the country as it hadbeen when Mary came to the throne. However, Elizabeth’s rule would be entirely different from that of her half-sister, and would ultimatelydemonstrate that a female ruling alone could be as successful as a king. As the queen, Mary had subscribed to the established ideology that awoman was inferior to the male and needed to be guided by him. Hermarriage to Philip had been fully in line with this opinion. This biblicalposition had been reinforced in 1558 by John Knox’s publication, FirstBlast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. Knox’s workmay well have been directed against the Catholic queens, Mary Tudor andMary of Guise, but its general tenor still hit hard at Elizabeth’s situation.The general expectation was that Elizabeth, like her sister would marrysoon and rely on her husband and from the outset Elizabeth’s councillorsas well as Parliament put pressure on her to conform.

Elizabeth’s experiences did not, however, incline her to follow this path.The execution of her mother and the deaths of her stepmothers, JaneSeymour and Catherine Parr, had given her personal experience of therisks involved in marriage and childbirth, and her observation of Henry

Definitions

Pragmatism

This refers to conductwhich focus on what ispractical. Elizabeth wasready to consider what itwas possible to achieverather than focus on a setideology at all costs.

Procrastination

This refers to putting offactions, deferring ordelaying them.

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Discussion points

• What opportunities didElizabeth have to wed?

• Who were the possiblesuitors?

• Why did she rejectthem?

VIII’s exercise of power over powerless, disposable married women wouldsurely have discouraged her from marriage. Her sister’s disastrous marriageto Philip was sufficient grounds to prevent her from following Mary’sfootsteps into a foreign marriage that was repugnant to the Englishpopulation. This is not to say that Elizabeth was determined to avoidmarriage at all costs; the liaison with Robert Dudley is well documentedand it appears that in 1566 a marriage was widely discussed. Furthermore,the promise of marriage was a useful diplomatic tool and played effectivelyin the pursuit of foreign policy objectives as long as Elizabeth was youngenough for it to carry meaning. Ultimately, however, Elizabeth would styleherself as the ‘Virgin Queen’, taking no husband but instead being weddedto her people.

Elizabeth’s system of government

Elizabeth was clear throughout her reign that she was God’s anointedrepresentative on earth. She was not, however, oblivious to the need foradvice from servants that she could trust. Although necessity had forcedher to become adept in the art of survival, her experience before 1558 waslimited to country houses and short visits to court. She was astute enough

Biography

John Knox

John Knox was a Scottish clergyman who isconsidered to be the founder of the Presbyterianversion of the Protestant religion. He was exiled inEngland in 1549 and rose to be chaplain to EdwardVI. He played a key role in drawing up the Book ofCommon Prayer. He went into exile during the reignof Mary Tudor and during this period he travelled toGeneva and met John Calvin. He returned toScotland in 1559 and became a leader in theScottish Reformation, together with Scottish lordswho opposed the regency of Mary of Guise. He washighly critical of Mary Queen of Scots and called forher execution after she had been deposed andforced to flee to England.

Biography

Robert Dudley

Robert Dudley was the son of the Duke ofNorthumberland, who had served as the leadingpolitician and Lord of the Council under Edward VI.He was condemned to death like his father for hispart in the plot to place Lady Jane Grey on thethrone after Edward’s death but was reprieved byPhilip of Spain. He was a great friend and favouriteof Elizabeth and was appointed Master of the Horseupon her succession. In 1562 he was elevated to thePrivy Council and in 1564 he was created Earl ofLeicester. His name has been linked romanticallywith Elizabeth’s and there was a period between1558–60 when it was suspected that Elizabethintended to marry him. However, he was alreadymarried and when his wife died of an accident in1560, the circumstances led to gossip and suspicionthat the death had not been accidental. Elizabethmoved quickly to remove him from court and quashany idea that she had been complicit in such a plot.As Earl of Leicester, Dudley led an expedition to theNetherlands in 1585–86 and commanded the landforces in 1588.

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to identify her real needs in establishing and maintaining her rule, and onthat basis she constructed a household and Privy Council that suited herstyle of ruling. A key characteristic that comes to the fore in Elizabeth’srule is her tendency towards caution and her natural indecisiveness. Thischaracteristic could, as John Guy has claimed, drive her councillors todistraction, but it also had the merit that decisions were not taken lightlyand, particularly in diplomacy, expeditions were not undertaken withoutan understanding of the implications.

