THE IMPACT OF POOR WORKING CONDITIONS ON TEACHERS’

TRAINING IN UGANDA: A CASE STUDY OF PRIMARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS IN KAMULI DISTRICT, 1945-2005

BY

MUKOSE GEORGE

2003/HD03/1341U

BED (HONS) MUK, PGD PAM (UMI),

DIP. EDUCATION (ITEK),

CERT. ADMIN. LAW

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY

OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

DECEMBER, 2011

DECLARATION

I, MUKOSE GEORGE, do hereby declare that this study is my original work and has not

been submitted in any other University for any awards.

Signed: ……………………………

Mukose George

Student

Date: ………………………………

This dissertation has been submitted for examination with my approval as Supervisor.

Signed: …………………………….

Dr. Godfrey Asiimwe

Supervisor

Date: ………………………………

i

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my sweetheart, Caroline and our four beloved children

Musasizi, Mwesigwa, Kisakye and Mugabi whose love, encouragement and tolerance

were a source of great inspiration to this achievement.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Glory be to God, for this far He has brought me! It has been so hectic both in time and

space and in this regard, I am greatly indebted to the following personalities for their

assistance and encouragement extended to me:

My sincere gratitude, first and foremost, goes to my esteemed supervisor, Dr. Asiimwe

Godfrey for the tireless efforts and guidance rendered. His generous contribution was of

enormous importance in developing and shaping this study.

My profound thanks go to the teaching staff of the history department especially Dr.

G.B. Asiimwe, the Head of Department, Dr. C.P. Emudong, Mr. Okalany, Mr. Tanga

Odoi to mention but a few. Their contributions were of great impetus to my intellectual

development.

I acknowledge the company of my fellow students in the M.A. History class. Mr.

Ssekiswa Peter, Sister Proscovia Nansikombi, Miss. Nangobi Hellen and Mr. Lukabwe.

We struggled together and the interaction in the academic world shaped my well-being.

Special appreciation goes to my mother, Miss Naisanga Magdallen who has seen me

through my academic and professional endeavours. The financial support and love

extended to me as well as the assistance rendered to my family in my absence greatly

contributed to my success. May God grant you long life.

To my sweetheart I say thank you for your love, perseverance and faithfulness. The

enthusiasm my children exhibited even in my conspicuous absence from home was of

great encouragement to me.

Finally, I appreciate Miss. Nawuma Christine, Miss. Debora Mubezi and Miss. Sanyu

Josephine for all the secretarial services rendered.

To all of you I say God bless you abundantly.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preliminary Pages

Declaration …………………………………………………………………. I

Dedication…………………………………………………………………….. ii

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………. iii

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………….. iv

Abstract……………………………………………………………………….. viii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ………………………………………………. xi

List of Map…………………………………………………………………… xii

List of Tables……………………………………………………………….... xiii

List of figures………………………………………………………………… xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Page

1.0 General Introduction………………………………………………….. 1

1.1 Background…………………………………………………………... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………. 3

1.3 Scope of the Study……………………………………………………. 5

1.4 Definition of Key Terms ………………………………………………. 5

1.5 Objectives of the Study……………………………………………….. 7

1.6 Hypothesis…………………………………………………………….. 8

1.7 Justification of the Study ……………………………………………… 8

1.8 Significance of the Study………………………………………………. 9

1.9 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………… 10

1.10 Constraints……………………………………………………………… 11

1.11 Structure and Summary of the Dissertation……………………………. 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….... 13

2.1 Theoretical Framework………………………………………………. 13

2.2 Literature Review…………………………………………………….. 14

2.11 Recruitment of Teacher Trainees ……………………………………. 14

iv

2.12. Training of Primary School Teacher ………………………………….. 15

2.13 Working Environment of Primary School Teachers …………………… 16

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design…………………………………………………….. 18

3.2 Area of Study ………………………………………………………. 18

3.3 Selection of Subjects………………………………………………… 18

3.4 Instruments…………………………………………………………… 18

3.5 Interviews…………………………………………………………….. 19

3.6 Questionnaires……………………………………………………….. 19

3.7 Procedure…………………………………………………………….. 19

3.8 Data Processing and Analysis……………………………………….. 19

3.9 Editing……………………… ……………………………………… 20

3.10 Coding………………………………………………………………. 20

3.11 Tabulation…………………………………………………………… 20

CHAPTER FOUR: RECRUITMENT OF TEACHER TRAINEES

4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 21

4.2 The Historical Perspective of the Teaching Profession in Uganda….. 21

4.3 The Socio-Economic Background ………………………………….. 25

4.4 Entry Qualifications to Primary Teacher Training Colleges………… 28

4.5 Teacher-Trainees’ Perception of the Teaching Profession ………….. 33

4.6 Summary ………….. 34

CHAPTER FIVE: TRAINING OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 41

5.2 The Primary School Teacher Training Curriculum…………………. 41

5.3 Primary Teachers’ Colleges (PTCs) and the Training Facilities……. 44

5.4 Pre-and in-service Modes of Primary School Teachers’ Training…. 45

5.5 The Relevancy of Teacher Training to the Field Experiences…….... 54

5.6 Grades of Teachers in the Primary School System Since 1945..……. 58

5.7 Quality and Quantity of Tutors in Primary Teachers’ Colleges……… 60

v

5.8 Teacher Development and Management System (TDMS)….……… 65

5.9 Continuous Professional Development (CPD) for Primary School Teachers.. 71

5.10 Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the Challenge of Inadequate

Trained Teachers………………………………………………………. 75

5.11 Summary……………………………………………………………. 78

CHAPTER SIX: THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS

6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 79

6.2 Teachers Terms and Conditions of Service …………………………. 79

6.3 Procedures for Appointment, Posting and Transfers of Primary School

Teachers……………………………………………………………….. 84

6.4 Teachers’ Code of Conduct…………………………………………… 85

6.5 Welfare and Social Benefit …………………………………………… 87

6.6 Salary Scales and Remuneration for Primary School Teachers ………. 90

6.7 The Process of Upgrading and Promotion for Primary School Teachers. 96

6.8 Teachers’ Organisation and the Quest for Unionism…………………. 98

6.9 The Role of School Management Committees and Parents’ Teachers

Associations………………………………………………………….. 102

6.10 Support Supervision and Monitoring in Primary Schools ………….. 106

6.11 The Loan Scheme and its Effects on Primary School Teachers …….. 110

6.12 Housing and Accommodation for Primary School Teacher…………. 114

6.13 Infrastructure and Other Learning Facilities in Primary Schools ……. 116

6.14 The Teacher and the Community……………………………………. 119

6.15 Summary………………………………………………………………. 120

CHAPTER SEVEN: PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

7.0 Introduction …………………………………...................................... 123

7.1 Recruitment of Teacher Trainees……………………………………… 123

7.2 Academic Performance……………………………………………….. 124

7.3 Teacher Trainees Perception of the Teaching Profession……………. 125

vi

7.4 Parents’ Education and Income Levels………………………………. 126

7.5 Reason for Choosing Teaching……………………………………… 127

7.6 Reasons for Liking Teaching………………………………………… 128

7.7 Training of Primary School Teachers………………………………. 129

7.8 Location of Teacher Training………………………………………. 129

7.9 Contact between Practicing Teachers and the College …………….……. 130

7.10 Staffing Position in Primary Teachers Colleges…………………….. 130

7.11 In-service Training Programme……………………………………… 131

7.12 Performance of Teacher Trainees…………………………………… 132

7.13 Working Environment for Primary School Teachers………………. 133

7.14 Remuneration for Primary School Teachers………………………... 133

7.15 Provision of Accommodation………………………………………. 134

7.16 Staffing of Primary Schools………………………………………… 135

7.17 Teacher/Pupil Ratio………………………………………………… 135

7.18 Infrastructure in Primary Schools…………………………………… 136

7.19 The Morale of Primary School Teachers…………………………….. 137

7.20 Allowances and other Fringe Benefits………………………………. 138

7.21 Discipline of Teachers………………………………………………. 138

7.22 Conclusion and Recommendations………………………………….. 139

7.23 Summary……………………………………………………………. 140

CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.0 Conclusion

8.2 Recommendations

References…. ………………………………………………………………… 142

Archive Materials Used. …………………………………………………… 151

APPENDICES

Appendix I Letter of Introduction

Appendix I Questionnaires

vii

Appendis III Community Interview Guide

Appendis IV List of Respondents

viii

ABSTRACT

The study sets forth to investigate the poor working environment of primary school

teachers that affect both the recruitment and training hence poor quality of education.

According to this study, recruitment is a process which is initiated at the moment a school

leaver makes the option to join a teacher training institution, through training and

development of a profession. Therefore the main objective of this study is to assess how

the poor working environment of primary school teachers affects the recruitment and

training.

The poor working environment assigns primary teaching a low status which leads to the

recruitment of ‘‘poorly performing school leavers’’ teacher trainees who join the

profession not by design but by coincidence. Choosing the profession because everything

else has failed due to poor performance consequently sends to colleges teacher trainees

who are defective and unable to undertake the rigorous course of two years. Significantly,

this study will be useful to policy markers in reviewing and setting better working

conditions which attract bright candidates who have teaching as their first choice and can

competently undertake the 2-year teaching course.

This study hinges on the systems theory, which suggests that in a system each part must

in unison so as to produce results. In this context working condition, recruitment and

training a perceived as part of a whole to the effect that if one is defective then the system

is paralysed.

Indeed findings show that poor working conditions cause detest for teaching leading to

attraction of academically unsound trainees hence defects in training due to incapability.

Young people want to be identified by respectable and highly paid professions where the

teaching fraternity falls far short from this.

ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ASTA : African School Teachers’ Association

CCT : Centre Coordinating Tutor

CPD : Continuous Professional Development

CTE : Commissioner Teacher Education

DPE : Diploma in Primary Education

DTE : Diploma in Teacher Education

EMIS : Education Management Information System

H/M : Headmaster/Mistress

LT : Licensed Teacher

MOE &S : Ministry of Education and Sports

O’level : Ordinary Level

P/S : Primary School

PTC : Primary Teachers’ College

SP : School Practice

TE : Teacher Effectiveness

TDMS : Teacher Development and Management System

TTC : Teacher Training Colleges.

UCE : Uganda Certificate of Education

UNATU : Uganda National Association of Teachers’ Union

UNESCO : United Nations Educational and Scientific Cultural Organizations

UPE : Universal Primary Education

UTA : Uganda Teachers’ Association

x

MAP OF UGANDA SHOWING KAMULI DISTRICT.

*

Equator 0 º

KEY

* - Kamuli District

xi

KAGULU

KIDERA

BUGAYA

BALAWOLI

BUYENDE

L.Kyoga

NKONDO

KISOZI

NAMASAGALI

BUTANSI

NABWIGULU

NAMWE -NDWA

KITAYU -NJWA

MBULAMUTI BULOPABUGULUMBYA

WANKOLENAWA-NYAGO

KAMULI TC

KAYUNGA DISTRICT

SOROTI DISTRICT

IGANGA DISTRICT

KALIRO DISTRICT

JINJA DISTRICTKM0 10 205

N

Source: UBOS, 2007

MAP OF KAMULI DISTRICT

33.6E

0.59N

xii

Source : Kamuli District Planning Unit, 2002

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Public Attitudes Towards Schools and Teachers…………………… 36

Table 5.1 PTC Equipment and Supplies Distributed to Phase IV-V…………. 45

Table 5.2 Teaching Methods Used in Primary Teachers’ Colleges……… 46

Table 5.3 Kamuli District Coordinating Centres…………………………. 50

Table 5.4 Summary of Primary Teachers’ College Staff Requirements

in North Western Region…………..……………………….. 63

Table 5.5 Summary of Primary Teachers’ College Staff Requirement

in Uganda…….. 64

Table 5.6 Primary Teachers’ Colleges and their Rationalised Catchment Areas 66

Table 5.7 TDMS Expansion…………………………………………. 69

Table 5.8 Pupil/Teacher Ratio in Government-Aided Primary Schools……. 76

Table 5.9 Percentage of Untrained Teachers in Government-Aided Schools… 78

Table 6.1 Teachers Recognized in 1930 and their Related Pay…………….. 91

Table 6.3 Increase in Starting Salary for Africa Male Teachers……………… 92

Table 6.4 Salary Scale for Medical (workers U6-U7)……………… 94

Table 6.5 Salary Structure for P/ School Teachers for Fiscal year 2006/07 . 93

Table 6.6 Pupil Textbook Ratios in Government-Aided Primary Schools…. 118

Table 7.1 Age of Teachers………………………………………………….. 123

Table 7.2 Location of Primary Schools……………………………………. 124

Table 7.3 Performance of Teachers at O’ Level (S.IV)……………………. 125

Table 7.4 Performance of Student Teachers at O’ Level (S.IV)……………. 125

Table 7.5 The Position of Teaching in the Choices Made by Student Teachers 126

Table 7.6 Trainees’ Parents Occupation…………………………………… 127

Table 7.8 Reasons for Choosing Teaching…………………………………… 127

Table 7.9 Reasons for Liking Teaching………………………………………. 128

Table 7.10 Order of Choice Before Joining Teaching……………………….. 129

Table 7.11 Location of Teacher Training Colleges…………………………… 129

Table 7.12 Contact Between Teachers and the College Staff………………. 130

Table 7.13 Coordinating Centres in Kamuli District by 2005………………. 130

xiv

Table 7.14 Qualification of Centre Coordinating Tutors……………………. 131

Table 7.15 Enrolment in the Coordinating Centres…………………………. 132

Table 7.16 Performance of Student Teachers………………………………. 133

Table 7.17 Take-Away Home Package for Teachers……………………….. 133

Table 7.18 Accommodation for Teachers………………………………… 134

Table 7.19 Staffing Position of Primary Schools…………………………. 135

Table 7.20 Enrolment and Staffing of Teachers…………………………… 136

Table 7.21 Pupil/Classroom Ratio…………………………………………. 137

Table 7.22 Morale of Teachers……………………………………………. 137

Table 7.23 Allowances for Teachers……………………………………… 138

Table 7.24 Authority to Discipline Teachers……………………………… 139

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure A: Teaching Incentive Model…………………………………… 37

Figure B: Post Primary Institution (School by Type)……………………. 47

Figure C: Core Primary Teachers’ College Structure…………………... 68

Figure D: Lawrence Commission of 1961 Uganda Teachers’ Salary Scale.. 92

Figure E: An Organogram of Department of Education at the District Level... 109

Figure F: Policy Problems and Suggested Strategies……………………….. 114

xvi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.0. General Introduction

Teaching as a profession was highly placed and regarded as a “noble” career in society

before independence. It was a strong expectation that a teacher would be highly

knowledgeable and skilled, with a high sense of human dignity and strict attitudes and

highly committed with ability to execute his/her duties with affection. Indeed, society

held great virtues about a teacher as a model in society, which earned him/her respect and

honour. However, the accumulative effect of economic, political, and social changes

since 1962 have depressed the public image of the teacher and assigned the profession a

lower status than it once enjoyed.

1.1. Background

In the African traditional society, education was a very important aspect in the economic,

social and religious spheres of life. Teachers were mostly the parents and all the

responsible grown up citizens in a society, teaching basic knowledge, skills, desirable

social behaviour and customs. The school was the homestead, the fireplace was the

classroom and where human activity took place was the laboratory. If the boys and girls

grew to maturity lacking in knowledge of essential skills, customs, social department

within a particular community, their parents were blamed for having failed in their duty

to educate them (Sekamwa and Lugumba 1973:28) While the parents performed their

noble job of teaching their children, society also joined them especially where discipline

and social values and, interactions within society were concerned. There were also

specialized teachers like black smiths, herbalists, craftsmen and potters. Knowledge and

skills were passed on freely for the good of society and individualism was unheard of.

With the introduction of Christianity by the European Missionaries in 1887, a new type

of Teacher came on the scene “the pupil/teacher”. The missionaries were very few, and

therefore could not adequately handle the overwhelming numbers enrolled for baptism

1

classes. So they chose the fast and brightest readers from their classes and put them in

charge of smaller groups. Inevitably these bright candidates were offered some kind of

coaching in the art of transmitting the new knowledge about christianity. When the

teaching of reading and writing as well as carpentry and brick laying started, missionaries

had to give more organized training to those who desired to train as teachers. By 1920,

some mission posts like Namirembe Hill had been earmarked as special places where

teachers would be trained and arrangements were made to provide tutors and training

materials.

In 1925, the British colonial government gained active participation in education and

consequently set up a department of education under Director Eric Hussey. The

department directed all missionary groups to establish formal Teacher Training Schools

with competent and qualified manpower to train primary school teachers. Each mission

responded by establishing what were known as “Normal Schools” in each of the

linguistic areas to teach the local language. Government also initiated the training of

teachers at Makerere College School in 1925 to handle primary five and six, which led to

the establishment of the Faculty of Education.

The respect and honour commanded by the teacher, and the confidence which society had

embedded in him/her continued up to the time of independence. The first political parties

were formed on religious backgrounds and schools become ideal political arenas,

inevitably attracting very active and vigorous participation of the teachers (Mamdan

1974:248). It was very unfortunate that the most noble and respectable profession

(teaching) was linked to divisive elements of religion, politics and tribalism. The church

which had initiated an institution which gave birth to “sacred” profession and earned

teachers a special status in society was the same church which embraced politics which

later discredited them. Teachers got deeply entangled in politics and their neutral and

respectable positions greatly compromised their status. Teachers, who were once

honoured, started to be attacked openly in parliament and elsewhere in public places.

Independence came with new and lucrative opportunities which caused brain-drain in the

teaching profession. Teachers used their education and enlightenment to join district

2

councils, legislative assemblies of kingdoms, as well as becoming branch leaders and

interpreters of their political philosophies (Mamdani 1974:249).

By 1972, there were 2 categories of teachers namely: Grade II admitted to Teacher

Training Colleges (TTCs), for four years after P.7 and posted to teach lower grades (P1-

4). There were 21 TTCs offering Grade II teaching courses and 2 provided in-service

training. Another category was that of Grade III teachers admitted for 2 years after S.IV

and on completion, they were posted to teach upper primary (P.4 – 7). There were five

T.T.Cs which offered Grade III Teachers’ Courses. At that time there were 22,030

teachers in government aided primary schools, 19,005 of whom were qualified and 3,025

licensed (Tiberondwa 1975:424). The infiltration of unqualified personnel in the

teaching profession greatly lowered its status since it was assumed that anybody could

teach.

To date, the teaching profession continues to suffer deterioration as a result of ineffective

recruitment and training as well as poor conditions of service. The various attempts to

revolutionalise teacher education which include the phasing out of Grade II teachers,

raising entry points into TTCs and free primary teacher education have not yet yielded

any better results. As Tiberondwa (1975) put it, the teacher has become like any other

ordinary person; and anybody can be called a teacher whether trained or not. Poorly

performing students at O’level can be recruited and the condition of work continues to

deteriorate as teachers can hardly afford any basic minimum standards of living.