The Court

The Court was the centre of political and social life and included both the Household and the Privy Council. It was important for members of thenobility to attend Court if they wanted to enhance their social status orgain a position on the Privy Council and so have some influence overpolicy making. The Queen controlled all appointments to church and statepositions and her good will was essential to progress. Elizabeth was anastute rule and distributed her patronage with great care in an attempt to reduce rivalries and maintain loyalties. In performing this carefulbalancing act, she demonstrated that a woman could indeed rule in a male-dominated system.

Elizabeth’s Household

Elizabeth’s Household included her servants who were in daily attendanceupon her. Since she was female most were women, the wives anddaughters of leading courtiers and politicians. However, the Household alsoincluded favourites such as Robert Dudley, the Master of the Horse. Themembers of the Household had access to Elizabeth but they did notnecessarily have any role to play in making policy.

The Privy Council

Elizabeth’s authority as queen is demonstrated in her construction of thePrivy Council. She was not prepared to continue with the large council that had existed under Mary. She derisively referred to this Council asbeing composed of ‘sheep’ (her father’s old advisers) and ‘goats’ (Mary’sbigoted choices) and she immediately reduced the Council in size. UnderMary its membership had risen to 40; under Elizabeth it varied between 13 and 19 men. Elizabeth’s Protestant advisers dominated the Council but she also retained key Catholics including the Earls of Arundel, Derbyand Pembroke, thus demonstrating that she valued the quality of theindividual above the sectional interests. The Privy Council was the centreof royal administration and was essential for advising the Queen. Herindecision often led to conflict with her council (see Mary Queen of Scots),but she also proved herself receptive to reasoned arguments and overallthe relationship between queen and council was both smooth andproductive.

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Advisers

Elizabeth’s principal adviser was William Cecil, made Lord Burghly in1571. Other key members of her Privy Council included Sir NicholasBacon, Francis Russell, the Earl of Bedford, Sir Francis Knollys, WilliamParr, Sir Thomas Parry and Sir Edward Rogers. Her favourite, Lord RobertDudley, created Earl of Leicester in 1564, joined the council in 1526 andSir Francis Walsingham, who was the key figure behind Elizabeth’sintelligence system, was made Secretary in 1573. His intelligence systemplayed a vital role in the security of the realm but Walsingham was notentirely open with the Queen; he made the decision as to what informationshe should be given and in this sense retained a measure of control overpolicy decisions.

The Elizabethan Church Settlement 1559–66

Elizabeth’s religious beliefs

An understanding of the English Church Settlement of 1558–66 cannot beachieved without an appreciation of Elizabeth’s religious inheritance andbeliefs. Elizabeth’s upbringing had been decidedly Protestant. Her mother,Anne Boleyn, had left her religious welfare in the care of her chaplain,Matthew Parker, later to be appointed Elizabeth’s first Archbishop ofCanterbury. Furthermore, she had been cared for by Queen Catherine Parr,an enthusiastic Protestant, in her formative years and had been educatedalongside her brother Edward by tutor Roger Ascham from Cambridge, a hotbed of Protestantism. The evidence that we have from Elizabeth’spersonal translations, her book of private devotions and her attitude towhat she considered popish influences, candles, images of saints and her

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Biography

William Cecil

William Cecil had managed Elizabeth’s estates whileshe was princess and had been a member of EdwardVI’s Privy Council. He was a convinced Protestant butrejected any form of religious extremism. Hisprincipal aim was to ensure that England remainedindependent and for that reason he did not favouralliances with either France of Spain. He wasprepared to take tough action against Scotland in1559 and he impressed on Elizabeth the necessity toexecute Mary Queen of Scots in 1587. He wassucceeded to his offices by his son Robert Cecil anddied in 1598.

Biography

Sir Francis Walsingham

Francis Walsingham studied abroad during the reign of Mary Tudor but returned to England on Elizabeth’s succession and was helped intoParliament by William Cecil. His main role inElizabeth’s government was in gathering informationin which capacity he was able to use the contacts he established on the continent. He played a keyrole in developing relations with the Huguenots inthe Netherlands. He supported the proposed plansfor Elizabeth to marry the Duke of Anjou between1578 and 1581. He was successful in uncovering theThrockmorton and Babington Plots in which MaryQueen of Scots was implicated.

Discussion point

In what ways does thesystem of government ledby a queen differ fromthat of kings? In whatways was the system thesame?

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refusal to permit the elevation of the Host at Mass, all point to herProtestant beliefs. However, Elizabeth was a more astute politician thanher sister Mary. She was not about to ferment religious strife in Englandwithout taking due consideration of both national and internationalconcerns.

Key issues affecting Elizabeth’s decision in 1558

National considerations

Elizabeth was aware that the majority of the population, especially outsideof London and the south-east, was conservative in religion and preferredthe ceremonies and celebrations that were an integral part of the CatholicChurch. She wanted to avoid the mistakes of Edward’s and Mary’s reign;Edward’s attempt to introduce Protestantism led to the Western Rebellionin 1549, whilst Mary’s persecution of Protestants had given the victims thestatus of martyrs and hardened attitudes against her. Elizabeth did notwant to spark a similar response from England’s Catholics. Furthermore,although she could expect support for legislation reforming the Church inEngland along Protestant lines from the largely Protestant House ofCommons and Privy Council, she knew that the response from the Houseof Lords, dominated by Catholics including the Marian bishops, was likelyto be hostile.

Diplomatic considerations

It was not only the impact of religious change at home that Elizabeth had to consider. Spain and France were both Catholic countries andunlikely to support a Protestant reformation in England. However, Spainneeded to maintain its alliance with England and this offered theopportunity for Elizabeth to pursue moderate reform without fearingSpanish intervention. On the other hand, Elizabeth did not want toantagonise France during the peace negotiations that were to bring therecent war to an end. She was hopeful (unsuccessfully) of regaining Calais and did not want to provide further reasons for French resistance.She also worried about the power of the Papacy. The Pope could use theultimate weapon of excommunication against Elizabeth. This would notonly encourage the European powers, principally Spain to launch areligious crusade against England, but also release her own subjects fromtheir duty of obedience to her.

Elizabeth could not even be certain of support from the Protestant states inEurope. The Netherlands was Protestant in religion and essential to Englishcommerce. However, it was under Spanish control and since it offeredPhilip II the possibility of launching an invasion of England from its ports,Elizabeth had to tread cautiously in her relations here. Furthermore,although the Scottish population and its lords were PresbyterianProtestants and would not oppose Elizabeth in reforming the EnglishChurch on Protestant lines, its regent, Mary of Guise, and its absent queen,

Definitions

Elevation of the Host

This is the ritual of raisingthe consecrated elementsof bread and wine duringthe celebration of theEucharist. The elevationindicates thattransubstantiation hastaken place.

Excommunication

This refers to the censurepronounced by the popeon an individual who hascommitted an act thatrequires he or she to beseparated from theChurch and to beforbidden to take any ofthe sacraments. It isnecessary that otherCatholics should notassociate with theexcommunicated person.

Presbyterian

The Presbyterian Churchis a Christian Church thathas no hierarchy butinstead has a structure inwhich power is vested inministers and lay elders.Its doctrine is basedlargely on the sovereigntyof God and the authorityof the Bible.

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Mary were both Catholic. Mary (Queen of Scots) was married to Francis IIof France, and on their accession to the French throne in July 1559, Maryclaimed the title of Queen of England. England’s Catholics might wellregard Mary as the rightful queen rather than Elizabeth since they did notrecognise the legality of Henry VIII’s marriage to Anne Boleyn. Therefore,Elizabeth was aware of the dangers present on her northern border andhad to taken them into consideration when proposing religious change.

Therefore, when Elizabeth made her choice, she could not decide purelyon the basis of personal preference, she had to take into account the likelydomestic and foreign reactions.

Elizabeth’s aims for the religious settlement

Elizabeth’s religious settlement reveals that she was a pragmatic politician.Her own preferences were for a Protestant Church, but she was aware that the introduction of radical Protestantism in England would sparkdiscontent at home and threats from abroad. Consequently she steered a middle way. Her religious bills sought to introduce a Protestant doctrine,including the rejection of transubstantiation, but keep a traditionalstructure to the church as well as familiar rituals. She believed that thiswould be acceptable to the majority of the population. She would avoid the persecutions that had characterised Mary Tudor’s reign and made herso unpopular, as well as reassuring the Catholic European powers that theChurch in England had changed very little. Above all, Elizabeth sought twooutcomes from her religious settlement:

• Uniformity: Elizabeth wanted to establish a national Church that wouldbe acceptable to all.

• Conformity: Elizabeth was determined that her subjects would conformto the demands of her religious settlement regardless of their personalreligious beliefs.

These two aims were central to the successful establishment of a religioussettlement that would avoid the type of religious war that was present onthe continent. In time, Elizabeth hoped that her subjects would know noother type of Church. Catholicism would die out with the oldergenerations.