1.2. Statement Of The Problem

The recruitment of teacher-trainees in Uganda is based on very low standards and those

who join the profession do it not out of any exalted sense of vacation, but rather out of

necessity. Teacher training colleges do not attract bright students but usually those who

perform poorly and yet consider teaching as a last resort. Amidst the protracted public

concern about the quality of primary education in Uganda today, attention must

inevitably be directed to the selective recruitment based on academic excellence as a pre-

requisite to effective teacher training.

3

Primary Teachers Colleges (PTCs) formerly known as TTCs produce poorly trained

teachers who cannot competently handle the teaching learning processes. Indeed, teacher

education courses in Uganda today conform more to a mere certification than a genuine

professional development process. Teacher trainees need only to learn to demonstrate a

narrow range of contrived competencies in order to be favourably be examined and

certificated as teachers! TTCs suffer from lack of laboratory equipment, library facilities

and Audi-visual aids resulting into ineffective training and poor quality of graduates

produced. Evidently, the training is theoretical and elitist which leads to the inability of

teachers to demonstrate the skills and knowledge learnt in colleges to the learners.

Poor working conditions particularly the low starting pay of 148,360/= per month, which

does not greatly improve even after long service, place teachers at a lower social status

compared to other professionals. Many who join the profession use it as a springboard to

join other lucrative fields while those who stay constitute a class of disgruntled teachers

who cannot perform to the expected standards hence adversely affecting the quality of

education. The majority of teachers have no choice but to be posted to rural areas where

the situation is very pathetic due to lack of access to clean water, reasonable

accommodation, and social amenities like medical care, electricity and good roads.

It is upon such a background that the researcher was implored to investigate into the

working environment, recruitment and training of primary school teachers in Kamuli

district so as to come up with viable solutions intended to improve the status of teachers

hence quality of education

4

1.3 Scope Of The Study

This study deals with a history of teacher education in Uganda with specific reference to

the recruitment, training and conditions of service of primary school teachers in Kamuli

district. A total of 20 schools were selected from the three counties in the district namely

Bugabula, Buzaaya and Budiope. The selection was based on at least one school per

subcounty. Kamuli district was selected for the study because it has average performance

and the results could be used to compare with other districts. The period of study is

between 1945-2005 focusing on the colonial and post independent trends in the history

of primary teacher education in Uganda.

1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

1.4.1 Teacher Education

Refers to the structures, institutions and the process by means of which individuals

are prepared for teaching in primary schools.

1.4.2 Profession: A calling requiring specialized knowledge after long intensive

preparation including instruction in skills and methods as well as in the scientific,

historical or organization or concerted opinion.

1.4.3 Curriculum: A series of things, which people must do, and experience by way

of developing ability to do things well that makes up the affairs of adult

life(Bobbitt 1918).

1.4.4 Policy: In the context of this study, policy will be taken to mean written down

projections of programmes consisting of desired objectives that need to be

achieved in a specified period of time.

1.4.5 Colonial rule: This will be used to mean the aggregate dominance of the

imperial powers over subject countries; control of their economic, political and

social policies.

5

1.4.6 Career: This study will take into account the definition by Webster 3 rd edition,

International Dictionary, entry four: a profession for which one undergoes special

training and which is undertaken as a permanent calling.

1.4.7 Attitude: This will be used to refer to a disposition that is primarily grounded in

effect and emotion and is expressive of opinions rather than belief.

1.4.8 Recruitment: In the context of this study, it will be used to refer to the enrolling

of teachers’ trainees in Primary Teachers’ Colleges, hence the teaching

profession.

1.4.9 Primary Teachers College: This is an institution formerly known as Teacher

Training Colleges (TTC), which trains teachers for Primary Schools.

1.4.10 Status of teachers: The position or rank of teachers in society in relation to other

profession.

1.4.11 Tutor: A teacher educator who instructs and guides teacher trainees.

1.4.12 Education tools: These are instructional materials, both text and non-text book,

which are used in the training of teachers.

1.4.13 License Teachers: These are unqualified personnel authorized to teach in an

education institution by issuing of temporary appointment.

1.4.14 Laboratory Schools: These are primary schools under the jurisdiction of

principals of primary teachers’ training colleges used by teacher trainees for

school practice.

6

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.5.1 General Objective:

To assess the recruitment, training and terms/conditions of service for primary

schools teachers and how these affect the quality of education in Uganda.

1.5.2 Specific Objectives:

1. Examine the academic performance and entry qualifications to Primary Teachers’

Colleges and how they have affected both the training and quality of teachers

since 1945.

.

2. Evaluate the training needs of primary school teachers and their effects on the

practical experiences of teachers in the field since 1945.

3. Discuss the changing working conditions of primary school teachers and their

effects on recruitment and training since independence.

1.6. Hypothesis

1. Academic performance and entry qualification into primary teachers’ Colleges

significantly affect the training and quality of teachers.

2. Perception rather than the working condition of primary school teachers greatly

influence entry into the teaching profession.

The investigation into this study was based on two hypotheses. In hypothesis one, it was

proved that academic performance of prospective teacher trainees and entry qualification

into primary teachers colleges significantly affects the training and the quality of teachers

produced. When the performance is poor and the entry qualifications is low then the

training will definitely retrogressively be affected because low achievers do no have the

capacity to undertake a comprehensive teacher training course. Consequently once the

7

training is ineffective then the product (commissioned teachers) undoubtedly is of poor

quality.

It was also discovered that perception (attitude) of individuals accounts for 40% in

influencing the choice of a profession, however, the working condition: remuneration,

environment access to a social amenities accounts for 60% in the post-independent era.

1.7 Justification

There has not been any deliberate endeavour in conducting an analytical study about the

history of Teacher Education in Kamuli District. Unlike other professions, teaching is

characterized by discrepancies that undermine its existence, for instance lack of restricted

entry to the effect that anyone can become a teacher. Recruitment of teacher-trainees

attracts “poorly performing school leavers” who also join the profession by coincidence

but not by design. The training is punctuated with gaps between the teachers’

requirements and the practical experiences in the field hence colleges “produce poorly

trained teachers” who are “incompetent in the execution of their duties”. The poor

working condition including low pay, lack of accommodation, and inaccessibility to

clean water, medical facilities and other social amenities require immediate redress in

order to alleviate the plight of primary school teachers in Kamuli. There is need for the

public to comprehend that the education of their children is not solely a responsibility of

teachers but a venture which calls for collective effort. Generally speaking, there is

urgent need to strongly emphasize the training and position of primary school teachers as

people who influence the quality of education.

It is upon such a background that this independent study was launched in order to

investigate conditions of service, recruitment and training of primary school teachers with

intent to restoring the prestige that the profession once enjoyed.

8

1.8 Significance Of The Study

This study was prompted by the bare fact that the training of primary school teachers in

Uganda continues to degenerate and assigning the teaching profession a lower status

every other day. “Recruitment attracts academically unproven teacher trainees”, the

working conditions remain poor, and colleges continue to produce poorly trained teachers

as a result of lack of adequate training facilities. It is therefore a sincere hope of the

researcher that this study will be found significant in the following areas:

The study will be useful to policy makers in reviewing and setting better conditions of

service for the teaching fraternity which will particularly change the attitudes of school

leavers towards joining the teaching profession.

Teacher education managers and educators will find this study useful in setting better

standards for recruitment of teacher trainees in terms of entry points to primary teachers’

colleges.

This study will be of significance to teacher educators in designing training programmes

(both pre and in-service) as well as providing better continuous Profession Development

(CPD) courses for the practicing teachers.

The study will also guide the leaders of Teachers’ Organizations/Unions in forming

viable and powerful negotiating machinery in a bid to effectively represent and articulate

teachers’ interests hence improve their conditions of service.

It will also be useful in sensitizing the stakeholders especially the parents in developing a

sense of shared responsibility in the education of their children rather than condemning

teachers when things don’t go well in the teaching/learning of children.

9

1.9 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Fig. 1 Conceptual Framework Showing Key Variables to be Investigated

Elements Critical Issues Outcome

The concept signifies that the conditions of service should be in position to attract bright

students who have teaching as their first choice. The teacher training institutions must

possess the requisites for effective training in terms of education materials/training tools

in order to produce competent teachers. When this is done concomitantly with an

appropriate curriculum coupled with continuous professional development programmes,

the outcome would be improved quality of primary education in Uganda.

1.10 Constraints

Teachers were skeptical and reluctant to volunteer information especially with regard to

their academic performance and entry qualification to the teacher training colleges.

However, the researcher looked at the personal files under the custody of the heads of

institutions in order to obtain such important information.

At the time the researcher launched this study, Bulamogi County had not been granted a

district status yet the only existing primary Teachers College is situated there. The

10

Recruitment- Background of teacher

trainees- Academic performance- Entry qualification to

P.T.Cs- Attitudes of teacher

trainees- Level of education

Condition of Service - Starting pay- Working environment- Negotiating machinery- Promotions- Accommodation- Security of tenure- Pension

Training of Teachers

- Suitability of the curriculum

- Duration of training- Relevance of training to

field experiences- Continuous professional

development- Pre and in-service training- Human resource

The Primary School Teacher

Training materials/Tools- Classrooms- Laboratories- Audio-visual aids- Demonstration schools- Libraries- Text and non-text

book materials

Improved quality of Primary education

researcher went ahead and used this college, since files for defunct Kamuli P.T.C. were

handed over to Kaliro P.T.C. administration. This means that this research work has

some aspects on the old Kamuli boundaries. The data was also supplemented by use of

Iganga Core P.T.C. where Kamuli falls as a catchment area.

The other outstanding constraint was the inadequacy of funds. This project costed well

over three million shillings. The fact that the researcher is on self sponsorship, the

immediate alternative was going in for a soft loan and also solicited funds from well

wishers and colleagues.

The issue of transport especially in the hard-to-reach areas and communication between

the Research Assistants and the researcher posed a serious constraint in conducting this

project. Boda-Boda motorcycles were used to facilitate easy mobility to various schools

and other venues, which were earmarked for this study.

Generally, all the constraints encountered were given due attention to ensure successful

implementation of this project.

1.11 Structure And Summary Of The Dissertation

This dissertation has eight chapters:

Chapter one gives an overview of the teaching profession and its perception both in the

colonial and post-independence era. It also traces the origin of concept of teacher training

right from the African tradition, through the missionary to the post-independent era.

Chapter two is on literature review giving the various observations by different scholars.

Upon the observations, existing gaps and omission were earmarked which formed the

basis of this study.

Chapter three deals with the methodology adapted right from the research design to the

final data analysis and interpretation of research findings.

11

Chapter four examines the recruitment of teacher trainees into Primary Teachers Colleges

since 1962 with particular emphasis on the social and economic background of students

who join the teaching profession, their academic potential and entry qualifications to

Primary Teachers’ Colleges and their attitudes towards primary school teaching as a

career.

Chapter five attempts to evaluate the training process of primary school teachers since

1945 with particular reference to the curriculum and its relevancy, the modes of teacher

trainings in Uganda as well as the infrastructures and educational materials/facilities in

Teachers’ Colleges.

Chapter six assesses the conditions of service in terms of remuneration, bargaining

powers, promotion, accommodation and how this affects both the recruitment and the

training or primary school teachers since 1964 -2005

Chapter seven deals with presentation, discussion and analysis of data on recruitment,

training and condition of service for primary school teachers.

Chapter eight deals with the conclusion on the three variables namely: working

conditions, recruitment and training of primary school teachers. It also looks at the testing

of the hypotheses and finally the recommendations of the study.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 Introduction

There is substantial literature on the teaching profession and particularly teacher

education; however, it has shortcomings in relation to the theme of this study. No

deliberate attempts have been undertaken to explore the trends in the history of teacher

education and how the teaching profession has, since independence, degenerated into a

lower status than it once enjoyed.

2.1 Theoretical Framework.

The Teaching Profession starts at the recruitment of teacher trainees into training colleges

which is dependant on attitude, academic performance, entry qualification, and their

social and economic background. However the choice to recruitment into the teaching

profession is influenced by remuneration, working environment accommodation, security

of tenure, social benefit and welfare, organization (Union), promotion and code of

conduct all of which constitute the teachers working environment.

Growing recognition that treating teachers as learners is positively correlated to the

improvements in student outcomes has triggered interests in recent breakthroughs in

theory learning. The behaviourist approaches of the 1960s reflected a mechanical,

narrow view of learning and of the linkage between teacher actions and student

performance. These have been superseded by “constructivist” theory which sees

learning no longer as a pre-fixed set of facts and data to be passively absorbed and

memorized by role, but as “constructed” by the learner, starting from his/her own

experience and using active methods, reflective practice and inquiry. Constructivist

pedagogy is particularly popular worldwide in circles interested in progressing from

universalization to democratization of education.

The “pragmatists” go further and stress that deep knowledge of content and context,

disciplinary inquiry and teacher empowerment in a democratic school community play a

13

key role in shaping teaching and teacher education, and in improving schools. According

to the report of the United States National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future

(1998:18), the objective for teachers as well as students, is to reach a deeper level of

understanding, to see connections between fields of knowledge, to be able to apply new

skills in context to “learn to learn” for the rest of one’s life and ultimately challenge

traditional school power structure.

The above influences point to a richer, albeit more demanding systematic vision of

student and teacher learning and consequently a vision of teaching and teacher

development. The future teacher must be exposed to all the theoretical, practical and

ethical dimensions of practice. The content of training must be based on an analysis of

the job description and its delivery mode. The teacher is engaged in a collective project

that requires social and negotiating skills. Professional development efforts are no longer

limited to teachers or embracing entire districts, but increasingly targeted at whole-

schools making it possible to combine generic with context specific skills. Improvement

strategies, instead of being piecemeal, are driven by clear, coherent plans, bridging

broader strategic goals with locally perceived needs. Residential training is giving way to

on-the job problem solving. In lieu of “experts” transmitting skills to passive audiences,

the teachers themselves are studying classroom processes and the trainers are also

providing advisory, planning and facilitating services.

2.1.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1 Recruitment of Teacher Trainees

Moralists might argue that for teachers with a proper commitment to their profession, the

ethos and reputation of the individual school will always be a more potent influence than

the popularity of its location, per se. Urwick (1985:116) argues that a school can

compensate for a location, which has few facilities if it offers staff housing of good

quality as a factor in raising the teachers’ morale in a rural setting. Both the moralists and

Urwick leave out import aspects in the plight of teachers especially in the Ugandan

situation where most schools are found in rural areas. This research discusses factors like

14

inaccessibility to clean water, social amenities and transport, which characterize the life

of a Ugandan teacher.

Zymelman and Destefano (1973), contend that Primary education in sub-Saharan Africa

is facing an uncertain future. They focus on the progress of education since

independence by pointing out the overwhelming enrollments and the constant recurrent

expenditures, which make the situation more precarious. Although they discussed some

issues about the recruitment of teachers, these scholars did not bring out the problem of

licensed teachers and their effect in diminishing the status of the teaching profession in

Uganda. This study endeavours to examine the case of UPE in Uganda and the quality of

primary education arising out of the recruitment of licence teachers.

In light of the above literature review, this study sought to cover the three salient issues

in the history of teacher education, that is, recruitment, training and the terms/conditions

of service for primary schools.

2.1.2 Training of Primary Teachers

Maloba (1991:127) asserts that there was a time when the role of the teacher in education

was as obvious as the role of the parent in a family, be it mother or father. He further

contends that the teacher is a relatively less constant factor today that in the past and that

equally so the teacher himself has become even a less constant factor in the education.

Although the author gives some insight in both the past and the present about the

teaching profession he does not adequately reflect on the factors in the social, political

and economic spheres which have made the teacher a less constant fact in today’s

Uganda. This research work shows cause as to why the position of teachers needs to be

emphasized in Uganda as people who greatly influence the quality of education.

Sills (1968:563) affirms that the disjunction of training and work, which prevents the

transmission of usefully exact knowledge of what to expect in an actual teaching

situation, undoubtedly helps the school system to recruit young teachers. His argument

coincides with that of Gurrey (1963:48), who asserts that teachers who come out of the

15

Teacher Training Colleges are those with little capacity for study in depth or

development of thoroughly controlled skill and that some of the products of teacher

training colleges are “skilled technicians but defective human beings”. The latter went

ahead to argue that teacher training colleges, like any other institution need recruits of

high ability committed to a life time career, in a word, according to him, they need

professionals. Nevertheless, the two authors did not exclusively look at academic

potential of teacher trainees who are recruited and how their academic background affects

their training and subsequently their work in the field.

The government White Paper on Education (1992:14) clearly points out that the

curriculum used by Teacher-Training Colleges must be assessed in light of its usefulness

and effectiveness in feeding and promoting thought. Thought that enlarges the teachers’

world, equips him/her for work and place in the community, and that enhances his value

as a person. The gap that this research work endeavours to bridge is the emphasis on the

urgent need to re-organize teacher education curriculum by the application of curriculum

analysis techniques to the end that curriculum development becomes a means of

continuous upgrading of quality instruction and training.

Farrant (1964:4) emphasized that the education of a good teacher is something much

more interesting, more extensive and more challenging than a professional training.

Jacks (1962:159) puts it even better when he wrote that teacher training calls for a dual

approach; helping the teacher trainee to consider the educational basis of teaching and

training in how to exercise the essential skills of learning and teaching. However, the

two authors missed out one crucial element of continuous professional development,

which formulates the core of the teaching career. This work explores the opportunities of

education and training and the linkages between T.T.Cs and the schools for which they

produce teachers.

16

2.1.3 Working Environment of Primary Teachers

A number of arguments have been propounded as to whether teaching can be regarded as

a profession like that of doctors and lawyers. Tiberondwa (1975:424) argues that there is

no unanimity about professionalism in teaching because anybody can be called a teacher.

His argument is in line with the historical perspective where the number of professions

were restricted to members of the clergy, medical doctors and lawyers. However, Jones

(1962:1) adopts a moderate usage of the word “Profession” and teaching that takes place

besides the other recognized professions because teachers have the expertise that result

from specialized training. Perhaps what the author needed to emphasize is the need to

form powerful professional organizations through which teachers can control their

conditions of work, and the acceptance of members into their profession, which is part of

the focus of this study.

In launching the second National Development Plan 1970-74, the federal government of

Nigeria attributed the high dropout rate in primary schools to poor quality of teaching

(Nwangwu 1981:81). This scenario has engulfed the education system in Uganda

especially at the primary school level. The general public and government blame

teachers for the alleged fall in education standards while teachers blame government of

not equipping schools and the failure in creating conducive working environment.

However, as Farrel and Joao (1993:5) put it, the best possible quality in the work force is

achieved as a result of the policies pursued by government and their relevant ministries.

This research work has taken into account the interplay of certain critical variables that

influence the teaching career in terms of government policies.

Tibenderana (2003:161), while dealing with education and cultural change in Northern

Nigeria, asserts that the teaching profession has been unpopular the world over largely

because it is generally poorly paid. He examined the effect of poor payment that led

school leavers to prestigious vacations even if teachers actually earned more. The same

scenario was cited by Mamdani (1974:369) at the time when Uganda was undergoing

educational structural changes. Nevertheless these authors did not pay attention to the

17

attitude of school leavers, especially those who perform well, towards TTCs and the

recruitment which is based on a very low grades.