The Church Settlement 1559

The introduction of the religious bills

It was necessary for Parliament to be called to enact religious legislationand it was duly summoned. In early February 1559, three religious billswere introduced into the House of Commons. One was to establish themonarch as the head of the Church and the other two were to establish aProtestant form of worship. On 21 February they were combined into asingle bill and passed by the Commons whose MPs favoured Protestantism.However, the House of Lords forced the bill into a committee dominated

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Discussion point

How would Elizabeth’saims help her to avoid theproblems that Mary’sreligious settlement hadcaused?

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by Catholic sympathisers and they stunned Elizabeth by rejecting therestoration of Protestantism, refusing to repeal Mary Tudor’s heresy lawsand questioning Elizabeth’s right to supremacy over the Church. It seemedas if Elizabeth had floundered at the first hurdle.

The Easter disputation

It was at this point this point that Elizabeth’s political acumen came intoforce. She did not want to lose the support of the Commons, and whilstfresh elections might well return a similarly favourable house, this couldnot be guaranteed. Therefore, dissolving Parliament was a risky venturewith an uncertain outcome. Therefore Elizabeth chose a different path andat Easter, Elizabeth prorogued Parliament.

During Holy Week a disputation was held at Westminster Abbey. Thedebate was to be held between four Catholic bishops and doctors and anequivalent number of Protestants. There were three propositions fordebate:

• It was contrary to the Word of God to use a tongue unknown to thepeople in worship (i.e. Latin)

• Every Church had authority to change its ceremonies

• It cannot be proved by the Word of God, that there is in the mass offeredup a sacrifice propitiatory for the quick and the dead.

Elizabeth’s ministers left nothing to chance. The Catholics were barely able to state their case. Sir Nicholas Bacon intervened as soon as theysuggested that the debate take place in Latin, as was traditional andstopped them in their tracks. On the following day, he stonewalled thebishops and forced them into an act of defiance that justified the arrest ofthe bishops of Winchester and Lincoln who were sent to the Tower forcontempt and the rest of the bishops were bound over. Thus Elizabeth won the disputation.

Definitions

Prorogue

This is to suspend aparliamentary session orto discontinue it withoutformally ending thesession.

Disputation

A disputation was aformalised method ofdebate that was designedto uncover truths intheology. It haddeveloped from thescholastic tradition of the Middle Ages.

Biography

Sir Nicholas Bacon

Sir Nicholas Bacon was a distinguished lawyer and statesmanfrom Suffolk. He was educated at Corpus Christi, Cambridge.He was a known reformer but he managed to escapepersecution during Mary’s reign. On Elizabeth’s succession hewas made Lord Keeper of the Seal and was knighted. He wasmade a member of the Privy Council and Elizabeth valued hisadvice. He remained in office until his death in 1579. S

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The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity

Elizabeth reconvened Parliament after Easter. Two new bills wereintroduced into the Commons, so that if one failed the other might pass:

The Act of Supremacy

• Elizabeth was made Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Thiswas a lesser claim than Head of the Church and eased the worries ofboth Catholics and Protestants who had doubts as to whether a femalecould be Head of the Church. In reality, Elizabeth would be able toexercise as much power over the Church as her father had done.

• The clergy and royal officials were obliged to swear acceptance ofElizabeth’s title on oath.

• Papal Supremacy was revoked.

• The heresy laws were to be repealed.

• An ecclesiastical High Commission was established to ensure that thechanges were implemented at parish level, and those whose loyalty wassuspect could be prosecuted.

There were no other changes to the structure of the Church in England.The Archbishop of Canterbury remained the primate presiding over theArchbishop of York and the bishops who governed their dioceses. In thisrespect the English Church was unique; the Protestant churches in Europedid not have a hierarchical structure that had its origins in the RomanCatholic Church, but instead the congregations organised the churchesthemselves. However, the presence of a familiar structure was a greatcomfort to the traditionalist sympathies of the English population.

The Act of Supremacy passed easily in both Commons and Lords but the passage of the second Act, the Act of Uniformity proved much moredifficult.

The Act of Uniformity

The Act of Uniformity focused on the appearance of the churches and theacts of worship that took place in them:

• A new Common Prayer Book was issued based on those of 1549 and1552.

• All churches were obliged to use the new prayer book and there werepunishments for those who failed to use it or publicly raised objectionsto it.

• The priest was instructed to use the wording of both the 1549 and 1552prayer books in the communion service when offering communion inboth kinds. The words were sufficiently ambiguous for Catholics toperceive the presence of the living Christ in the Eucharist, whilstProtestants could regard it as a commemorative act.

• Everyone was to attend church on Sunday and holy days.

• A fine of one shilling for every absence was imposed those who failed toattend church services.

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Definitions

Common Prayer Book1559

This used the wording ofthe 1549 and 1552 prayerbooks in the communionservice when offeringcommunion in both kinds:

The Body of our LordJesus Christ, which wasgiven for thee, preservethy body and soul untoeverlasting life(1549 prayer book)

Take and eat this inremembrance thatChrist died for thee andfeed on him in thy heartby faith andthanksgiving(1552 prayer book)

Communion in both kinds

This refers to both thebread and the wine. InCatholic services the laityonly received the bread;the wine was reserved forthe priest alone. InProtestant services thelaity received both breadand wine i.e. communionin both kinds.

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Definitions

Recusant

This is a term used todescribe Catholics whorefuse to attend servicesof the Church of England.

First Fruits and Tenths

This was a kind of taxpaid by the clergy ontaking up their position.Clergy had to pay aportion of their first year’sincome and a tenth oftheir revenue each yearafterwards.

Chantry

A chantry was a chapelset up by Mary Tudor tosay mass and especiallyto sing masses for thedead. An endowment wasmade to pay a sum ofmoney for this purpose.

Discussion point

Why was Elizabeth able topass her religious bills?

Work with a partner tomake a list with at least 3 reasons on it.

• These people were known as recusants.

• The ornaments in the church and clerical dress were to be the same asin the second year of Edward VI’s reign. This discouraged enthusiasticProtestants from attacking what they considered to be popish idolatry inthe churches.

• The taxes known as First Fruit and Tenths were to be paid to theCrown.

• The monasteries and chantries that Mary Tudor had founded were to bedissolved and their assets transferred to the Crown.

Although the Act of Uniformity passed through the Commons withoutincident, it faced a considerable struggle in the Lords where all the bishopswere united in their opposition and nine temporal peers joined them. Inthe end the Act passed by the narrowest of margins: 21 to 18. This victorywas only possible because two Catholic bishops were still detained in theTower and the Abbot of Westminster and the Bishop of St Asaph were bothabsent.

To what extent was the Elizabethan Settlement a Puritan settlement?

In the 1950s historian John Neale argued that Elizabeth had intended toestablish an Anglo-Catholic Church modelled on that of Henry VIII’s, butthat she was thwarted in her plans by a vociferous Puritan opposition inthe House of Commons who forced her into a more radical settlement. He termed this opposition a ‘Puritan choir’ and regarded it as holdingsignificant influence in the Commons. Neale’s thesis has been questionedin more recent years. Although there were Puritan challenges in theCommons in the 1570s and 1580s, there is scant evidence that theCommons was a hotbed of radicalism in 1559. Only 19 of the Marianexiles were elected in 1559 and they were not sufficiently organised toexert any concerted pressure on the Commons as a whole. According toNorman Jones, in total only 25 MPs could be labelled as Calvinist or radicalProtestants and since there were 400 MPs in the Commons, their impactwas extremely limited. Although it may have been expedient for Elizabethto push a conservative line during the negotiations at Cateau-Cambresis,her own religious beliefs and her choice of Protestant ministers, WilliamCecil, Nicholas Bacon and the Earl of Bedford, do not support the notionthat she favoured an essentially Catholic settlement. In fact, as theprevious narrative has demonstrated, the greater challenges came from the conservative House of Lords than from the Commons.

The development of the English Church Settlement 1559–66

Additions to the Settlement

The Injunctions 1559

The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity were a starting point but theyrequired enforcement. The Royal Injunctions of 1559 were issued toperform this task. They were drafted by Elizabeth’s chief minister

Definition

Marian exiles

This is the name given toEnglish CalvinistProtestants who fled tothe continent duringMary’s reign. S

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William Cecil and contained direct instructions to the clergy covering awide range of practices to establish a uniformity of worship and behaviour.They confirm Elizabeth’s desire to establish a moderate but distinctlyProtestant Church:

• The clergy were instructed to observe and teach the Royal Supremacyand to denounce papal supremacy.

• Catholic practices including processions, pilgrimages and monuments to‘fake’ miracles were banned.

• Recusants were to be denounced and reported to the Privy Council or to JPs.

• Recusants were to pay a shilling fine for every time they failed to attendchurch on Sundays or holy days.

• Unlicensed preaching was forbidden. This attacked radical Puritanismand was based on Elizabeth’s fear that it could lead to civil disorder aswell as undermining her authority and that of her bishops.

• Each parish was to possess an English Bible (the Geneva Bible withCalvinist notes was printed in 1560).

• The congregation was to bow at the name of Jesus and kneel in prayer.