Everrete (1966:6), while discussing army life observed that men from rural background

were usually in better spirits during service than those from city backgrounds. Likewise,

Obasi (1987:77) found out that there is a preponderance of students from low social class

background amongst the recruits into teacher education in Nigeria. Studies of social

origin of students such as those of Floud and Scot (1961) and those of Merce and Fosyth

(1975) consistently demonstrate that students from low social class background constitute

a higher percentage of recruits into teacher education in Britain. This background was

used to establish the facts concerning social background in the recruitment of teachers in

Uganda.

Ssekamwa and Lugumba (1970:66), examine the efforts undertaken by the Uganda

teachers to form viable organizations as negotiating machinery to collectively articulate

their plight. Whereas the authors applaud the Uganda Teachers Association, a lot has to

be done if the teachers have to gain their full potential in determining what accrues to

them in the delivery of their services. This research work explores ways in which

Teachers’ Organizations can consciously register success in contending and articulating

for the rights of teachers in Uganda.

2.2 Summary

The afore-going chapter looked at the theoretical framework and the actual literature

review. Some scholars’ views about the teacher education with particular reference to

primary school teachers have been sited.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

A case study design was used since it is the best for surveying a cross section of items. It

was important in measuring the feelings, perceptions and attitudes of the respondents

towards the teaching profession. It is analytical hence helpful in the investigation into the

inherent challenges in the recruitment, training and working conditions of primary school

teachers.

3.2 Area of Study

The area of this study was Kamuli district, covering all the counties of Buzaaya,

Bugabula and Budiope. The study deals with the history of Uganda Teaching Policies

with particular reference to the Training of Primary School Teachers in Kamuli District.

20 schools were involved, identifying at from each of the 18 sub counties; least one

however, 2 were selected from Kitayunjwa and Nabwigulu because of their big size.

Two institutions were used namely Kaliro P.T.C. (Pre-service) and Iganga Core P.T.C.

(in-service). The two colleges are located outside the district but Kamuli is a catchment

area of the Iganga Core P.T.C, with a total of nine coordinating centres. Bulamogi

County (Now Kaliro district) was part of Kamuli before it acquired a district status and

after phasing out Kamuli PTC, all the documentation was sent to Kaliro PTC.

3.3 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size

The subjects comprised of 60 respondents of different age brackets selected by random

sampling. They included: Teacher Educators (Tutors, Centre coordinating tutors,

Principals), head teachers of primary schools, pre and in-service student teachers as well

as opinion leaders.

3.4.0 Instruments

The researcher employed the following instruments to gather the required information.

19

3.4.1 Interviews

Interviews enabled the researcher to have a face-to-face interaction with the respondents

who were selected. An interview schedule was constructed and used in the face to face

interactions, which were useful in yielding more accurate information since the

interviewer, was able to put the questions in any form. Interviews were chosen for this

study because they provide in-depth information from the respondents. Triangulation

techniques were used in ascertaining and acquisition of more accurate responses from the

selected subjects.

3.4.2 Questionnaires

Semi-structured questions were used for the study to supplement on the responses from

the interviews. They contained open and closed –ended questions. This instrument was

important because it is easy to administer and also track busy officers like CCTs,

principals and head teachers.

3.4.3 Documentation

Documentation is very useful in historical and social research and data can be collected

together with interviews and observations. According to Punch (2000), sociologists assert

that documentary evidence does not only mean written material but can also include

audial and visual collections.

3.7 Procedure

After approval of the research proposal, the researcher obtained a letter of introduction

from the Dean, Faculty of Arts to facilitate the data collection exercise. The

questionnaires and interview guides were pre-tested for purposes of determining the

clarity and accuracy of questions. Comments derived were useful to the researcher to

revise, adjust and improve the instruments. Prior arrangements for the venues where

interviews were conducted were made and information given to the relevant people

before hand. For the case of questionnaires, the researcher occasionally visited the

respondents to ensure that they are being attended to.

20

3. 6 Data Processing and Analysis

After data collection was successfully completed, the researcher, edited, coded, tabulated

and analysed responses into meaningful categories and findings.

3.6.1 Editing

This was done immediately after the fieldwork in order to ensure accuracy, consistency,

uniformity and comprehensiveness of the responses. This enabled the researcher to

eliminate errors in the questionnaire as well as filing blank spaces. Every question was

checked to ensure that they posses accurate and relevant answers to the study.

3.6.2 Coding

A coding framework was developed in which data was classified into meaningful

categories to bring out the essential pattern of information about the study. Coding of

data was done to ensure mutual exclusiveness, exhaustiveness and representativeness.

3.6.3 Tabulation

Counting and adding all the answers of particular questions for the whole sample was

done. The frequencies or response categories to different variables were computed into

percentages to put quantitative characteristics into numerical form. Finally data analysis

was done where tables and calculated values were used for the interpretation of research

findings.

3.7 Summary

The above chapter dealt with the methodology including research design, area of study, selection of subjects, instruments, data processing and analysis.

21

CHAPTER FOUR

RECRUITMENT OF TEACHER – TRAINEES

4.1 Overview

In the context of this study, recruitment of teacher-trainees is seen as a process which

begins at the moment a school leaver makes an option to join a teacher training

institution, through training to career development or professionalization. In Uganda

recruitment of teacher-trainees, especially at elementary/primary school level, which is

the pre-occupation of this study, is hampered, majorly, by socio-economic factors

emanating from the unfavorable conditions of service that scare off most prospective

teacher–trainees. As a result of this scenario, which lacks serious consideration on part of

government, training is made ineffective hence drastically affecting the quality of

primary education in Uganda.

4.2. A Historical Perspective of the Teaching Profession in Uganda

In a restrictive sense, a profession refers specifically to fields that require extensive study

and masterly of specialized knowledge, for instance law, medicine, the military, nursing,

the clergy or engineering. In this sense, a profession is contrasted with occupation, which

refers generally to the nature of a person’s employment. Historically, the number of

professions was limited to members of the clergy, medical doctors, and the lawyers held

monopoly on professional status and education, as the learned fraternity, with the military

officers occasionally recognized as social equals.

With technological advancement and occupational specialisation in the 19th century, other

bodies began to claim “professional status”’ including paramedics, educationists and

even accountants. Until today, almost any occupational group can at least officially or

unofficially aspire to professional ranks and cachet and the popular recognition of this

trend has made possible the widespread inclusion of even footballers, singers and boxers,

to be regarded as professionals. Very interestingly, though prostitution is accorded the

esteem of being the oldest form of “profession” the world over (Sills, 1964:564).

22

In his work on the status of the teaching profession in Uganda, Tiberondwa (1975; 424)

contends that there is no unanimity about professionalism in teaching because anybody

can be called a teacher (those with licenses, nursery, Grade II, Grade III, Grade V,

graduates, lecturers, Doctors, Professors). Among the reasons he propounds are: high-

level academic training of at least university education and formation of powerful

organizations to control conditions of work and acceptance of members into the

profession. Perhaps, the only single unifying factor deduced from Tiberondwa’s assertion

could be that teachers have the expertise that result from training. Indeed, the greatest

cancer that has eroded the teaching fraternity in Uganda is the divisionism within its

ranks since the beginning of the formal organization of teachers.

The teaching profession per se is characterized by low levels of academic qualification

among the majority, with elementary or primary schoolteachers accounting for 57% the

world over (New Encyclopedia Britannica: 4). Due to the segmented nature in terms of

remuneration in salary scales, it becomes rather cumbersome for primary school teachers

for instance, to join hands with the University professors in an effort to find solutions to

their plight. This explains very clearly why there are very weak teachers’ organizations,

which cannot articulate concerted efforts on the conditions of work. A long the same line,

enforcement of critical rules and regulations for instance, registration prior to assumption

of duty has become a complete fiasco. Indeed whether one is trained or not, he/she does

not have to be registered as a member of the teaching profession before taking on duty, as

it is in the medical profession (doctors). It is therefore not surprising to find many

individuals who have not been trained at all doing the job and the trained teachers are

silent about it.

However, the entire teaching corps, wherever its member may be located, share most of

the criteria of a profession, namely: a process of formal training, a body of specialized

knowledge and skills, a procedure of certifying, or validating membership in the

profession and a set of standards of performance – Intellectual, practical and ethical

parameters that are defined and enforced by members that are defined and enforced by

members of the profession. Teaching young children and even adolescents could hardly

23

have been called a profession anywhere in the world before the twentieth century. It was,

instead, an art or a craft in which the relatively young and untrained women and men who

held most of the teaching position “kept school” or “heard lessons because they had been

better than average pupils themselves. They had learned the art by serving and imitating

their own teachers. Only university professors and possibly a few could have merited

being called members of a profession in the sense that medical doctors, lawyers or priest

were professionals: in some countries even today primary school teachers may accurately

be described as semiprofessionals.

However, teaching cannot become a full profession until and unless it is recognized as

such by its members, the government, the public and members of the other professions.

The only way to do this is by setting common principals by the teachers themselves and

impressing them upon government but of course, with the greatest challenge of reviving

the glory of the ‘traditional teacher’, so as to be recognized by the general public.

Nevertheless, as Jones (1962), puts it likewise, this work assumes that teaching is a

profession and that it takes places besides the other recognized professions such as

medicine, law, holy orders, engineering and architecture.

Measurement in terms of its membership, teaching is the world’s largest profession. In

the early 1980s, it is estimated that there were thirty million teachers the world over.

Though their roles and functions are generally greater within a country than they are

between countries, primary school or elementary school teachers in the same field

accounted for an approximate ratio of 57 percent worldwide based on the three major

recognized groups (primary, secondary and university teachers). The proportions differ

by country and continents: in North America, for instance, they were 45, 31 and 23, in the

Soviet Union, 82,7,11; and in Africa 75, 21 and 4 (New Encyclopedia Britannica: 4). In

Uganda primary school teachers account for 62% of the entire teaching workforce (ESA

Records, 2004). Therefore, it is evident that the elementary or primary school teachers

constitute the biggest ratio and this call for clear-headed policies on recruitment training

and remuneration if the dream of high quality primary education has to be realized at all.

24

African states met in Addis-Ababa under the joint sponsorship of UNESCO and the

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa to decide on the priority education

needs to promote economic and social development in Africa. In light of these, they

established tentative short and long term goal for education be adopted to suit the era of

independence. This was because, as early as 1960s when many African countries began

to emerge from the era of colonialism, the inadequacy of the existing systems of

education, their structure, curriculum, content and methods of delivery were criticized.

Education was based on the conventional system of Europe whose efficacy was itself

being questioned at the metropolitan. African states felt optimistic that they could chart

their own way to development by evolving an education system devoid of colonial

inclinations.

While African countries were faced with the challenge of producing African manpower

to run the social and economic systems, on the contrary, they had to grapple with the

changing social systems. The education system had been bedeviled with foreign cultures

and colonial education was heavily biased towards the metropolitan powers to the extent

that recipients’ of the education knew little about their own countries. There was urgent

need to train African teachers to shoulder the noble responsibility of imparting African

values as well as revamping the infiltrated cultural aspects.

The 1970s was punctuated with rapid expansion of sub degree programmes in the poly-

techniques, teacher training colleges and other tertiary institutions in Uganda to meet the

escalating demand of industry and services. The political transition by mid 1980s and the

economic restructuring, the increase in international competition and mass migration of

highly educated people all pointed to the need for rapid building up of a pool of

professionals including teachers to steer up the country to greater heights

(Psacharopoulos 1993:46). Indeed, as pointed out by Kajubi (1997:25) the gap between

supply and public demand for higher education is still very wide in Uganda compared to

Kenya and other countries in the region, which formerly depended on Makerere

University for high – level human resources.

25

4.3. The Socio–Economic Background of Teacher – Trainees

A number of studies on social origin of student teachers, for instance, those of Slater

(1967), Floud and Scott (1961) and that of Robbins (1963), consistently demonstrate that

students from low social class backgrounds constitute a very high percentage of recruits

into teacher education in Britain. Floud and Scott argue that a preponderance of teachers

have been progressively recruited from low social class backgrounds, both between and

across the generations. They estimate that 68.7% of the working class boys who stayed at

school up to age of 17 in the 1920s became teachers. In the study conducted by Isaac

(1969) the percentage of working students in a sample of 266 students admitted into a

college of education to train as teachers is up to 57%.

Many aspects of teaching have socio – economic implication to those entering, remaining

or considering leaving the profession. Such aspects include remuneration, job security

and mobility, job sharing and length of the days’ work, the availability of social services

to mention but a few. Job security (via tenure) provides important benefits for teachers.

Chubb and Moe (1986:41), argue that private school teachers are trading economic

compensation and formal job security for superior working conditions, professional

autonomy, and personal fulfillment. This kind of argument is open to criticism but

according to them public or government schoolteachers are doing precisely the opposite.

Mobility within the same ranks is increasingly difficult, working for long hours i.e. 8.00

am – 5.00 p.m. and closed opportunities to part-time employment all pose a hindrance to

teacher recruitment with reprocicating effects on both training and final products of

teachers commissioned.

According to Orivel and Perrot (1993:67), many women choose careers in the teaching

profession especially at the elementary school level, because the time table and vacation

schedule allow them to look after their own school – age children. However, the recent

modification in family roles as a result of gender and women activism, the situation is

changing very rapidly. Increasingly, more than ever before, women are seeking

prestigious jobs where hitherto dominated by men.

26

Up to 1996, the teaching profession, despite modest salaries, was economically

appealing for at least three reasons, namely: no tuition for training at all, allowances paid

during training and earlier retirement put at 55 years. These benefits have been eroded

and yet no other kinds of incentives have been instituted. Although government of

Uganda and Ministry of Education and Sports claim to have revived tuition free teacher

education at primary school level, student teachers have to meet certain aspects of

maintenance costs. Teachers no longer receive salaries unless they are on in-service

programme and the retirement age has been revised to sixty. These unfavorable changes

have exacerbated the failure of primary teaching to attract prospective candidates.

Kajubi (1967:36) remarked that apart from the unsatisfactory salary, what is more

appalling is that teachers no longer command the social status commensurate with the

importance of their work. Civil service, politics and administration reflect in the

community a much brighter image than the teaching profession. Indeed the work of a

teacher is considered to be less urgent and less dramatic and, receives less social respect

due to poor remuneration. Under thes vulnerable circumstances, making an option to be

part of a social neglect on part of a reasonable school leaver would be committing class

suicide. Needless to mention, the profession is left begging even from those who mind

joining teaching especially if terminals have closed opportunities to such people.

According to Baruku (1983:16), teachers who had just joined the teaching profession had

done so willingly. Those who had joined the profession unwilling were finding teaching

unattractive. The authenticity of Baruku’s argument is liable to a discussion depending on

where the study was conducted. But what is central to his investigation is the discovery

that out of 306, 300 education students had their influence and motivation in joining the

teaching profession centred on socio-economic interests as compared to other reasons.

This further concretizes the fact that socio – economic interests’ impact vary greatly on

the recruitment and the subsequent training of teachers, which in turn affects the quality

of primary education.

27

According to Obasi (1987:177), a very high proportion of students’ teachers come from

homes whose parents fall in very low-income brackets. However, data from a survey

conducted in Nigeria indicate that female students’ teachers come from relatively higher

income background than their male counterparts. A large proportion of student teachers’

parents are subsistence farmers, peasants or petty traders. Indeed very few student

teachers have parents in civil service or professional occupations. Given the fact that

parents of student teachers are either peasants, or craftsmen, it is a clear indication that

they are basically from rural origins, and therefore, cannot afford to take their children to

good schools or meet costs for better courses.

It is highly significant that the majority of students’ teacher’s parents had no formal

education at all. This correlates with the fact that the economic potential of these parents

is very low. People who are illiterate or semi-illiterate are most likely to be engaged in

subsistence farming or petty trading, with a preponderance of them in extremely low

income categories. Therefore, it is evident that teacher education provides enhanced

opportunity for social mobility, largely through its highly subsidized nature in most parts

of Africa. On the other hand, the proportion of those coming from the working class

background differs between sexes. Generally, women recruits into teacher education tend

to be of higher social origin than men and one would expect similar patterns to emerge

from studies done in various regions and other countries (Wragg 1982:61).

On the other hand, social and gender influences have been strongly felt in the teaching

profession. Newby, Smith and Miller (1995: 27) observed that social characteristics like

ethnicity, gender, parental work status and grade level influenced perception of teaching

as a career choice especially in Africa. It was found out that females valued the teaching

career more and perceived themselves as possessing or pursuing its prerequisites while

males reported being influenced to pursue the career by significant others.

Writing about army life, Everett( 1966.6), asserts that men from the rural backgrounds

were usually in better spirits during service than those from city backgrounds after all

they were more accustomed to hardship that their counterparts. Likewise teachers from

28

rural and usually low social and economic backgrounds would do well in teaching other

than those from well-to-do backgrounds. Nevertheless, the paradox is that rural schools

have continually suffered from lack of adequate qualified teachers, perhaps, because of

the need to have a change in the environment. Giroux (1988:174) argues rightly that at

the present time, public policy weighs heavily in favour of the values and interests of the

rich and the privileged. Greed has replaced compassion and the drive for profit relegates

all social concern to a form of individual and social amnesia.

Heyneman (1998:46), observed that the expanding enrolment had led to unintended

consequences. He further stated that in some countries, it had caused expenditures to

decline significantly and the emphasis in current expenditure budget shifted from non-

salary categories, which resulted in deteriorating educational quality. The implication

here is that increased enrolments without consideration of quality of education provided

are deficient strategy. According to the education policy review commission report of

1989, education is a means to national development, it requires an education system,

which is managed by trained teachers and is capable of producing the necessary human

resources and appropriate technology to enhance and sustain its growth.

4.4. Entry Qualification to Primary Teacher Training Colleges

Academic performance involves greater amount of reading and studying and normally

refers to the level or degree of achievement by students in examinations, tests or even

class work. Every education system devises means of evaluating its overall performance

focusing on suitability of the curriculum to the local needs: cost effectiveness of the

technologies used and most important the effectiveness of day-to-day classroom learning.

Walkin (1982:19), stresses that tests are used to assess efficiency of teaching and learning

and to measure the attainment of objectives. Avoiding the details in the loopholes of the

evaluation system in Uganda, it suffices to mention that it leaves a lot to be desired. The

examination oriented evaluation does not give an opportunity to students in third world

schools and those with the various learning deficiencies to prove their worth. In some

cases, therefore, it is not true that all who fail to make it to higher institutions of learning

29

are poor academic performers. Frustrated by examination pressures, the school leavers

tend to find refugee in teaching, which is very unpopular.

It is possible to fill teaching jobs even under conditions of shortage; however, learning

institutions want to do more than fill them. Like other service institutions and businesses,

they need recruits of high ability committed to a lifetime career, in a word: they need

professionals (Sills 1964:563). Unfortunately, students of the highest ability seldom

enter training institutions for teachers (Vertein 1961:38) and not all graduates teach

(Osborn and Maul 1961: 96). There are excellent reasons for this; of the proud old

callings, teaching requires the least formal education and consequently the least

investment of time, money and energy. This is in line with Jones’ (1962:3) argument,

when he asserts that in Africa the teaching profession embraces people, mostly, who

cannot make good elsewhere, but because they have the minimum academic qualification

required, join the profession from necessity rather than from choice.