• The clergy were to wear distinctive clerical dress including the surplice.

• Clerical marriage was only permitted where the priest had permissionfrom his bishop and two JPs.

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SKILLS BUILDER1 How Protestant was the Settlement of 1559?

2 ‘Both Catholic and reformed.’ Is this a true reflection of the ChurchSettlement of 1559?

Study the narrative on the passing of the Acts of Supremacy andUniformity and complete the table below in your notes.

In drawing up this table, you will have categorised the key features of the Acts and the circumstances in which they were passed. In orderto address the question you now need to reach a judgement as to ‘how far’ the Settlement was Protestant. You will need to consider the weight of each side. Which factors are of over-riding significance?How acceptable would the settlement be to Catholics? How acceptablewould it be to Protestants?

Protestant elements Catholic elements

Definitions

Justices of the Peace(JPs)

JPs were appointed toserve in the community in which they lived. Their role was in localadministration andenforcing the law. They were the key localofficial in Tudorgovernment and usuallycame from leadingfamilies in the district.

Surplice

The surplice is a whitegown with wide sleevesand reaching down to theground that was worn byministers in the Church of England since theissuing of the SecondPrayer Book by Edward VIin 1552.

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In order to ensure that the Acts and the Injunctions were enforced, 125commissioners were appointed to visit churches across the country and to require clergy to take the Oath of Supremacy.

The Thirty-nine Articles 1563

The Canterbury Convocation drew up the Thirty-nine Articles when it met in 1563. They are a statement of the doctrinal beliefs of the Church ofEngland and based on Archbishop Thomas Cranmer’s Forty-two Articles of 1552. They repudiated key Catholic doctrine such as the miracle oftransubstantiation, the sacrifice of the mass and the sinlessness of OurLady, whilst confirming key element of Protestant belief; the authority of the Scriptures, that Adam’s fall compromised human free will, thenecessity of communion in both kinds and that ministers may marry. They were finally approved in 1571 and all the ordained clergy had toswear to them.

The English Church Settlement and the bishops

The reasons for establishing a Protestant episcopacy

Elizabeth, as Supreme Governor, needed to be represented by a body that would supervise the Church and its clergy and enforce her decisions.It was clear to her that the bishops could perform this function and thattheir presence would also calm Catholic fears both home and abroad. Her bishops were perhaps more distinctly Protestant than she might havedesired. This was because all but one of the Marian bishops refused to take the Oath of Supremacy. Consequently Elizabeth turned to men whohad been exiles during Mary’s reign. Elizabeth chose her mother’s chaplain,Matthew Parker as Archbishop of Canterbury. He was a moderateProtestant who used his influence to keep the spread of Puritanism incheck. William Grindal was appointed Bishop of London, John Jewel toSalisbury and Edwin Sandys to Worcester. Their enthusiasm for the morestripped down version of Protestantism that they experienced on thecontinent during their exile, is reflected in their actions in the visitations in which they approved the removal and destruction of church ornaments.Many bishops regarded the Settlement of 1559 as the starting point forreform, thus conflicting with Elizabeth’s view that the Acts and theInjunctions were a complete settlement.

The role of the bishops

Elizabeth regarded her bishops first and foremost as loyal administrators,civil servants who could be relied upon to enforce the royal will. Herattitude is demonstrated in action to curtail their power and influence inthe Act of Exchange 1559. Under this Act, crown lands that had oncebelonged to the Church were returned in exchange for valuable diocesanproperties of a non-spiritual nature. In practice this meant swappingrectories and church buildings for castles and manor houses. Elizabeth

Definitions

Episcopacy

This is a term that refersto the body of bishopsthat presided over thedioceses of the AnglicanChurch.

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Biography

Matthew Parker

Parker was born in Norwich and educated inCambridge. Whilst at Cambridge he came under theinfluence of the Cambridge reformers. He declined toenter Wolsey’s Cardinal College at Oxford. After hecame to the attention of Anne Boleyn he wasappointed her chaplain and in 1538 was appointedchaplain to Henry VIII. His career continued toadvance under Edward and he was made Dean ofLincoln in 1552. However, as one ofNorthumberland’s supporters, he was deprived ofhis living under Mary Tudor. He managed to surviveMary’s reign without going into exile. He was raised,rather reluctantly to be primate of England after thepassing of the Elizabethan Settlement. He was amoderate reformer with impeccable morals and aninfluential theologian. He was one of the authors of the Thirty-nine Articles.