To raise the level of entry qualification to Primary Teachers Colleges is essential in

obtaining high quality teachers like it has recently been adopted by the Ministry of

Education and Sports in Uganda. However, it is necessary in the first instance to clarify

the image of the teacher demanded by society and then consider the qualification with the

subsequent conditions of service that will translate the image into reality. In 1945, those

who passed in grade A (best performing students) would be the ones to enroll for the

teaching course. After independence (1962) because of the need for manpower, TTCs

started admitting students who had passed in second and third grades. Currently , the

Ministry of Education and Sports in conjunction with Institute of Teacher Education

(ITEK), Kyambogo University have revised entry qualification to a credit in English and

Mathematics with two science subjects passed, one of which should be physical and the

other biological, at O’ level. But Government has lingered on the question of

accompanying the rise in entry qualification with an attractive remuneration that would

not only attract prospective school leavers but also maintain a standard of living that

would enable teachers work effectively.

30

It is true that qualifications and minimum entry requirements may change, or may be

changed as a result of specific policy interventions, to accommodate sudden teacher

shortages, thus increasing the elasticity of demand as Joao and Ferrel (1993:11) assert.

For instance, a study conducted by Darling Hammond (1989), in the United States show

the same paradox occurring. During critical moments of teacher shortage, presumably

because of unattractive salaries, formal requirements are raised to justify increased

salaries. However, within a minimum period of time, states tend to increase special

provisions and certification procedures to employ untrained teachers. This paradox

apparently is typical of developing countries in an effort to expand their education

systems. What is quite unique in the Ugandan situation is that the operations are not

based on real policy issues or interventions but political pronouncements, seemingly to

maintain leaders in power, as it was the case at the initiation of UPE in 1997.

Namara (1989:31) observes that all students admitted to the teaching profession in

colleges were failed candidates for the high school or university education. By this

observation therefore, it is evident that most teachers entered teacher –training colleges

without the most appropriate entry qualifications and perhaps aspirations. In line with the

above, Grambs Mclure (1964:97), contends that teacher education involves training in

psychology, philosophy, and the general teaching methods which require students to have

achieved high standards. He further notes that excellence in one or two of the disciplines

which students aspire to teach should be a must if they have to generate the expertise

required of them in the field. However, until 2003, students who had failed English or

mathematics or even both, as core subjects at elementary level were admitted in our

teacher training colleges! It is therefore not surprising to come across a big number of

qualified primary school teachers who cannot teach English or mathematics yet they are

the core subjects.

Government boards and commission on education have made recommendation

concerning levels, entry qualifications and conditions of services in a bid to improve

quality of teaching in Primary Schools. In Nigeria, for instance, almost all commissions

have recommended that the West Africa School Certificate (WASC) should be the

31

maximum entry qualification to primary teacher training institutions. The Udoji

Commission headed by Chief Jerome Udoji recommended that teachers should receive

the same fringe benefits as their counterparts in civil service since they are both public

servants (Nwangwu 1981, 81-82). In Uganda the De Bunsen Committee of 1952 made

one important recommendation that there should be a vigorous re-organisation of the

teacher education system involving raising entry qualification and reduction in the

number of colleges from forty-one to twenty three (Ssekamwa, 1973:21). Unlike the case

of Nigeria where the recommendations were implemented paving way for the start of

U.P.E. in 1976, the Ugandan government has always disregarded the recommendations of

the various commissions. Policies focusing only on entry qualification without the

remuneration aspect just touches the tip of the iceberg and in most cases has resulted in a

complete fiasco. It is very important to note that a rise in entry qualification should be

accompanied with improved working conditions which will be an attraction to school

leavers to lure them into joining teacher training institutions.

As argued by Barton (1962:44), the education system must select and sort who is to be

trained and later distribute to the various occupations. In so doing, education defines the

“life chances” of individuals and groups, their opportunities to reap reward, achieve

status and live preferred life styles. Unfortunately, Uganda is distant from this position

because education, especially at the secondary school level is in the hands of very few

individuals who can afford exorbitant costs levied in the few so called “good schools”.

These few well-to-do would have the ideal of Barton’s claim working in their favour,

otherwise, the majority go to rural schools as a last nail in the coffin to seal their life

chances. Very rarely, if chances strike, would you hear a student from Budo, Gayaza or

Nabisunsa doing a Grade III teaching course. Almost entirely, do we see students from

up-county schools joining teacher training colleges at primary school level, a very vivid

indication that our education system lacks potential to select or sort and distribute its

graduates to the various occupations.

In Africa, generally, recruitment in the teaching profession vary in terms of levels from

which students join primary teachers’ training institutions depending on the legacy left

32

behind by the former colonial masters. In French – speaking states, for instance,

prospective teachers are expected to have undergone a ten-year general education of both

primary and secondary institutions prior to joining teachers’ colleges. On the contrary, it

is not surprising to notice discrepancies in countries like the Niger, Cameroon, Gabon

and Mauritania where student teachers join colleges of teaching only after primary six

(Jones 1961:1) In the English speaking countries, there are a number of variations, but

generally, a seven-year primary education is the minimum qualifications entry to

teachers’ colleges. In Uganda, the situation is different, especially after the phasing out of

Grade II teachers in 1984, senior four became the minimum entry qualification level to

teacher’s colleges. Even then, this has not had any tremendous impact both on the quality

of a primary education offered as well as the status of the teaching profession.

Although many countries have adopted senior four as the minimum entry level to

teachers’ colleges, many of the students who join, are academically unproven. Jones

(1962:2) contends that three-quarters of those who are training at the post school

certificate level in Kenya are either holders of division III or those who have failed the

school certificate. In absolute terms, they are students who are disqualified for the award

of scholarships to higher education due to poor academic performance. This pattern is not

very different among many countries in Africa, for instance, out of 1.162 candidates who

passed the entrance examinations to secondary institutions in Senegal in 1960, only 150

opted for teacher training institutions (Jones 1962:2). In Uganda, the same trend is

observed where, according to the Joint Admissions Board (JAB), a large number of O’

level students are enthusiastic to go for higher studies yet there are no adequate vacancies

(JAB Report : 2004).

According to Nwangwu (1981:81), the problem of getting an adequate number of West

Africa School Certificate(WASC) holders to train as primary school teachers is one

which gets worse year after year as those successful secondary school leavers see job

opportunities for higher and university education multiply in the country. To this effect,

some economists have advanced the argument that, with time, the shortage of jobs in

other sectors of the economy will force the secondary school leavers to apply for teacher

33

training portfolios. In Uganda, the situation has already changed, for instance out of 1800

(one thousand eight hundred) school leavers who had applied for training in Bishop

Willis Core PTC Iganga, only 450 (four hundred and fifty) were admitted leaving out

1350 (one thousand three hundred and fifty), due to the limited vacancies. This

phenomenon has arisen in Uganda not because of increased attraction to the teaching

profession but because opportunities have closed everywhere and teaching remains the

only alternative.

The Kajubi Report (1989), states that the quality of education of any country depends, to

a large extent on the quality of its teachers. A well-trained and qualified teaching force

accorded with favourable conditions of service, is a prerequisite to guaranteed quality

education. The Kajubi report indicated that by 1988, there were 56% of untrained

primary schools teacher, 40% in the secondary section as well as 20-25% in primary

teachers colleges. The major reason attributed to this was the failure of the teacher

training institutions to attract capable and interested student into the teaching profession.

This situation is still prevalent, pointing to the inefficiency in policies adopted, worsened

by the failure to involve teachers in decision–making on issues that affect them.

4.5 Teacher–Trainees’ Perception of the Teaching Profession

Whereas the institution of teaching was cherished and admirable in the African traditions

and early mission times, the trends in perception of the teaching profession have

drastically changed. Of course, many school leavers detest going to teacher training

colleges and the greatest percentage of those who have already qualified form a band of

disgruntled teachers. Hanson and Henderson (1975:61) emphasize that in Africa many

persons entered the teaching profession for reasons other than personal commitment and

desire to teach. In most pathetic cases, teaching had proved to be a refuge for very weak

students, complementing Coombs’ (1968:29) observation that teaching as a profession

was always satisfied with second choice candidates and as seen as a last resort after all

had failed everywhere. Given such circumstances, training of such student teachers has

not proved very fruitful since the curriculum has very little to do with attitudinal change

which should be given priority so as to transform the trainees into professional teachers.

34

The most salient question to pose, at this point in time, is whether those who present

themselves for training have genuine intention to become primary school teachers.

Indeed, most secondary school leavers are not interested in getting into the profession in

order to make a career in primary school teaching. Hurst (1981:85), asserts that in an

effort to attribute resistance and difficulties to non-rational and exogenous causes, as the

key to successful and beneficial reforms, it is important to consider as, central, the

teacher and his/her willingness and ability to take the challenging task of primary school

teaching. As Sills (1985-61) complements, indeed entering training is in no sense a

commitment to a career, for the–would-be athletes, musicians and women whose first

choice of career is marriage, a degree is a form of occupational insurance. In Uganda, it is

common place that school leavers who present themselves for recruitment do so with

very negative attitudes, which perhaps explains partly, the ineffective training, which

adversely affect their performance, hence, poor quality of primary education.

Although teaching is highly visible to children early in their lives, the exposure is not

likely to attract them to the occupation. The teacher is too much of a daily antagonism to

generate, for instance, the charisma of the physician who comes to help the family in the

time of trouble. For the children of manual labourers, teaching may carry prestige; but

for those of high social origins, it is more likely to seem a hard-life for the reward. As a

woman’s occupation, it also beats the stamina of the women’s low status in comparison

with men, yet it is not feminine enough, except at the nursery level to attract women

strongly. People who enter the teaching profession discover that in comparison with

other occupations, it is startlingly lacking in the auxiliary rewards that facilitate

commitment (Howards, 1953; 57). For this very reason, practicing teachers are unable to

put across an impression that would change the perception of young school leavers to join

teaching.

Industry and business offer promotion to more responsible position yet primary school

teaching hardly offers any prospects even in pay and the least seniority privileges.

Teachers leave classrooms, of course, to become administrators (head teachers or

35

deputies); but as long as they continue to teach, there is little opportunity for the more-

than-local influence possible in other professions through publication, lecturing and

consultation. Although teachers deal with people rather than with things (an ancient

status distinction), the people they deal with are minors. They miss the rewards,

psychological and political, of serving people of high status and power. Their daily work

is often programmed by state departments of education; non –teachers supervising and

directing them in the ways that make the autonomy prized by traditional professionals

and entrepreneurs impossible. Under such conditions, we should not be surprised that

recruitment of committed professionals remains very elusive more especially in

developing countries like Uganda due to the negative perception of school leavers about

the teaching profession.

Since independence, perception of the potential teacher trainees have tremendously

changed basically due to poor remunerations and conditions of service rendering its

choice a last resort. Forcel and Joao (1993:5) contend that teachers are the most important

resource in education programmes. Therefore, to ensure the highest possible quality in

the teaching workforce polices implemented by government ministries must take into

account the interplay of certain critical variables that influence teachers’ career. Those

variables include; pre-employment training, recruitment, remuneration and personnel

development. If good policies in terms of remuneration are hatched and properly

implemented, perception of teacher trainees will automatically change, leading effective

training hence high quality primary education.

Most miserable in the conditions of service is the generally low pay which does not

compare favourably with other professionals’ earnings. Although the president claims

that he has continually raised teachers’ salaries, these cannot be acceptable in absolute

terms. Remunerations for teachers are still far below the requisite attractions to have

young school leavers to join the challenging task of teaching.

In Uganda, the government hastily introduced UPE in 1997, for instance, but considered

teacher supply as an after thought which has created a lot of problems in terms of quality

36

in primary education. The recruitment of untrained teachers has incredibly biased the

perceptions of teacher trainees and the community around with the premise that anyone

can teach. In Uganda especially in rural primary schools, a number of untrained teachers

have not bothered to go for training because they feel confident that with or without the

same they can still do the job. Given such circumstances, it is not surprising to find

teacher trainees failing to put in extra effort in training and this mentality lead to half-

baked and incompetent products of primary teachers’ colleges. As if Ministry of

Education has just come in the know, it has now instituted very stringent measures

against head teachers who pay salaries to such teachers. The measures include refund of

the money as well as dismissal without gratuity (Monitor, 10 July 2005).

In respect to social aspects of Teaching, the extent to which education is ranked and

teachers held in high regard is deteriorating at a very fast rate. While schools have long

been considered important and influential institutions, public support for them has

continually showed fluctuating trends. After the introduction of UPE in 1997, with the

subsequent decline in the quality of primary education where children have exhibited

inability to read and write, public opinion towards teachers has greatly changed. The

table below tries to illustrate public attitude towards schools and teachers.

Table 4.1 Public Attitudes Towards Schools and Teachers

Public Opinion 1997 1998 999 2000 2001 2002

Average grade for Local schools A and B 42 36 31 43 40 41C 28 34 32 30 34 34D and fail 16 20 20 14 14 17Teachers salaries are:Too high Not available 10 8 6 - 5About right Not available 41 31 43 - 31Too low Not available 29 35 33 - 50No Opinion Not available 20 26 18 - 14Source: Extracts from Elam (2001)

37

As shown in the table above, only 31 percent rated the performance of schools as “A” or

“B” by 1997. About teachers salaries, the indication by the public is that what is given to

teachers is just enough for their services. This means that the public is not willing to give

financial support to teachers in order to improve on their efficiency in the execution of

their duties. The perception of teacher trainees about the teaching profession

automatically changes because they are aware that even if they trained hard, their services

will never be appreciated by the public.

Teaching is one of the few professions with which most of the public are familiar. Those

who have gone to school know the status of teachers in the community, the salaries of

teachers, and their working conditions. This knowledge, coupled with their own

experiences in schools, largely determines the perception of teaching either as an

attractive or repelling occupation. (Kemmerer and Sivasailam (1993: 146): The status of

the school system thus, influences the ability to recruit new teachers. The table below

illustrates the factors that affect performance and the sub-goals of recruitment and

retention of teachers.

Figure A: Teaching Incentive Model

Source: Kemmerer and Sivasailam 1993

Entry characteristic determines both the quality and quantity of teacher training which in

turn has direct bearing not only on performance but also on recruitment and retention.

38

Entry characteristics Quality/Quantity of teacher training

Recruitment Performance Retention

Government SupportCompensation instructional support promotion profession Development status

Community support

This can be well executed with strong government support as well as that of the

community.

The recommendation to raise the morale and provide them with better job satisfaction by

the Kajubi Report (1989) is yet to be realized. According to the White Paper on education

(1992), government has been equally concerned about the long-standing poor conditions

of service for teachers that have made the teaching profession increasingly unrespectable

and unpopular among potential teacher trainees. Government purportedly made a

determined policy to address the problem of untrained and poorly trained teachers, and

improved the conditions of service in order to turn the teaching profession into a

respectable, popular and attractive profession in this country. What is amazing is that

government is very much aware that the conditions of service for teachers are very poor

and that this is the major cause of the unpopularity of the teaching profession among

teacher –trainees. As Joao and Farrel (1993:11) observe, salary typically mirror

government policies towards public servants. They argue that if these are low in relation

to the private sector or other employment opportunities, the labour force will tend to

lower quality. Although government, more often than not, has claimed to have

continually raised teachers’ salaries, it is very far from attaining a level of making the

profession attractive to both school leavers and the serving teachers.

Government has set and implemented new policies like UPE with the least realization

that for such policies to succeed, the teacher variable is a very crucial ingredient that need

not be overlooked. In 1997, when UPE commenced, government called on retired

teachers, grade II teachers and also recruited many licensed teachers, a move that has

proved futile and detrimental to the teaching profession. Many of these who were

recruited as licensed teachers were mostly those who were “rotting” in the villages

because they could not make good anywhere. Many forged their way into the system

because they lacked the minimum qualifications and even those who possessed, were

un-trainable due to very poor academic performance at O’ level. This greatly altered the

perception of teacher-trainees since they could no longer see the usefulness of training.

39

Many abandoned their courses to come and make money without the hassles of training

after all they could do without it.

“Everything depends on the teachers”, wrote Whitehead in 1929 and now in the twenty

first century, the thinking public is yet to discover and believe that there is something in

this statement. Certainly, a change has taken place in the degree of interest shown by the

public concerning education and the teaching profession specifically (Gurrey 1963:1).

However, this change has not materialized to a level of improving the perception of

teacher trainees to feel with growing confidence that they recognized as of fundamental

importance to the community and even of national credence. On the other hand this

recognition means that the teaching profession has never before been sharply criticized.

Much more is demanded of teacher nowadays; and these demands will continue to grow.

In Kamuli teaching is perceived as a good profession because it offers a soft landing for

most of the students due to poor academic performance especially at O’level. Most

parents have a poor social and economic background which influences the type of

schools where their children go hence their performance. The majority of students are

low or average performers, therefore, their scores, in most cases, take them to teacher

training colleges.

4.6 Summary

Recruitment of teacher trainees is partly influenced by individual perception of the

profession, entry qualification, social and economic background of parents. However, the

working environment, which envisages remuneration, access to social amenities,

promotion, posting and infrastructure significantly, influences recruitment of teacher

trainees.

CHAPTER FIVE

40

TRAINING OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

5.1. Introduction

The quality of any education system is equivalent to the quality of its teachers and the

latter strictly is dependent on the quality of training. Some of the basic ingredients in

qualitative teacher training discussed in this chapter include: the nature of the curriculum,

facilities used in the teacher training institutions, the modes of training, the quality and

quantity of tutors, the relevancy of the training to field experiences and the aspect of

continuous professional development. Peterson (1960:221) asserts that the fundamental

challenge in education throughout the last 100 years has been the provision of adequate

good teachers. Unless the quality of teachers is at least adequate to the work required of

them, the school will do as much harm as good. The success of any education system

does not depend on either definitions of aims, statement of objectives, or discussion of

subject values, but on the academic and professional preparation of the teachers.

5.2 Primary School Teacher Training Curriculum

Apparently, the idea of teacher training ‘was initiated by the missionaries when they gave

basic instructions to the ‘pupil teachers’ who assisted in handling the ever increasing

numbers of baptismal classes. The “curriculum” used was based on Christianity and it

had two aspects, namely: reading (the Bible) and writing. As the classes of mission

schools went higher (P.1-6) during the first decade of the 20th Century, a second class of

teachers began to emerge; boys and some few girls who had showed exceptional abilities

at studies and had completed P.4 or P.6. These would be trained to predominantly teach

secular subjects for a period ranging from one – two years depending on the speed at

which they would master the pedagogical skills (Lugumba (1973:32). The curriculum’s

scope became wide by adding secular subjects to the predominantly religious curriculum.