Biography

Edmund Grindal

Grindal was born in Hensingham and educated at Cambridge. He became one of Edward VI’schaplains but moved to the continent during Mary’sreign. He returned to England in 1559 and shortlyafterwards became Bishop of London. He hadqualms about vestments and other popish elementsthat he perceived in the Elizabethan Church. Hebecame Archbishop of York in 1570 and succeededMatthew Parker as Archbishop of Canterbury in1575. He came into conflict with Elizabeth overprophesyings (Puritan gatherings to practisepreaching skills) and was placed under virtual house arrest in 1577 until his death in 1583.

Biography

John Jewell

Jewell was born in Devon and educated at Oxford. He wrote a congratulatory epistle to Mary on her succession, but acted as notary to Cranmer and Ridley in their disputation. Although he signed a series of Catholic Articles heperceived himself to be suspect and fled to Frankfurt in 1555. He returned to England after Elizabeth’s accession to the throne and was appointed Bishop of Salisbury. He defended the Elizabethan Church against its critics. He died in 1571.

Biography

Edwin Sandys

Sandys was born in Cumbria and educated at Cambridge. He was arrested for hispart in the rebellion in favour of Lady Jane Grey in 1553 and imprisoned in theTower. He was later moved to the Marshalsea from which he escaped and then fled to the continent. He returned on Elizabeth’s accession and became Bishop ofWorcester, Bishop of London and Archbishop of York successively. He helped inthe translation of a new Bishop’s Bible. He believed in the necessity of educationfor religion’s sake. He founded Hawkeshead Grammar School in 1585.

Definition

Marshalsea

The Marshalsea was aprison on the south bankof the River Thames, inSouthwark. It housedmen who were accused ofcommitting crimes at sea,important political figureswho were accused ofsedition or inappropriatebehaviour and debtors.

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used this newly acquired wealth to reward courtiers. She also placedpressure on bishops to grant favourable leases to laymen. The practiceovercame some of the difficulties Elizabeth faced with her shortage ofincome, but it did not sit well with the bishops who perceived that theywere being used as tools of the crown, especially as it was more often usedas a means of punishment than for economic gain.

How significant were the challenges to the Church Settlementto 1566?

The visitations

The visitations were essentially inspections of parishes by bishops toensure that the Acts and the Injunctions were being properly enforced. As previously mentioned, the visiting bishops often went further in theirenforcement of a Protestant church than Elizabeth had intended. In many cases, images, Catholic clothing, relics and altars were deliberatelydestroyed and although Elizabeth demanded that crucifixes were to bereplaced she was obliged to back down and content herself with the display of a crucifix in the royal chapel where it would be seen by foreignambassadors and reassure them that her faith differed very little from their own Catholic faith.

The clergy

The visitors were empowered to examine the beliefs of the clergy and to ensure that they took the Oath of Supremacy, and subscribed to theCommon Prayer Book and the Injunctions. Four hundred of the clergy,divided almost equally between Catholic and Protestant, were obliged to resign their livings as a result. There were between eight and ninethousand parishes in England at that time so the number of dissenters wasin fact remarkably low.

The vestiarian controversy 1566

In January 1565, Elizabeth wrote to Archbishop Parker expressing herconcern that members of the clergy were not abiding by the injunctionpertaining to the correct clerical dress. Elizabeth had required fullvestments for church services. Parker reprimanded the clergy involved and then went further. In his effort to clarify the settlement in terms ofclerical dress, doctrine, prayer and the sacraments, he issued the Book of Advertisements. Although Parker reinforced the Queen’s insistence onissues such as communicants kneeling to receive the sacraments in bothkinds, he showed himself very willing to compromise on clerical dress,allowing the clergy in parishes to wear the surplice and only insisting onfull vestments in cathedral services. Consequently Elizabeth refused to givethe Advertisements an official endorsement. Parker also faced oppositionfrom the Puritan clergy. In a display of the correct clerical clothing held at his palace at Lambeth, 37 of the 110 clergy present refused to wearclothing that they deemed to be Catholic. They were removed from office.

Discussion point

How far did the bishopsaccept the ElizabethanSettlement?

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How far had Elizabeth secured religious peace by 1566?