Between 1945 – 1962, education generally suffered a lot of difficulties which prompted

Sir Andrew Benjamin Cohen to appoint Mr. B. De Bunsen in 1952 to investigate and

come up with proposals for future organization and development of education in Uganda

(Sekamwa and Lugumba,1973: 20) One of the most important recommendation was that

there should be a vigorous re-organization of Teacher Education System involving

41

raising of entry qualifications and the reduction of colleges from 41 to 23 for efficiency.

Unfortunately the issue of the curriculum was not adequately attended to but left into the

hands of individual missions.

After independence in 1963, a Commission was instituted under the chairmanship of

professor E.B.Castle whose recommendations brought all the learning institutions

including Teacher Education into the auspices’ of Central Government. Government

began to take interest in teacher training after the establishment of the department of

education. The department directed all mission groups to establish formal teacher

training schools with competent qualified staff to train primary school teachers

(Ssekamwa 1997: 34). Each mission started what was called “Normal schools” in each

linguistic area to teach the local language. Government also started training teachers at

Makerere College School to handle P.5 and P.6, giving birth to the faculty of Education.

The primary teacher education Curriculum has three main components: teaching practice,

professional and general education. As Farrant (1964:4) emphasizes, teacher preparation

requires a dual approach: On one hand, the student must be helped to consider the

educational basis of teaching, by thinking about the relationship between human

knowledge, child development and society with its various aims and values. On the

other hand, she/he must receive training in how to exercise the essential skills in learning

and teaching. Therefore, education and training must both be included for one without

the other leaves the teacher incomplete. At college, students must be trained to form

habits that will not only make them capable teachers but empower them to shoulder

responsibility, show initiative, assist those in need and live lives which offer good

example to others. The missionary curriculum was only able to cater for the former but

had little in general education and pedagogical skills. In the investigation of teacher

training, one must perceive what the teacher must be trained for; what should be his role

and what kind of person is expected. Perhaps the curriculum designers have taken little

attention in considering what kind of person, how equipped in experience and in attitude

of mind so as to set up training experience embedded within teacher education

programmes. We must assess much of the training curriculum in the light of its

42

usefulness and effectiveness in feeding and promoting thorough thought that enlarges his

world, equip him for his work and his place in the community and that enhances his value

as a person (Gurrey 1963;11). The curriculum must have deliberate maneuvers towards

these critical issues, however, the current one has been found lacking in many aspects

It is surprising that even today; teacher education curriculum designers put a lot of

emphasis on academic competencies rather than profession and pedagogical skills.

Teacher trainees are subjected to unfriendly theoretical programmes and at the end of

year there are promotional examinations. Although the idea is good because it tests the

competence of teachers to be, care need to be taken in order to avoid rendering teacher

education curriculum examination oriented. The task of the curriculum designers must

be to provide opportunities for development of student teachers and make occasion for

stimulating the growth of every potential of their personalities but not lone book-worms

or merely muscular.

The Primary Teacher Education curriculum is overloaded, outdated and obsolete. It does

not take into account the recent developments in teacher education, for instance,

HIV/AIDs, gender issues and changes in Primary School Curriculum( PTDMD: 2003)

This is exemplified in the poor quality of teaching and learning in primary schools as

reflected in the inability of children to read and write. Apparently the current primary

Teacher Education Curriculum does not develop the student teachers’ capacity to cause

effective learning among pupils. The curriculum should identify teaching and learning

approaches, skills and strategies that bring about effective learning during classroom

instruction.

The duration of two years for pre-service and three years for in-service teacher training

programmes are too short a time to exhaust the workload. The clamour to reduce on the

workload and overcrowding of the current curriculum is not likely to yield any positive

results since there are other innovations that should be incorporated. Indeed, an over-

loaded curriculum hinders student teachers from studying any subjects in depth and

leaves less time teaching potential development teaching potential development.

43

Therefore the traditional rigid tendency of producing general teachers for primary schools

should be abandoned and instead seek for alternative means of specialization.

Setting national aims and goals of an education system influences curriculum design and

development. The formulation of national aims and objectives should be realistic so as to

set ground for an ideal curriculum design. Evidently, the Uganda Policy on Primary

Teacher Education is rather vague prompting the designers to work out how best the

goals can be achieved. Student teachers require a lot of more time in classrooms than is

provided for in the two years of training. This enables them to explore the theoretic

connection between schooling, subjectivity, citizenship and power. Teachers in the

making also require a protracted exposure to a radical re-organization of teacher

education institution around the concept of history, language, culture and power (Gironx

1988:174). As Jacks (1963:159) asserts, the education of a good teacher is something

much more challenging and extensive than a professional training. In the investigation of

teacher training, one must perceive what the teacher must be trained for; what should be

his role and what kind of person is expected.

5.3. Primary Teachers’ Colleges (PTCs) and the Training Facilities

The primary school teachers’ training institutions have been known by various names

right from missionary times to present: Normal schools (N.S) vernacular Teacher

Training colleges, (V.T.T.Cs ) Teacher Training colleges, (TTCs and now Primary

Teacher colleges (PTCs). At the inception of the idea of teacher training, there were no

infrastructure and facilities but it arose out of the dare need to have some form of teachers

to assist the missionaries in handling the enthusiastic Africans who flocked the

missionary centres. As Tiberondwa (1975:237) noted, the training of teachers was

practically non-existent although the missionaries were involved in teaching both school

masters and catechists. A close look at the historical development of teacher education

reveal that the same pattern has ensured, characterized by lack of infrastructure and

training facilities.

Table 5.1: PTC Equipment and Supplies Distributed to PTCs (Phase IV-V)

44

Equipment Primary Teachers’ Colleges

Kitgum Arua Canon Apollo

Bishop Stuart

Nyondo Shimon Bishop Willis

Bukinda

Vehicles 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Motorcycles 22 37 30 35 28 29 34 33

Bicycles 21 36 29 34 27 28 33 32

Duplicating machine 24 39 32 37 30 31 36 35

Typewriters 21 36 29 34 27 28 33 32

TV/VCR 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

PAS 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Computer set 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Cupboard 35 50 43 48 41 42 47 46

Generator 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Office furniture set 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Stationery 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Photocopier 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Filing Cabinet 35 50 43 48 41 42 47 46

OHP 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Source: MOES(2003)

From the above table, it is evident that government efforts to provide facilities did not

address the core needs in training of teachers. Text and non-text books materials, visual

and audio-visual materials, and laboratory equipment, which form the core of teacher

training, were not given due consideration.

The Report on African Education (1953:23), recommended that each training college

should have 120 student teachers in residence and estimated that 22 training centres of

the size would be required to meet the needs of government plans for expansion of

teacher training programme which had already been published. The existing teacher

training centres had done their best with facilities available but far more could be

achieved if they were adequately staffed and properly equipped. It was recommended

that for the colleges of the suggested size, there should be the following minimum staff:

Principle, as head of institution, senior tutor in agricultural education (specialist), a

specialist in art /crafts and tutors for general duties with specialized qualification in

physical training, music and religion. This was a land mark in the history of teacher

45

education since training had been characterized by inexperienced staff as Taylor

remarked on Halterslay’s educational background, which never preceded the elementary

level (Taylor 1958:93).

The report further recommended that all members of staff in teacher training institutions

should have had a previous teaching experience and that some expatriate education

officers should be seconded to the staffs of training colleges. The staff in practicing and

demonstration schools were to be carefully selected and one member of each school be

assigned teacher-tutor duties and receive an extra allowance for it. A lot of emphasis was

put on specialized training for teacher education and adequacy in terms of staffing.

However, the greatest challenge at that time was to obtain tutors to fill the vacant posts.

Reliance on expatriates did not yield good results since many of them did not have the

requisite training and experience. Lack of adequate and suitable materials in teacher

training institution led to use of poor teaching techniques.

Table 5.2: Teaching Methods Used in Primary Teachers CollegesTechnique No %age

1 Lecture/Classroom teaching 63 87.5

2 Seminar/Tutorial group 1 19.4

3 Workshop 16 22.2

4 Micro-teaching sessions 11 15.3

5 Radio Broad casts 12 16.7

6 Correspondence Assignment 11 15.3

7 Visits to schools 11 15.3

8 Demonstration lessons 58 80.6

9 Teaching Practice 57 79.2

Source: Odaet (1989)

The lecture method is a dominant method of teaching in the teacher training colleges.

Tutorial groups are used in a very limited way because of the poor staffing position of the

colleges. Use of visual and audio-visual instructional materials is almost nonexistent due

to lack of funds. Laboratories and Libraries are ill-equipped with hardly any apparatus or

text books relevant to the teachers’ field experiences.

46

Teaching practice of three months does not offer adequate exposure to student teachers

and this is worsened by lack of demonstration schools by colleges which would enhance

the school practice aspect of training. The individual observation method where student

teachers undertake child study at the end of first year is not fully exploited. Reports are

not discussed exhaustively because of lack of adequate time as well as tutors.

In 2003, there were111 (one hundred and eleven) post primary institutions in Uganda, 38

of these were primary teachers’ colleges representing 34.23% of all post primary

institutions. This is an indication that government put a lot of emphasis in training of

primary school teachers in order to meet the demand of Universal Primary Education

Programme. However, despite such efforts by government, there is greater need for

investment in training facilities to complement and add value to the existing

infrastructure.

Figure B: Post Primary Institution / School by type

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Primary Teachers’ Technical Technical Vocational Nursing Commercial College Institutes Schools Training schools Institution

(38) ( 29) ( 29) (9) ( 7 ) (1 )

Source: Annual School Census: 2003:100

47

The major factor underlying the preparation of quality primary school teachers and

proper management of primary teachers’ colleges is the provision of financial resources.

Tiberondwa (1989:81) stresses that funding plays a central role in enabling the

achievement of targets and goals of any institution. It is funding that fuels the

effectiveness and efficiency and therefore primary teachers’ training colleges must be

adequately funded to ensure quality service. Kizza (1982:60), shares the same view

saying that funding directly influences institutions’ efficiency and it affects the rate of

implementation of planning and development programmes. Tibarimbasa (1989:125),

further claims that the unit cost per student is an indication of effectiveness of the

institutions and it ensures smooth running of college programmes. Although primary

teacher training is fully sponsored by government, the concern is drawn to the inadequate

unit cost per student and the untimely disbursement. This interferes with the training

programmes since activities are not implemented on schedule.

The Education Policy Review Commission (1989) noted the Primary Teachers Colleges

show disorganized and unplanned growth model and are in a dilapidated state. The

Government White Paper (1992:144-5) adopted various recommendations including

renovation, repair and replacement of buildings and equipment, that every PTC should

have adequate instructional materials and facilities including workshops, laboratories,

libraries, classrooms, games and recreational facilities, kitchen and dining hall, staff

houses, transport, drinking water, lighting facilities and dormitories. Government’s

commitment to mobilize financial, material and manpower resources to speed up the

process of renovating the old PTCs and setting up new ones (Government White paper ,

1992:146) has not been fully exploited. Many colleges like Kaliro and Iganga Core PTC

continue to operate with inadequate basic facilities.

There has been conspicuous absence of workshops in PTCs to cater for the teaching of

vocation subjects which has perpetuated the bookish and elitist nature of Uganda’s

primary education system. Many colleges have failed to acquire land and farming inputs

to reinforce the backbone of the economy as well as making the institution self reliant in

food and other material needs. To this end primary teachers’ colleges produce teachers

48

devoid of requisite vocational skills hence irrelevant to the need of this country. It is not

surprising the children go through the primary section without any skills even the least of

agricultural nature.

Instructional/training materials in terms of visual and audio-visual aids, laboratory

equipment, and library stock form an essential aspect of teacher training. Tiberondwa

(1989:105) contends that inadequate supply of reading materials undermines student

achievement levels. He further claims that it is common to find scarce journals and

important materials which have been interfered with through ripping out page as students

scramble for books. It has been proved unreliable to continue expecting government to

cater for the needs in colleges. As Sebuwufu (1996:71) suggests, there should be

financial diversification by way of instituting cost recovery programme to make up for

the ever increasing inadequacies.

5.4. Pre and In Service Modes of Primary School Teacher Training

The pre-service training programme is the traditional mode of preparing teachers which

dates back to the missionary era. The initial criteria for selection were based on

brilliancy and ability to grasp instructions. According to Kawuma (1973.1) the aim of the

Church Missionary Society was to form a band of young men to be trained for the

teaching work, with the ultimate object of the fittest being ordained for the work of the

ministry. To this effect, Namirembe Normal school was started by Archdeacon Walker

for the Protestants, Nazigo (Bugere) for the Mill hill mission and Bikira for the white

fathers (CMS Report 19/3).

Following the abolition of vernacular teacher training in 1952, avenues for in-service

training were created by which vernacular teachers went to teacher training centres for

one year and upgraded to grade I status. Likewise, grade II teachers were also given an

opportunity to upgrade to grade III status. When the opportunity of upgrading of teachers

came in 1952, there was a feeling that training two grades of teachers meant two different

grades of training centres for the same education level that was unnecessary and wasteful.

In-service training has been used both as an emergency solution to a temporal problem

49

responding to the demands for a sudden expansion of the teaching force, and as part of

continuing programme of teacher education and upgrading. This is because of its

flexibility, its economy and geographical coverage where students can study from their

stations of work and go for only face to face sessions during holidays.

In 1930, the Advisory Council on Native Education regarded upper middle school

teachers training for 3 years, lower middle school teachers who attended one additional

year of training at Nyanjerade and elementary school teachers who attended a 3 years

course in a missionary or government normal school after completing grade IV

(Tiberondwa 1975:237). From 1940, all candidates admitted to the vernacular teachers’

training centres would have to pass a primary learning certificate after 6 years. In 1952,

Primary school teachers were trained for 3 years after 9 years of academics (Junior II).

Under the Primary Education Reform Program of 1989, policy makers focused on two

modes of teacher training; the traditional pre-service supplemented by the in-service

mode with a view of improving both quantity and quality of teaching. Therefore

emphasis was put on in-service Teacher education. Core Primary Teachers colleges were

allocated catchment areas which were divided into co-ordinating centres under the charge

of a Centre Coordinating Tutor (CCT). For instance, Kamuli, one of the catchment areas

for Bishop Willis Core PTC Iganga was divided into eight coordinating centres as

illustrated here below:

Table 5.3: Kamuli District Coordinating Centres

Coordinating

centre

County Sub/County Name of CCT Name of

schools

No. of student

teachers

1 Balawoli Bugabula Balawoli Idhambi M 108 35

2 Bulopa Bugabula Bulopa Khalifa N 72 63

3 Mbulamuti Buzaaya Mbulamuti Mukenye M 67 34

4 Lwanyama Buzaaya Kisozi 58 34

5 Bupadhengo Buzaaya Nawanyago Dhauke W 60 43

6 Kigingi Budiope Nkondo 74 26

7 Baganzi Budiope Buyende 58 51

8 Namulikya Budiope Bugaya Adupa J 79 39

Total 576 325

Source: Education Report 2003

50

In practice, this system recruits and offers opportunity to the under graduate and

untrained teachers to acquire Grade III Teachers’ Certification while on job. This primary

teacher education In-service design uses self-study materials, modules and weekend

seminars and face residential session at the core colleges during holidays. During school

sessions, the In service teacher trainees go back to their respective schools, thus putting in

practice the knowledge and skills acquired. The issue of contension in this policy is that

teacher trainees have a lot of time at their disposal to carry out the practical aspect of

training but hardly do they have enough time to improve their academic and professional

aspects. Although pedagogical skills are paramount in the teaching profession, a teacher

becomes half backed when the academic and professional aspects are lacking. There is

conspicuous lack of wide exposure and contacts with various teacher trainees and

interaction with tutors in other subjects. This arises out the fact that coordinating centres

are manned by one centre coordinating tutor with one or two areas of specialization in

teacher training.

The flexibility in the entry qualification to In-service training hikes in the chances of

recruiting student teachers with poor grades and weak academic performance. Ordinary

level and Advanced level students as well as Grade II teachers could be enrolled for the

in-service teacher training programme. After the introduction of UPE in 1997, the

Ministry of education introduced the idea of competence tests where certificates could be

issued to successful candidates who later used them for gaining entry into teacher training

colleges. Competence tests were set by the Uganda National Examinations Board

(UNEB) and basically intended for those who had not performed well at Ordinary level.

This kind of loophole in the entry qualification gave a leeway to poorly academic

performing students who had failed to be absorbed anywhere. Again in this aspect,

teaching was taken on as the last resort with effects on the morale and performance of

teachers. This also biases the public opinion about teachers because the students were

recruited from within their areas where they were known as failures. This adversely

affected the attraction of academically sound students as they associated teaching to

failures.

51

Another demand component of TDMS is the management training for all levels of

education managers in order to strengthen management capability of educational

institutions. In pursuit of this component, head teachers of primary schools were trained

in education administration and management for one year leading to an award of

certificate (TDMS:1997). There was remarkable improvement in the management of

primary schools in terms of record keeping, staff–meeting and development planning.

However, the award was confined to only TDMS programme because it failed to gain

recognition as an additional professional qualification. The traces of this component

cannot be felt as it has died a natural death.

The component of refresher courses for teachers to get abreast with the ever changing

trends in curriculum innovations, teaching methods and examination demands has failed

to take root. The costs and other logistics has made it almost impossible for this

component to be realized. The continuous professional development (CPDs) workshops

are conducted at coordinating centres yet many schools are eight and above kilometers

away. Head teachers find it difficult to raise money for transporting and feeding teachers.

More often than not, the CPDs are poorly attended due to lack of funds resulting into

ineffective teaching which does not match with the current trends hence poor quality of

education.

The Government White Paper on Education (1992:42) recommended that opportunities

should be provided for untrained and under trained teachers to receive training through

on-the-job basis as well as short term training programmes. As an implementation

strategy, PTCs were required to conduct sandwich courses for license teachers in their

localities. These courses would lead to formal awards of Grade II teachers’ certificate.

The colleges are supposed to develop off campus study centres in their catchment areas.

On departure, student teachers are meant to go with study materials to guide them in self

–instruction.

52

Table 6.7: PTC Enrolments and Graduating Students- 2002

Course Yrs Award No. of Candidates Graduates Non Graduates

M F T M F T M F TPre-Service

2 Certificate 1.018 989 2007 849 748 1597 169 241 410

In-Service

3 Certificate 106 48 154 30 14 44 76 34 110

Pre-service

2 Diploma 475 424 899 386 528 714 89 96 185

Total 1599 1461 3060 1265 1090 2355 334 371 705Source: An extract from Annual school Census 2003:107

In 2002, there were 2007 enrolled for pre-service course of 2 years and 1597 graduated

with 410 students failing. 410 failures represent 20% which is a very high figure. As

compared to the 70.3% pre-service training, the percentage failure is extremely high

which clearly explains the inefficiency in the organization the same. Students have a lot

of time practicing but very little time is left for academic work. Given the fact that

teacher training is more examination oriented, it becomes very hard for such students to

go through. On the other hand, the diploma in-service programme registered 899 out of

whom, 714 graduated; with only 185 (13.6%) students failing. In all the three categories,

the female gender is noticeably lower than their male counterparts showing a drastic

gender imbalance in the teaching profession.

The pre-service mode refers to the process of training a teacher before he joins service;

which is the direct opposite of in-service. Pre-service student teachers are recruited fresh

from ordinary level that is SIV with the basic requirement of a credit in English and

mathematics, 2 science subject (passed with credit). This is in agreement with the

International Labor Organization, UNESCO Report (1990:56). The Government White

paper (1992) indicates that pre-service teacher education must create development

attitude among student teachers, respect for work, loyalty and self reliance. However as

Okell and Ochieng (1996:71) noted there is need to make it more relevant to Uganda’s

needs today. Society is not static, societal needs keep changing, so should pre-service

teacher education content. Gayle and Gainey (1996:51) were of the view that teacher

53

education programmes must be re assessed in terms of their entrance and existing

requirements.

In as far as pedagogy is concerned pre-service teacher education has not changed much

over years. It is sort of cyclic form of training and teacher educators are reluctant in

pulling out of this style. Tutors use old notes given to them when being trained

themselves and even in the style they were given. Hecklekinen et al (1992:76) argue that

tutors tend to teach as they were taught. Typically, this involves lecturing with emphasis

on rote learning of disconnected facts. Teacher training must be connected in order to put

theory and practice together (Accler 1994: 101). Paine (1992) noted that pre-service

teacher education courses, for the most part, followed an approach to teaching that is text

centred, faculty lectured and students reproduce these interpretations in examinations.

The perceived emphasis in pre-service, therefore, is on theory, excelling in examinations

and only to be certified as teachers.

5.5. The Relevancy of Teacher Training to the Field Experiences

Training of teachers has a gap between content and everyday experiences. Seymour et al

(1962:2) launched a very pertinent inquiry, that if one described the activities in which a

teacher engages and the problems encountered, to what extent would one find that the

teacher training experiences constitute a relevant and adequate preparation? Indeed,

contents and procedures of teacher education frequently have no relevancy to the actual

teaching test in the field of work. The primary function of the teacher is to impart

knowledge in terms of content, and help in the acquisition of intellectual skills and that

teacher training prepares a prospective teacher to accomplish these objectives.

Teacher education institutions have tended to isolate themselves from the schools for

which they prepare teachers. The challenges of teaching under actual conditions as they

are in the schools are not reflected in teacher education programmes and their methods.

Efforts have been made by CCTs to close up the gap between the schools and colleges.

However, the outreach programme (TDMS) under which they operate has heavy

schedules to the effect that there is almost no time to attend to other routines outside

54

teaching and instruction. Along the same line, efforts of CCTs need to be supplemented

for effectiveness because of specialization and big number of schools per catchment area.

Teacher training colleges should be closely associated with schools in their area,

providing professional advice and services and promoting innovative activities on a

routine basis. Teacher training colleges have not yet been oriented to development needs

of their communities, recognizing the inter relationship of the school, home and society

and of formal education and other forms education.

The training of teachers has and is up to 2005, regarded as an affair solely of the training

colleges and those responsible for them. Any intervention outside this limited scope is

considered to be interference. As Jack (1963:159) argues, education of a good teacher is

much more interesting, more extensive and more challenging than just a professional

training. According to him teacher training goes beyond what goes on in college

premises with flexibility to allow external intervention from the business community,

farmers, peasants as well as other professional input. This approach emanates

intrinsically, on how we perceive and conceive the art of educational and teacher training.

This permits a projection on the kind of teacher needed in the community and specific

roles he is to play, because interaction in the field is characterized by different kinds of

people which implies prior exposure if the training has to be relevant to field expenses.

A good and sound aim of any system of teacher education must consider the needs of a

teacher as he is before considering his needs as a future bread –winner. It must consider

the teachers sence of values, his personal attitudes and the working environment, among

peers and associates with whom he will constantly interact with. If a teacher is prepared

with these ideas embedded in the training syllabus, there is no doubt that such will be an

exceptional entity relevant not only to the field experiences but also to the material world

or community of operation.

Once started on the teaching career, the distinction between their preparation and

actuality in the field often hits teachers’ hard. Sills (1968:564) contends that teachers are

faced with hostile children interminably bargaining for greater autonomy and wonders

55

why one should continue. Indiscipline among children has mounted by leaps and bounds

and many teachers have demonstrated one mode of correcting indiscipline that is,

canning. The continued use of the cane despite dangers associated to it is a clear

manifestation of irrelevancy of teacher training to the field experiences. To manage and

live with learners in this rapidly changing pattern, colleges have to inculcate managerial

skills so that teachers are able to match with the current trends of indiscipline among

children. Only when this is effected teachers will find a big disjuncture between training

and the teaching roles hence become irrelevant to the needs of learners.

Commitment to the profession, as exhibited by many teachers is not as a result of relevant

training to cope up with emotions and stress but because a first choice career fails them.

Teachers may also commit themselves knowingly because the occupation permits

involvements in other activities. Primary Teachers Colleges have yet to embed within the

curriculum elements of training that promote love and commitment to the profession

among teachers. Commitment as a result of other part-time occupation allowed by the

professionals has caused laxity and inefficiency in planning and preparation hence

ineffective teaching. Improvement in the quality of learning and education in general

requires a kind of teacher training that imparts personal commitment and love for the Job.

Views of “what primary school teachers should know and be able to do” continue to be a

country-specific concern but is increasingly shaped by world trends. Progress towards

UPE enrolment has brought into the classroom a much more diverse student population,

with different backgrounds and aspirations, and for who the homogeneous, elite

education of yesterday has not worked. In a country like Uganda, an emerging industrial

economy coupled with globalization, increasing competitiveness, new information and

communication technologies and the explosion of knowledge have placed growing and

new demands on young people entering the labour market. The uncertainties and

insecurity created by family breakdown, the decline of traditional forms of authority, un

employment, migration and political conflicts in Africa have filtered down to the

classroom. These trends mean that teachers must have a stronger mastery of what they

teach, especially in mathematics, science and technology; that they must be able to model

56

the higher-order thinking process, ability to work in multi disciplinary teams, and

leadership and communication skills needed in a complex world sampled with

information.

At the school level, multiple challenges have risen. In Uganda, teachers are increasingly

held accountable for the student outcomes and not just for delivering the curriculum.

Schools are also expected to compensate a climate of tolerance and inclusion, and by

easing the school-to-work transition. This paradoxically, is evolving at a time when the

monopoly of the school as a locus of knowledge acquisition is being evaded by more

appealing ways of learning. The shortage of minimally competent teachers in Uganda is

a serious obstacle to ensuring that pupils understand what they are taught and are capable

of applying it in real life experiences. In between the trends towards greater local

autonomy and the need for more flexible solutions also has had wide implication in terms

of teacher competencies required, which can be attributed to the relevancy of teacher

training curriculum. Teachers are now expected to know how to attend to the different

learning needs of learners to promote a climate of mutual respect in a multi-sectoral

environment, and to create for their students exciting, age and context relevant learning

experiences.

Gutub (1991:89) discusses three important aspects that make a teacher more relevant

which must be undertaken by tutors. Research in terms of what teacher educators do, so

that they are able to think a new. This prompts them to keep in close contact with the

schools where their products go and being abreast with what transpires in the field so that

what they teach to the student teachers can be of more relevance. Indeed the school

situation changes so much that unless a tutor keeps in close contact with schools, what he

will be teaching every year will be gradually becoming irrelevant. Writing and making

publications by tutors prompts them to follow-up their materials. This enhances their

research skills and probe into new dimensions of teaching, knowledge and skills, hence

update the teachers in order to catch with the ever changing and challenging trends in

teaching. As a grass root implementers of teacher education curriculum, the tutors are in

a better position to relate the training to the field experiences of teachers.

57

5.6. Grades of Teachers in the Primary School System since 1945

Historically, teacher training in sub-Saharan Africa had a low priority. In the past, the

need for professional training of primary school teachers was not convincingly put

forward and the prevailing attitude was that any literate person could teach (Zymelman

and Distefano 1993:114). Missionaries, whose primary role was to convert Africans to

Christianity and civilize them, had to train teachers for their schools. Bright student in

the catechism sessions attracted the favour of the evangelists who trained and graduated

them as catechists or pupils teachers. Primary school teachers were often primary or

lower secondary graduates who received on the job training. According to Dore

(1986.72), many of the older experienced teachers today are products of the mission

schooling.

The Phelps Stock Commission of 1925 under the chairmanship of Dr. Thomas Jesse was

appointed to study Education in Africa. It observed that there was no viable training of

teachers despite the various institutions which had been set up by the missionaries

(Taylor 1958.71). It recommended the re-organisation of teachers which was announced

in 1925, recognizing 3 categories of teachers; two of who were financially supported by

government and one was supported by the missions. These included teachers in

intermediate schools (M.C.S), teachers in elementary schools (Normal Schools) and

teachers in the subgrade schools (CMS Educ.Report 1913-4).

In 1930, the Advisory Committee on education regarded teachers as followers.

i) Upper Middle teachers who obtained the Mission Church Certificate after 3 years

of training.

ii) Low middle school teachers who attended one additional year at the mission

trained teachers’centre at Nyanjeradde.

iii) The elementary school teachers, were categorized as follows:-

a) Grade A, who attended a 3 year training course in a missionary or government

normal school after completing P.IV.

58

b) Grade B who attended a one year course at a missionary Normal School with 3

years teaching experience and holder of the temporary certificate formerly granted

to elementary vernacular teachers.

c) Grade C, who included holders of Pupil –Teacher Certificate with two years

training (Tiberondwa 1975:237)

From 1940, all candidate admitted to the vernacular teacher training centres would have

to pass a primary leaving certificate examinations after 6 years. By 1945, the only

teachers qualified to teach forms 7, 8 and 9 years of formal schooling were Makerere

trained teachers. By 1952, 10 categories of teachers were serving in Uganda, five of

which were for elementary or primary section.

i) Grade A which went for training after primary four.

ii) Grade B who trained in Normal schools.

iii) Vernacular teachers who went for training after PIV.

iv) Grade C, who included Pupil/Teacher Certificate holders and trained in normal

schools.

v) Primary school teachers, who went for teacher training after Junior I (Nine years

of formal education). It should be noted that teachers who taught in institutions

were compartmentalized and each group of teachers was expected to teach up to a

certain level and not beyond. Each category of teachers carried a certain social

status and the compartmentalization introduced by western education created a

new type of class strata based on the acquisition of knowledge. This manifested

the initial divisions within the teaching ranks which have continued to haunt the

profession up to this day.

The categories of teachers in-service in 1962 were as follows: Grade I(Vernacular

Teachers) who were trained for 2 years after completion of primary six and Grade II

(primary teachers) who attended a 4 year teacher training course after primary six . The

independence constitution reaffirmed the above arrangements and vested the

administrative control of primary schools in local authorities. In 1972, two categories of

teachers existed; Grade II student teachers who were admitted to teacher training colleges

59

after P.7 for four years. There were a total of 21 teacher training colleges for grade II

teachers and 2 of these provided in-service training. Grade III student teachers were

admitted after completion of senior four and underwent a 2 year training course. As

noted from the above, the basic consideration for admission to a TTC was completion of

a certain grade but not academic performance.

In 1984, grade II teachers were phased out and opportunity was made for upgrading,

unfortunately many of them would not take it up either due to age or social responsibility.

This meant that only Grade III teachers remained in the Teaching service for primary

section up to 2005, however, there is need to compartmentalize primary education where

grade III should handle P.1-IV while another category recruited after S.IV of formal

education, should be trained to handle upper primary that is PV-VII.

5.7. Quality and Quantity of Tutors in Primary Teachers Colleges

The problem of staffing teacher training institutions has grown in urgency as the training

systems have expanded. Allied to the quantitative problem of supply is the need to

ensure that the trainers of prospective teachers have the qualifications, experience, skills

and competencies that are called into play in preparation of teachers for the schools in a

changing social and economic environment. A great awareness is beginning to emerge

that teacher educators have a key role in vitalizing the training programmes and that

therefore, the preparation of teacher education should receive prior attention (UNESCO,

1972:39).

Teacher training institutions have not in the past shown much activity in education and

research even of social accounting types. In Burma, for instance, one of the functions of

all teacher training institutions, as officially laid down in 1996, is to engage in research

work that would contribute to widening of the horizon of the knowledge of teachers,

improve teaching techniques and raise their intellectual and professional level (Seymour

et al 1962:26). In China every teacher is expected to conduct personal studies and is

given an additional remuneration for it. In India teacher training institutions are being

encouraged to take up research projects in practical problems and grants are made

60

available through the state institute of education (UNESCO, 1972:38). In Uganda

research is not given priority even at University level rendering institutions certification

entities rather than research-based which would otherwise contribute to the existing body

of knowledge.

The training of teachers is a crucial element in the designing and carrying out of any

reform in education or the development and use of innovative approaches. While the

teachers’ task is becoming more and more complex, the teacher education programmes

have not shown adequate awareness of the changing roles of teachers and schools in the

national setting. Teaching techniques and methods of assessment impacts on the end

product, that is, the teacher. It has been noted with great concern that the dominant

method employed in training teachers is lecturing. Tutorial methods are used in a limited

way because of the inadequate staffing position in teacher training colleges. The number

of students teachers enrolled is too big as compared to the existing number of tutors in the

colleges. Student teachers undertake child study in year one and when they return to

college they are expected to make reports on individual children and present them for

discussion with tutors. The method is quite sketchy and haphazard due to lack of

adequate time and manpower. Individual observation method has not been fully

exploited due to time constraint.

Tutors instruction is tailored more towards examination technique rather than

development of professional and teaching skills. Student teachers are subjected to

academic tests and end of year examinations with teaching practice assessed in the same

manner by awarding grades. The final, like promotional year one examinations are set by

Kyambogo University. The same body organizes the final teaching practice by

dispatching moderators in the last week to assess and award the final grade. One of the

outstanding observations and concern is that many students fail especially in the in-

service programme as compared to their counterparts in pre-service due to examination

pressure. Yeast (1963:47) contends that the teacher training process can be more

successfully when examinations are made almost nothing and the personality of the

teacher made almost everything. There is need to refocus on the attention given to

61

examinations in teacher training and give due attention to practical skills and professional

ethics.

In the Education Policy Review Commission Report (1989:99), it was observed that all

Primary Teachers Colleges were understaffed and majority of them had under qualified

tutors. Poor remuneration coupled with the monopoly of training of tutors by Kyambogo

University greatly has lead to understaffing of Primary Teachers Colleges. The rate of

attrition has also been very high due to the heavy workload especially in core primary

teacher colleges where tutors hardly find time to go home even during holidays. Grade

III teachers who upgrade as teacher educators from Kyambogo University wish to remain

in primary schools with hope of being promoted to deputy or headship. Science

education areas have consipiously lacked tutors leading to poorly trained teachers who

cannot deliver satisfactorily in the science subjects. The mitigation for this challenge has

been recruitment of secondary schools teachers and at worst those who have done science

subject without any teaching background to get involved in the training of teachers. This

scenario makes the training of teachers ineffective and a mere certification rather than

development of professional and pedagogical skills.

The traditional function of training institutions of higher learning is teaching, research

and community services (Saliet 1992:43). Primary Teacher Colleges provide both Pre

and In-service training for Grade III teachers thereby setting standards expected of them

therefore this requires staff with high qualification and competence. To this effect, PTCs

have the obligations to enable staff to update, strengthen or extend their base for

instruction, tutoring or providing service to the community (Etoori, 1989:17). The

quality and quantity of tutors exerts reprocicating effects on the quality of primary school

teachers produced. The table below shows existing gap in the requirement of manpower

in teacher training institutions in the North western Region.

62

Table 5.4: Summary of Primary Teachers College Staff Requirements in North –

Western Region

Colleges ADM

PRE C CTS

D DP FED ECE

MDD

R

E

MA

T

501 SST

PE AGR

A/C LAG

SPE

RE

SWA

LL

HEC

Arua 3 24 36 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1

Lodonga 3 24 DPO 2 1 2 1 1 1 1

Erepi 2 9 1 1 1 1 1 1

Paidha 2 9 1

Source: Statistical Report 2003

KEY

A/C - Art and Crafts MDD - Music Dance & Drama

ADM - Administrators P - Principal.

AGR - Agriculture PE - Physical EducationECE

CCT - Center Coordinating Tutors PRE - Pre-service

DP - Deputy Principal RE - Religious Education

RE - Religious Education RE - Religious Education

ECE - Early Childhood Education RES - Research

FED - Foundation of Education SCE - Science

HEC - Home Economics SST - Social studies

LAG - Language SPE - Special Needs Education

LL - Local Language SWA - Swahili

MAT - Mathematics

As deduced from the table above, all colleges operated with 50% or even less of the total

tutor requirement. There is also conspicuous absence of tutors in the major areas of

mathematics, science, language, Agriculture, local language special needs education &

PE. This is a true representative picture of all the colleges’ in other regions in as far as

staffing is concerned and the table below shows summary of PTC staff requirement.

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Note: The summary table above represents actual vacancies to be filled after

redeployment of the surplus/excess staff.

According to the table above, there was a deficit of 191 tutors countrywide with science,

mathematics, agriculture and special needs education department being hardly hit.

There are two modes of staff-development where tutors can upgrade their knowledge and

competencies, that is, formal and none formal modes. Non formal is the equivalent of in-

service programmes comprising of specific learning experiences with the use of semi-

structures, short term-based and specifically designed courses for capacity building

leading to improved performance. Schuster (1985:106) recognised the need for

continuous exposure to ideas and information through refresher courses so as to

overcome obsolescence in skills and knowledge. Concurring with him, Whitemore

(1985:71) also observed that in the life of every working person, there are times when

methods become outdated and knowledge falls behind technological progress. Therefore,

it follows that in order to realize quality, teachers must adopt the non formal mode in

order to match with the more challenging and demanding role of a teacher educator.

Important in supplementing the non formal mode is the apparent up-grading of the

professional qualification to match with the levels of operation. According to UNESCO

publication, 69% of the tutors in Primary Teachers Colleges held diplomas (Grade V) in

Teacher Education (UNESCO 1995:16). Grade V is a “stone thrown” away from Grade

III which really matches unfavourably with level of operation. Any student teacher will

not see a big difference between him/her and the tutor (Grade V) who will be providing

instruction. Grobler (1998:28) advances the view that to achieve organizational

effectiveness in college, the teaching staff should be knowledgeable committed and

informed on achievement. Quality of tutors accompanied by higher qualifications

increases stability and ensures retention of talented workers. A highly trained person

always achieves a sense of satisfaction and, the acquired skills, knowledge and attitudes,

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ensures employees’ productivity hence qualitative and quantitative work output. (Joyce

& Shavers, 1980: 37).

5.8. Teacher Development and Management Systems (TDMS)

Teacher Development and Management Systems is an integrated delivery system for

primary education reform services which was initiated to alleviate the challenge of

untrained teachers and improve on the management of primary schools. This programme

commenced in 1995 funded by United State Agency for international Development

(USAID) under Support Uganda Primary Education Reform (SUPER) Project. A total of

18 Core Primary Teacher Colleges were established in five major phases across the

whole country.