By 1566, Elizabeth’s desire for a Protestant settlement that retained atraditional Catholic appearance had been largely successful:

• The majority of the largely Catholic population had accepted theSettlement. Most Catholics fall into the category known as ChurchPapists. They attended church services regularly. It is true that manyparishes were slow to introduce all the reforms outlined in theInjunctions and consequently for some there was very little evidence ofchange initially. This, however, would suit Elizabeth’s desire that noradical change should lead to rebellion. Through the process ofvisitations these changes would eventually be implemented and in sucha way as to be imperceptible to the population. There were very fewfines levied for recusancy. This is a difficult area to assess. The levyingof fines depended upon the churchwardens and they would be lessinclined to report offences if they were Catholic sympathisersthemselves. Furthermore, Elizabeth did not want to pursue the matterwith vigour lest such a move should result in open opposition. In spiteof these difficulties, it is reasonable to conclude that up to 1566 thepopulation did conform to the Settlement. It was not until the arrival ofMary Queen of Scots that the Catholics felt their loyalties divided andeven then the response of the great majority was to support the Queen.

• Foreign ambassadors reported that the Queen might be led back into theCatholic Church and this allowed Elizabeth to maintain cordial relationswith France and Spain. Hence the Settlement had performed its role inthis respect.

• The lower clergy had for the most part accepted the Settlement. Over8000 took the Oath of Supremacy. This in turn would facilitate thegradual death of Catholicism in England without rebellion as thepopulation grew to accept the new services.

• The idea that that Settlement was merely a starting point still held swaywith more radical reformers who wanted to see a purer form ofProtestantism introduced into England. They were, perhaps morethreatening at this point because they had the sympathy and in somecases support of the Elizabethan bishops. As long as Parker was at thehelm, such ambitions could be kept in check, but Puritan challengeswould increase under Archbishop Grindal in the 1570s.

• Elizabeth’s position as Supreme Governor of the Church was secure andshe was able to enforce her wished through her bishops with onlylimited challenge.

Unit summary

What have you learned in this unit?

• The religious policies of the two Tudor queens were driven firstly bytheir beliefs, but whilst Mary was not prepared to compromise in thosebeliefs and so adopted a policy of persecution to restore Catholicism,

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Elizabeth learned from Mary’s mistakes and adopted a more pragmaticapproach to the achievement of her Settlement, focusing on the need touniformity and conformity as the essential factors.

• The majority of English subjects were prepared to conform to thereligion imposed by the monarch. Therefore, although in 1558 themajority of the population was Catholic, by 1566, most had accepted the Anglican Church.

• The question of the marriage of a female monarch was a vital one in thesixteenth century. Mary was determined to be married, but her choice of a foreign prince was not popular, especially since she was prepared to follow his advice and so involved England in a costly war that led tothe loss of Calais, England’s last possession in France. Her marriage toPhilip of Spain sparked the only rebellion of the reign. Perhaps as aconsequence of these events, Elizabeth resisted attempts by her PrivyCouncil to find her a husband, and ultimately she would style herself as the ‘Virgin Queen’, wedded to her country.

What skills have you used in this unit?

You have discussed a number of issues and weighed up a range ofalternatives to enable you to provide explanations and reach informedjudgements.

Exam style question

This is the sort of question you will find appearing on the examinationpaper as a Section A question:

‘At the time, the Church settlement of 1559–66 was an arrangementacceptable to most of Elizabeth’s subjects.’

How far do you agree with this judgement?

Exam tips

In order to answer this question successfully, you will need to plan and prepareyour answer with care:

• Use the material in this chapter to identify the different religious priorities ofElizabeth’s Catholic and Protestant subjects.

• Examine the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559 and consider how far thosepriorities were met for both Catholics and Protestants

• Study the reactions of Catholics and Protestants in the years 1559–66 to weighup how far they found the Settlement acceptable and what issues they wereprepared to oppose.

• Make your judgement as to how far, on balance, the Settlement wasacceptable to most subjects.

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SKILLS BUILDER1 Do you agree that Elizabeth achieved most of what she wanted in

the period 1559–66?

Draw up a table to record her achievements and possible failures.Remember you will need to refer back to her aims in order to makethe assessment.

2 How serious were the challenges to the Church Settlement in1559–66?

You will need to look at each of the challenges, starting with theresponse in the House of Lords when the religious bills were firstintroduced in 1559. You will need to identify the specific challengeand weigh up whether it was serious in threatening Elizabeth’sintentions and authority, or whether it could be easily overcome.

RESEARCH TOPICWhat challenges were there to the Elizabethan Settlement in theperiod 1566–88?

Work with a partner to research the following challenges:

The Puritan challenge: • Thomas Cartwright and the ‘SpringLectures’

• Grindal and prophesying

• Whitgift and the attack on the Puritans

• The Puritan challenge in Parliament

The Catholic challenge: • The Northern Rebellion

• The Papacy and the excommunication of Elizabeth

• The seminary priests and the Jesuits

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