Table 5.6 Primary Teachers Colleges and their Rationalized Catchment AreasPhases Core PTCs Catchments areas/Districts Foundation Body

I Bushenyi Bushenyi Government

Gulu Gulu Government

II Bulera Hoima, Masindi Government

Kabulasoke Mpigi, Ssembabule and Kyenjojo Government

Nakaseke Nakasongola, Luweero Mukono and

Mpigi

Government

Loro Apac, Lira and Kibanda County of

Masindi

Government

III Moroto Moroto and Kotido Government

Mukuju Tororo, Busia Government

Ndegeya Masaka, Kalangala, Rakai and part of

Ssembabule

Government

Soroti Soroti, and Katakwi Government

Canon Apollo Rwenzori area made of Kabarole, Kasese

and Bundibugyo

Government

Kitgum Kitgum Government

Arua Arua, Moyo, Adjumani and Nebbi Government

Nyondo Districts Mbale and Kapchorwa Government

Iganga Bishop

Willis

Iganga, Bugiri, Jinja and Kamuli Government

Shimon Part of Kampala, Central Mukono and Government

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Kayunga

Bishop Stuart Parts of Mbarara and Ntungamo Government

Bukinda-Kabaale Kabale, Kisoro, Kanungu and Rukungiri Government

Kibuli Parts of Kampala, Wakiso Government

St. Aloysius

Ngora

Kumi, Pallisa Government

Busubizi Mubende, Kiboga Government

Ibanda Kamwenge Kazo county, Ibanda sub-

county

Government

Lodonga Part of Arua, Yumbe, Moyo and

Adjumani

Government

Source: Completion of the TDMS program expansion countrywide 1999

This new system was purportedly intended to drastically change the focus and the

functions of Primary Teachers Colleges “outreach” function while catering for the

traditional “pre-service” teachers education function at the same time. This called for the

alteration in the structure of the traditional primary teachers colleges into the new Core

PTC structure.

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Figure C: Core Primary Teachers’ College Structure

67

Principal

Outreach Programs Pre-Service Program

Deputy Principal

Head of PTE In-Service

Head of Refresher In-Service

Head of Management & Comm. Mobilization Training Programs

Coordinating Center (CC)

C.C. Tutors

OS Trainees OS Trainees Outreach School (OS) Trainees

Head of Subject

Pre-Service Staff

Pre-Service Students

Holiday Courses for In-service Training

Deputy Principal

The Core PTC has two programmes namely: In service headed by a deputy principal

outreach and the traditional pre-service offered on full time basis for two year, also

headed by a deputy principal.

Teacher Development and Management systems was initially meant to cover 10 districts

but eventually spread to cover all the country. This was realized through the various

funding sources which included: Government of Uganda, International Development

Agency (IDA), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Irish Aid

and the Royal Netherlands Government. By 1999, Teacher Development and

Management Systems’ activities had eventually covered the entire districts in Uganda as

illustrated in the diagram below.

Table 5.7: TDMS Development and Expansion

Fiscal Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

  I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV

                                         

Phase I                                        

   

Phase II  

                                         

Phase III                                        

                                         

Phase IV                                        

                                         

Phase V                                        

                                         

Source: World Bank Institute Report: 2003; Appendix A7

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The overall aim of TDMs was to improve teaching and learning in primary schools by

developing an integrated teacher education system involving pre and in-service training

approaches. In pursuing this goal, the designers strived to develop and streamline

teacher education curriculum, develop study materials, conduct training for teacher

educators, setup a teacher education frame work based on core-primary teachers colleges

and the associated coordinating centres and conducting of pre-service and in-service

training of primary school teachers.

Teacher Development and Management Systems ran its programme through central and

district management frame work which involved Ministry of Education and Sports

officials at the headquarters, principals, deputy principals and tutors of primary teachers

colleges, institute of teacher educational Kyambogo and the district education officials.

This approach enables TDMs make a great impact on the primary teacher education

programmes in a number of aspects. Different categories of education staff ranging from

principals, of PTCs, CCTs, pre-service teacher educators, deputy principals, head

teachers, Head of programmes and community volunteers

(Makan 2001:9, 10).

The inter-developmental approach which brought together Ministry and district officials,

primary teachers’ college staff and the community was a landmark in the history of

teacher education. Albeit it did not only create managerial challenges but marked a good

beginning of integration of staff and services. The revision and improvement in the

primary teacher education syllabus and production of related instructional modules has

been a good move in the positive direction. However, it should be noted that the

curriculum is still inappropriate as well as the instruction and guidance given to the

student teachers in primary teachers colleges (JICA 2004:205).

Teacher Development and Management Systems as a reform programme has been

instrumental in transforming the quality of education and the support related to the

provision of basic education in Uganda. Nevertheless, the programme faced a number of

challenges relating to the critical indicators of quality. These include: Pupil/Teacher

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ratio, pupil/text book ratio and pupil/classroom ratio. It is evident that the minimum

conditions for learning are still wanting. It has not yet been possible to attain the targeted

pupil/teacher ratio of 1.54, and the pupil/book ratio of 3.1. Perhaps it cannot be wholly

attributed to the TDMS since government has a lot of stake in the realization of these

targets.

Increased number of pupils in the primary school system has paused challenges ranging

from widened age ranges, large class sizes, wide range of learners abilities, talents and

needs, double-shift in densely populated urban areas and multi-grade teaching in

scattered populations. All these phenomena call for new approaches to teaching and

learning. There is need to develop a unified and sustainable Teacher Education System

by expanding capacity for the TDMs to run an integrated and unified teacher training

which combines both pre-service and in-service modes. All PTCs still need to be

integrated in the TDMs programme for quality results although it poses serious financial

implications on the part of the government.

Retention and revitalization of college extension and networking as a major component

of the mechanism for enhancement of quality education in schools is a big concern. This

calls for continuous technical support from the centre. There is still need to upraise the

role of voluntary community mobilisers in primary schools by providing incentives to

motivate them while executing their duties. In spite of all the achievements made,

completion of the teacher development and management plan to include secondary, pre-

primary, special needs and technical/vocational spheres remain untackled.

5.9 Continuous Professional Development (CPDs) for Primary School Teachers

The process of becoming a teacher begins formally when one enters the teacher training

college and continues throughout the career. One’s perception of the role and

responsibility of the teacher and the personal philosophy of teaching will greatly

influence professional priorities and commitments to continued progress and develop

foundations for continuous professional growth.

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Many students entering teacher education feel unsure of themselves. They have been

students for a long time, they are accustomed to taking directions from others and they

often wonder whether they have what it takes to be a good teacher. In order to become

successful teachers they have to work hard at changing their perception and attitudes

from those of students. It takes effort to change habitual ways of thinking and behaving

that may amount to a whole new way of being. Consequently, beginning teachers have

more than ever to learn about the operational skills of teaching. What looks simple to the

outside observer, the act of teaching effectively, is really a complex set of carefully

planned interrelated behaviours, which is developed by way of continuous learning and

exposure.

In their book “Becoming a Teacher” Holborn et al (1988:43), argued that two

commitments are required to initiate and sustain professional growth. First teachers must

think of themselves as learners in the classrooms. Student teachers must explore and

experience a sense of ownership over the teaching craft and confidence as developing

professionals. Second, teachers must determine their own directions and challenges for

professional development based on individual needs and interests. These virtues do not

only come from knowledge of teaching methods and teaching materials but also from

exposure to and experience with children. Most importantly, they come from a sense of

professionalism based on a well founded concept of teaching and commitment to the

teacher’s role.

Bruce and Bererly (1988:48) suggested that for one to be active professionally, he/she has

to be active personally. Thus the principal of professional development is based on self

motivation and prospects in ones career. The environment plays a very vital role in

influencing ones professional development and must therefore, be regarded as an

opportunity for satisfying growth. The synergistic environment is not only essential for

collective action but also generate a kind of colleagueship that will be productive for the

stages of growth of individuals in their careers. As one enters the professional career of

teaching, he/she must increasingly rely on one’s self to draw together all the information

gained from others, his/her own experiences and readings. One can put together the

71

different components of teacher education programme into a concept of what teaching

means. Ones’ career will involve a continuing process of revising one’s understanding as

he/she gains more knowledge and experience.

In Uganda, continuous professional support to all serving teachers and head teachers has

been implemented through workshops, seminars and short refresher courses. The

objective of this has been to update teachers on new educational innovations, the issue of

big classroom numbers to address the challenge of UPE, new approaches like multigrade

teaching, how to conduct continuous assessment of pupils, ensuring equity in the

classroom and how to shape the moral behaviour of pupils without using corporal

punishments and help head teachers to improve on school management. The centre

coordinating tutors (CCTs) have continuously visited schools to support individual

teachers and help them put into practice what they learn from the modules. By helping

teachers keep pace with current education demands of building capacity from time to

time, make teachers effective and ready to deliver.

Given the speed of societal change and knowledge accumulation, policy makers and

practitioners have to come to realize that there is no way even a good initial education

program can equip a teacher with all the knowledge, skills and values needed in a career

especially so, considering that teachers have different needs as their career advances,

from survival to instructional skills at basic, mature and expert levels. This has led to a

shift away from a fragmented vision of discrete” Pre and in-service training to one of

teacher development as a continuum along “3Is” namely teacher “initial education’’,

“induction’’ (structured support at entry into the profession) and ‘’in –service continuous

professional development”. This continuum is characterized by interaction between

theory, practice and research, interactions between inductees and experienced mentors,

feedback from in-service to initial education programmes.

While the teachers’ task is becoming more and more complex, the teacher education

programmes have not shown adequate awareness of the changing roles of teachers and

the schools in the national setting. Teacher education institutions have tended to isolate

72

themselves from the school for which they prepare teachers and the problems of teaching

under actual conditions as they are in schools are not reflected in the teacher education

programmes and their methods. Colleges consider the training of teachers as a lifelong

pursuit and to this end provide systematic programmes of in-service education and

articulate them with pre-service programmes. Teacher training institutions need to be

closely associated with schools in their area, providing them with professional skills in

service and promoting innovative activities on a continuing basis.

5.10 Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the Challenge of Inadequately

Trained Teachers

The pronouncement of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1997 presented an

ambitious and a rapid educational expansion at primary school level. This exerted an

immerse strain on the quality of education and the utilization of meager resources

available prompting the necessity to rethink policies and strategies. The primary school

enrolment escalated from 2.7 in 1996 to 5.2 million pupils in 1997. This exerted

desperate demands for teachers to manage the influx of children who had been enrolled.

According to the Human Resource Planning Unit (July 1990), the Ministry of Education

and Sports had more than one third (1/3) of the total civil service, representing 41.2%

(Gutub 1991:10).

An increase in the number of children in school invariably implies an increase in the

demand for teachers. To deal with this phenomenon and as part of the wider reform

under the primary education and teacher development project, deliberate efforts to

restructure primary education and to increase the number of teachers were made. As a

result between 1995 and 1999, 10,016 in-service teachers were trained or upgraded. In

addition, 3,023 student teachers in pre-service courses were commissioned (MOE &S;

1999.12). Although the total number of teachers rose to 14.560 in service, it could not

rightly march with massive enrolments in the primary schools. The table below shows the

teacher/pupil ratio from 1990-2001:

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Table 5.8 Pupil/Teacher Ratio in Government-Aided Primary SchoolsYear Total Pupils Total Teachers Pupil-teacher ratio

1990 2,276,590 81,590 28

1991 2,576,000 78,259 33

1992 2,403,745 86,821 28

1993 2,176,969 91,905 24

1994 2,305,258 84,043 27

1995 2,636,409 76,111 35

1996 3,068,625 81,564 38

1997 5,303,564 89,247 59

1998 5,276,209 99,237 53

1999 5,942,498 96,830 61

2000 5,351,099 82,148 65

2001 5,917,216 101,818 58

Source: ESA data from 1990-2001

However, it should be noted that in many schools the ratio rose to 110:1 and even beyond

from 1997 at the inception of UPE.

As Murname (1993:141) argues, that a central challenge in providing Universal Primary

Education is to recruit teachers willing to work, and working hard in rural areas. The

strategy that has hardly had any success is that of recruiting energetic young people from

rural areas and encouraging them to return as teachers after training. The exposure

obtained during training and the anticipated challenges of working in areas where they

grew up in most cases, prompts a change in mind. It is time that these new teacher

trainees share the language and culture of the area and they are likely to be accepted by

the residents. Indeed, the potential exists for them to assume position of leadership in

communities; however, the key problem is the quality of life in the rural areas.

In response to Kajubi’s report (1989), government noted with serious concern the adverse

effects of large numbers of untrained and poorly trained teachers at all levels particularly

primary education level, the quality and quantity of education in the country

(Government White Paper 1992). The report had indicated that in Uganda by 1988,

74

untrained teachers in primary schools accounted for 56% while in teacher training

colleges the percentage stood between 20-25 (EDRC:56). Obviously the failure to attract

teachers as attributed to the poor working conditions of service which have made the

profession increasingly unrespectable. Government can now pose about access which

accounts for 7.2 million children under UPE, nevertheless, without improving the terms

and conditions of service for teachers, the challenge of inadequate teacher will continue

to affect the quality of UPE.

The rate of attrition for primary school teachers has become increasingly higher than ever

before. Investigations into this have been limited to issues of remuneration and working

conditions, which has made the process of finding solutions a complicated one. Hanson

and Henderson (1975:40) while discussing the supply of teachers in Africa noted that

teachers opt for the profession due to lack of opportunities elsewhere. Most importantly,

they argued that teaching to, many Africans for a long time has been a means to an end

rather than an end in itself. Teaching exposes prospective teachers to many lucrative

opportunities in business, clerical work or politics. In his book “Politics and Class

Formation in Uganda” Mamdani (1974:249) gave a good example in Acholi district,

where all but two of its council members were teachers.

75

Table 5.9 Percentage of Untrained Teachers in Government Aided schools

Year No. of untrained

teachers

Total no. of teachers %age of untrained

teachers

1990 9,391 81,590 12

1991 8,682 78.259 11

1992 10.110 86.821 12

1993 31.833 91,905 35

1994 - 84,043 -

1995 20,883 76,111 27

1996 21,817 81,564 27

1997 27,673 89,249 30

1998 18,284 99,237 18

1999 - 96,830 -

2000 17,579 82,148 21

2001 18,043 101,818 18

Source: Esa data: 2002

As noted earlier on, Kamuli does not have a PTC because the only existing was phased

out in 1999 during the restructuring exercise. However the district under Iganga Core

PTC catcment area with 8 co-coordinating. Therefore, most trainees go to Iganga and

Kaliro PTC for training. It is important to note that the facilities especially are Kaliro

PTC are inadequate, the training man-power is small and teachers have a problem of

excess to the colleges. This affects the quality of training hence undermining the effective

implementation of UPE in the district.

5.11 Summary

This chapter dealt with the PTC curriculum, training facilities, modes of teacher training,

relevancy of teacher training to field experiences, various grades of teachers since 1945,

quality and quantity of tutors in PTCs, TDMS, CDPs, and the challenge of inadequate

teachers in the implementation of UPE.

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CHAPTER SIX

THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS

6.1. Introduction

The working environment for primary school teachers constitute the conditions and

circumstances under which they operate with reciprocating effects on the effectiveness of

their output. The social and economic status of an average Ugandan teacher until now is

very low. Taking into account, the terms and conditions of service, welfare and social

benefits, remuneration, and allowances and other fringe benefits, the teachers’ status

definitely is comparatively lower than expected. This chapter discusses terms of

conditions, remuneration, promotion, appointment, teachers’ organization,

accommodation, support supervision and monitoring. Although there have been claims of

remarkable improvement in the working conditions of primary school teachers, the status

of teachers has not come anywhere closer to other professionals like in the medical and

law fields.

6.2 Teachers Terms and Conditions of Service

The work of a teacher is exceptionally very crucial as it addresses the concerns of

socialization and transformation of a country’s citizenry into useful and productive

nationals. The nature of work and responsibility of the teacher, therefore, requires

adequate incentives and facilities for efficiency. Indeed for a conscientious teacher, the

work load is relatively greater than that of an average civil servant yet the terms and

conditions remain very poor and unattractive to the profession (Government White Paper

1992:152).

In many countries in Tropical Africa, teachers’ conditions in terms of management,

benefits and professional support are poor. Irregular and meagre pay, crowded and

dilapidated classrooms, lack of adequate instructional materials and pedagogical support

are part of the routine constraints faced by primary school teachers. These shortcomings

undermine teachers’ motivation and performance and inhibit the provision of quality

77

education. Worse still, rapidly growing populations and restricted budgets are leaving

scanty resources for the improvement of teachers’ conditions of service. In Uganda, the

popular claim by government is that it, has steadily been improving the conditions of

teachers since 1986(New Vision, December 12, 1986 vol. 3 No. 49). Of course, any

attempts to better conditions of teachers not commensurate with the current high cost of

leaving makes the whole idea a hoax.

According to Kagoire (2004:124), teachers’ salaries were reviewed in 1930, where grade

A and B teachers were awarded a starting salary of 25/= and 20/- respectively. Sub grade

school teachers were given a flat salary of 4/= per month. By comparison Junior clerks

(Same level of education without formal training) earned 20/= per month! Cooks and

house-boys in Kampala were paid 30/= per month. The Director of Education found that

totally ridiculous and unfair to teachers and recommended that trained teachers ought to

be paid a Salary Commensurate with the noble service they render. Indeed, a scrutiny of

the various salaries and terms of service prevailing at that time clearly showed that the

status of teachers was lower compared to other professionals.

Kajubi (1989:104) observed that although the terms and conditions of service for teachers

have been improved and brought in line with those of civil servants, the nature of their

work is more demanding than that of civil servants. A remarkable difference is visible in

the execution of duties where the work load of a teacher cannot be disposed of within the

stipulated office hours. The nature of teachers’ work demand prior preparation which

should be done before school time and marking of pupils work which normally takes

place out of the normal school hours. Unfortunately, government has been reluctant in

realizing the plight of teachers and working towards improvement of the working

conditions. The salary increment of 40% recommended by the Commission (1989), the

exemption of fees payment especially at secondary school level and payment of extra

allowances up to a maximum of 15% has grossly been ignored.

78

The Teacher Terms and Conditions of Service came into effect on 26th April 1962 as

education legislation for purposes of stipulating educational procedures, control and

maintain standards, promote academic excellence and to achieve the declared aims and

objectives in general. The terms and conditions cover aspects of teacher’s general

welfare, salary, leave and sickness, termination of appointments, misconduct, inefficiency

and penalties, as well as supplementary issues. Teachers’ conditions of service rules, like

any other educational legislation, are both an asset and a liability. As an asset, they play

a fundamental role in giving direction, order, cohesion and stability to the complex

educational enterprise. As a liability, they may hinder the initiatives or innovations at

certain levels of educational implementation and management. Right in the face of the

well printed terms and conditions, there is rapid inflation and tightening education

budgets causing serious erosion of teacher’s earnings and failing emoluments which

create a lot of anxiety among the teaching fraternity.

Coombs (1985:147) articulately elaborated on the issue of illogical teachers salary

structures. He presents education as a labour intensive enterprise which has to compete

for the ablest graduates with many other productive capital-intensive enterprises. He

contends that allowing teachers’ salaries to lag behind other salaries is self defeating

because it results into the loss of competent cadres and prompts recruitment of a poor

caliber of new ones. The salary structures are far below a minimum leaving wage and this

negatively affects teacher’s performance hence poor quality of education.

The Teaching Service Commission (TSC) was established in 1967 and given statutory

mandate by the public Service Act of 1969 to handle the conditions of service for

teachers. The mandate of the Teaching Service Commission Service was curtailed by the

reservation of powers of grading, salary and personal rights into the hands of Public

Service (Kagoire 2004:169)

Working conditions for teachers in Uganda are characterized by overcrowded

classrooms, lack of adequate instructional materials, teaching under shades, lack of

accommodation, lack of lunch, professional and social isolation in rural areas. The

79

teacher/Pupil ratio is very high and where the number of teachers can handle the total

enrolment, the classroom accommodation may not be available. According to the revised

staff –ceiling, Kamuli has a ratio of 1:71 (teacher/Pupil) (Circular 15/06).

However, the actual situation in some schools like Kamuli Township P/s is very

alarming. Primary one has a total of 400 children manned by 3 female teachers giving a

ratio of 1:133. The classrooms are not adequate and where they exist, they are

dilapidated presenting health threats to both the pupils and teachers.

The issue of midday meals has become an area of contention because it hinges on parents

contributions. This was eventually prohibited. Teachers have to teach on empty stomachs

since there is no provision for lunch even on the UPE funds. A hungry teacher teaching a

hungry child is a scene of double tragedy because by no means can a yawning person’s

service be perceived by a yawning recipient. Lack of accommodation at schools make

matters worse because teachers just like many children cannot walk back after lunch.

Isolation of primary schools in the remote areas makes it even complicated for a teacher

who can afford a meal at minimal cost to access it. In such circumstances, the life of an

average teacher becomes unbearable resulting into disgust and poor delivery of services.

Misconduct and inefficiency among teachers is the order of the day. A visit to any school

reveals irregular attendance by the head teacher and staff, lack of preparation in terms of

schemes of work and lesson planning, ineffective instruction process characterized by

lack of instructional materials, poor learning environments as well as lack of adequate

and updated records. As Sykes and Elmore (1989:92) argue, the tendency is to create

rules, structures and routines which increase control as education is improvised. Head

teachers’ efforts, as immediate supervisors, to implore teachers to work has created very

strenuous working relations characterized by insubordination and at worst hot exchange

of words. Punitive measures have not been felt due to bureaucracy including face to face

talk, warnings, submission to the education office and then eventual submission to the

District Service Commission.

80

Teachers have weekends and end of term holidays so they are not entitled to annual

leave. The other obvious explanation is the inadequacy of man-power which cannot

allow teachers to be away from duty in the name of annual leave. In cases of sickness or

maternity issues, teachers hardly access these prerogatives due to bureaucracy and the

fact that most primary schools are in remote areas. In the event of sickness or maternity

leave, the teacher must submit an application through his immediate supervisor, the

District Education Officer to the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) who eventually

sanctions the leave. This process can take a month or even more since the headteacher

may not find any reason to travel to the district headquarters immediately. Therefore

teachers end up making calls to their supervisors informing them of their inability to

attend duty. To those who have no mobile phones, they end up staying away without

permission and the classes remain unattended to.

Mitchell (1998:77) looks at unionism of teachers which has altered the day to day

working relationships between the staff and administrators. He asserts that it has changed

the conditions under which teachers work and has redefined school programmes and

services. As McNeil (1986:76) analyses, when the administrators tighten control over

teachers, the latter tend to become less engaged, less motivated and less committed. As a

matter of fact teachers adopt controls in ways that undermine educational processes in the

classroom. Therefore, in order to avoid the control ideology, reflected in legislation from

being misguided, school administrators should empower teachers and provide the

necessary materials and symbolic support teachers need in the execution of their duties.

6.3 Procedures for Appointment, Posting and Transfers of Primary School

Teachers

Where a vacancy is to be filled upon completion of a course of study or training designed

to qualify a candidate for appointment to the teaching service, the District Service

Commission (DSC) with approval of Public Service, may make such arrangements for

filling that vacancy as it considers appropriate. The identification of the vacancies begins

at the school level, where the head teacher writes to the District Education Officer (DEO)

informing him of the gaps that exist in the school staffing. The DEO writes to the Chief

81

Administrative Officer (CAO) as head of Public Service in the district who declares the

vacancies that exist and makes a submission to the Service Commission for consent and

subsequent advertisement.

After the interviews and the subsequent selection of successful candidates, the Secretary,

DSC sends an extract of the minute directing CAO to offer appointments. It is a

requirement on reception of the appointment that an acceptance letter is written by the

appointee upon which a basis for posting is derived. A teacher who has duly accepted the

appointment may not have the choice on where to be posted. As Jones (1969:56)

observes, most primary schools are located in villages and the new recruits have to

grapple with adapting to the new harsh village conditions.

Fixing of the district staff ceiling and the teacher/pupil ratio by Public Service in

conjunction with Ministry of Education and Sports render staffing more precarious.

Town schools get full to the excess whereas village schools fail to attract teachers. Out

of the 15 schools in the vicinity of Kamuli Town and the 30 along Jinja-Kamuli road, a

total of 81 teachers were in excess and the scenario is that these teachers appear on the

payrolls of rural and remote schools yet they desire to work within urban areas

(Education Report 2004). The main issue of contention in fixing teacher/pupil ratio for

districts is that Public Service does not take in the account the variation in enrolments and

the number of classes especially in the remote areas. In a circular by the Permanent

secretary, MOE & S to all CAOs and Town Clerks reflected the scaling of the National

staff-Ceiling from 132500 to 129,000 teachers (ADM/282/287/01). This was meant to

scale down the expenditure on teachers’ salaries but retrogressively affected the districts

like Kamuli which had a gap of 915 teachers (Education Budget Framework paper 2005).

According to the standing orders, a teacher is supposed to serve in any part of the district

and could be transferred from time to time as occasion demands. It is a good managerial

practice to transfer teachers for efficiency and effectiveness among other consideration,

however, the execution of the same has become a big challenge. Out of 2630 teachers in

Kamuli district, 1048 applied for transfers in 2003 citing difficulties in accommodation,

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transport and the need to come closer to their families. Having 1048 applications for

transfers would be a sign of a big problem especially in relation to the working

conditions. Responding to the request of such a number would be a very long process

and therefore create instability in schools in respect to staffing. On the contrary failure to

consider an application for transfer may result into inefficiency on the part of the teacher.

A newly appointed teacher is supposed to serve a mandatory period of two years on

probation. According to the Teachers Terms and Conditions of Service, the responsible

officer determines, three months to expiry of the period, whether the teacher should be

confirmed, or extension of the period or termination of the teachers service. Records in

the District Service Commission indicated that 156 were confirmed in 2001, 350 in 2005

(DSC minute extracts: 2001 and 2005) using the mass confirmation approach . This

means that the respective head teachers and area inspectors of schools only endorsed

application without assessment in terms of class supervision of the teachers. This is a

common practice in most of the districts which has led to confirmation of teachers who

do not measure to be expected professional and ethical standard. This argument is in

conformity with that of Nsereko (1997:53) when he observed that one of the most serious

education problems experienced in Uganda during the post independence period relates

to the unfavorable trends in the control of professional standards of teachers conduct.

6.4. The Teachers’ Code of Conduct

One of the most vital conditions for professionalization is the existence of a strong and

enforceable code of conduct. Professional ethics not only spell out what is right and

wrong, but also the why and how of the behavior of people in the profession. As Nanthro

asserts (1984:112), not all teachers know about and can interpret the Code; and also that

at all times can comply with it. The exposure to the code of conduct should emanate

right from the colleges of training and should be relayed to the teachers at the beginning

of the career and at regular intervals as may be deemed necessary by the managers of

education. Unfortunately, no serious attention is given to this aspect resulting into the

production of teachers who are ignorant of the code of conduct.

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Part I and subsection (1) of the Teachers Code of Conduct (1996:2) spells out the

membership to the teaching profession based on completion of a prescribed course of

training, certification and registration in accordance with the provisions of the Education

Act of 1970. On the contrary, subsection (ii) provides for entry into the profession to

persons who do not meet the requirements in subsection (I). This is a paradox that cannot

be found in other professions and reduces the teaching profession to almost a hobby. This

phenomenon has led to infiltration of the profession by “para-teachers” with the

assumption that anybody can teach. This situation was aggravated, in the recent past, by

using teaching as a “dumping ground” for those who were unable to embrace serious

intellectual engagements (Liberman 1956:6). It is therefore not surprising that there is a

general remarkable ethical and professional decadence as a result of infiltration of the

teaching fraternity by unprofessional.

The church, as a custodian of moral values and ethical standards gave birth and nurtured

the teaching profession and hence the norms and ethical values are denomination based.

As Munakukaama (1997:53) asserts, the most outstanding challenges in the post

independent period relates to unfavourable trends in the control of professional standards

of teachers’ Conduct. The trends were conspicuously marked by absence of adequate

relevant and legally binding code of ethics. The change from a denominationally

controlled system of education to secular or state control was not accompanied by the

relevant new mode of teacher control and alternative ethical framework. Despite the

legislation, of the Public Service (Teachers) Act of 1969 and the Education Act of 1970,

a viable and unifying Code of Conduct was hardly taken care of.

Part II subsection 2 of the Teachers Code of Conduct (1996:2) focuses on the

child/learner as the teachers’ chief responsibility, Indeed, Nsereko (1997) reaffirms that

the teachers code of conduct is to reconcile the learners and the teachers interests within

the confines of educational development. It should be noted, that in the face of a

professional Code of conduct, individuals should be allowed to exercise freedom,

autonomy and responsibility. The Uganda primary school teacher has limited freedom

and autonomy in deciding what, when and how to teach. This notwithstanding, the

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working environment of primary school teachers’ required material which makes the

execution of sections like part III subsection V,VI, VII very cumbersome.

Changes in the social and economic spheres of life have rendered some sections of the

code ambiguous For instance, Part V sub-sections (a) (1996:5). Issues of modesty and

decency in the dress code have become more relative and contentious. What is decent

and modesty dressing in urban centres may not be so in the rural and likewise. In

subsection (b) personal appearance and ensuring a neat and pleasant outlook while on

duty has become more relative especially with the infiltration of western culture. There

is therefore, need to be more elaborate and exhaustive in relaying the dress code and

appearance on duty. It is not surprising to see a female teachers going to class in trousers,

mini-skirt, high-heeled-noise-making shoes as well as brightly tinted or coloured hair.

For the male teachers some plait their hair or share off completely “shaurini”, put on free

shirts without touching-in, drink or smoke in public including schools compounds

themselves before children. Issues of human rights and freedoms have been highlighted

whenever such characters are criticized and it has become almost normal for a

professional teacher to dress and appear in any form he/she likes.

6.5 Welfare and Social Benefit in primary Schools

The common factor beliefs about welfare are that they are not easily changed; however,

public assistance cannot be separated from its societal context. There are social problems

for which there is learnt evidence that the welfare system is at fault. These include the

shrinkage in the number of jobs for unskilled labour, dissemination of information,

differentiation in pay and gender issues. Nonetheless, the welfare system must apply to

society as we find it not as we would wish it to be (Heffornan et al 1997:235).

Adam Smith, the founder of classical economies provided a short list for government

action on welfare which includes: Natural defense, the administration of justice in public

works such as roads and schools and In Uganda, government action is restricted to

provision of infrastructure with a major focus on the welfare of children and conspicuous

exclusion of the main factor, the teacher. The failure by government in the issues of

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teachers’ welfare and social benefit is blamed on weak economic base but not the basic

concept of equity or justice. There has been a deliberate erosion of teachers’ morale by

governments freezing even the least opportunity which could be provided by parents and

the community by banning any monetary contributions. In Kamuli, it is common to hear

parents complaining about teachers sharing part of the meals for their meals from the

maize brought for children.

Aaron (1973:17) raised very pertinent issues on welfare reforms, their effect on

incentives to work, save and care for members of ones family. In the primary school

sector, the depreciation in teacher effectiveness and the subsequent poor quality of

education is traceable to lack of welfare programmes. There has been significant

retrogression in the development of teachers’ families because there is hardly any

potential to educate and meet basic family requirements by teachers. This has led to the

creation of a band of disgratled teachers envying members with the same qualifications in

other professions earning comparably well with their welfare and social benefit

adequately attended to. Many teachers in Kamuli look resigned as they can not support

themselves and meager salaries. Teachers normally sit under trees or about their business

to make ends meet.

Hightower (2004:126) asserts that it is classic percolate-up economics recognizing that

money is like manure; it works best when spread around. Government, through the

Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) developed in 1996 has extended financial

assistance and to the business communities and peasants but the teacher has not been

taken care of. The assertion of Mulindwa (2006:71) that the adoption of the PEAP was

the beginning of a process intended to mainstream poverty concerns across actions of

government falls short of the realities on ground. Quality education mainly depends on

the quality of teachers but quality of teachers cannot be achieved unless there is an

efficient welfare system. The designers of the primary education reform programme

focused on policy issues and initiatives as the foundation for the reform effort

emphasizing issues to do with conducive learning environment, instructional materials,

community participation, effective management as well as well trained, effective and

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competent teachers. However, the reform does not address the welfare and social benefit

for teachers. As Nacino (1982:6) points out, the greatest single factor in the teaching

process is the teacher. No technique, no method, no device, no gadget can guarantee

success- only the teacher. Therefore, the teacher factor is very important and this calls a

conducive atmosphere based on an efficient welfare system.

The greatest device yet discovered is the highly motivated teacher. The only social

benefit for a teacher is derived from satisfaction of seeing former students succeed in life.

Teaching can be a very difficult profession to practice and can be extremely exhausting.

Lawrence Alice said that he was, but now no more a school teacher and when he dreamt

teaching again, he considered it the only bad thing that afflicts his steady existence.

Ideally, primary school teachers’ salary must be supplemented by housing, family and

hardship allowances. Teachers come late for duty due to lack of accommodation in

schools. The housing allowance proposed by the Education Policy Review Commission

(1989) has died a natural death and teachers continue to traverse long distances or leave

in very poor houses which are a demoralizing factor. Family allowances are a dream and

no attention has been given to teachers who operate in hard-to-reach areas. This scenario

has caused challenges in staffing where teachers have refused to take up appointment and

others have absconded duty due to lack of accommodation.

The image of the primary school teacher has proved to be that of being a sympathetic,

receptive socially self-assured. The low opinion that many people have of the teacher has

been perpetuated and it would be inaccurate to assume that the rise in the status of

teachers has kept pace with that of education itself. Clearly, they have made considerable

progress from those days when all that was expected of the schools and then teachers was

to provide children with a rudimentary knowledge of reading and writing. At that time,

little more than this basic knowledge could be commended of teachers who “qualified” in

the pupil/teacher system. It is believed as general truth that people whose job is

concerned with children will never have a very high status in society. This is partly

because of the quite mistaken idea that dealing with children is child’s play, but it is

partly because we care about our children too much, and perhaps particularly about their

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education. Many people are prepared to believe that in sending children to school, they

are handing them over to a professional, who knows what is best for the child. As long as

people are not prepared to believe this, the status of teachers will not improve. Probably,

the most outstanding indication that an occupational group enjoys is the professional

status is the degree of freedom which practitioners enjoy is carrying out their function.

Although teaches enjoy considerable freedom today, both as individuals and as a group, it

should by no means be assumed that this has always been the case, nor that it was easily

won.

6.6 Salary Scales and the Remuneration for Primary School Teachers

Remuneration of teachers dates back to 1900 when the European Missionaries realized

that the teachers in the sub grade schools and churches needed to look descent before

their followers. It was therefore decided that some remuneration in kind be attached to

execution of their duties. Clothes and exemption from manual labour at the chief’s

palace were some of the concessions extended to the teachers. However, hitherto the

early teachers were contented, with the prestigious relationships with the whites which

drew admiration from the indigenous flock. The other form of pay was the respect

earned in the community which assigned teachers a special status in community (Hatlers

1907; 105). Later on some form of pay was given to those who were sent to upcountry

churches. This background gives the impression that the teaching profession started as a

charity venture and perhaps this explains why it has failed to attract good pay and better

conditions of service over a long time now.

In his book, Uganda by Pen and Camera, Hattersly (1907, 108) describes instances of

chiefs who gave up their well paying jobs to become teachers and preachers. Lugumba

(19:106) narrates a story of a chief who drowned in Lake Victoria on his way from a

gospel mission. He also describes a brilliant young man who turned down an offer of a

clerical job that would pay him 24 dollar a year and preferred to work as a church –

school teacher where he never expected to any more than 19 dollars. The spirit content

and prestige that the missionaries sowed into the pioneer teacher continue to haunt the

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teaching fraternity to the effect that even in this 21st Century; teachers seem to be

contented with what they earn.

The first formf pay was started in 1925 following the reorganization in education in

which only 3 categories of teachers were recognized, 2 of which were paid by

government and one supported by missionary societies (Tiberondwa 1975:237).

However, the advisory Council on Native Education recognized teachers in the following

categories.

Table 6.1: Teachers Recognized in 1930 and their Related Pay

Duration of training Qualification Classes Taught Pay per month3 years Middle class certificate Upper Middle classes 95-24/=

1 year additional to 3yr above Low Middle Certificate Low Middle 40-90/=

3 yrs Grade A Elementary School 65-25/=

1 year in adm. Grade B Elementary Vernacular Not fixed

2yrs Grade C Pupil/teacher Not fixed

Source: Tiberondera 1975:237

In 1953, Mr. A.L. Bims, Chief Education Officer for the Langshire County Council was

appointed to chair a commission and his recommendation had a big impact on the bearing

of Uganda’s education system. Before 1953, a vernacular teacher earned 34.8 pounds per

year and a primary school teacher earned 60 pounds per year. However, their salaries

were increased to 48 and 80 pounds per year respectively. Thereafter, continued

improvement in the teachers’ remuneration was witnessed as indicate in the table below:-

Table 6.2: Increase in Starting Salaries for Africa Male Teachers

1953 1954 1956 1961 1962

Vernacular 45.6 66.6 77 114 144

Primary (G.I) 78 108 117 150 150

Source : Lidsbury Report:1954

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The Lawrence Commission of 1961 recommended Uganda teachers Salary scale as

indicated here below:

Figure D: Lawrence Commission of 1961, Uganda Teachers’ Salary Scale

Grade of teacher Old scale Recommendation

Vernacular 91-208/10 114-240

Primary GI 117/15-256/15 156- 300

Source : Ministry of Education, Kampala

Remuneration of teachers should not only include the take home pay but also fringe

benefits. Qualified individual may be attracted to teaching, even when the salaries are

relatively low because it provides them with access to national medical insurance and the

pensions schemes. The greater job security in teaching, compared to private sector

opportunities, is frequently traded off by individuals against lower wage scales. Working

conditions are another important aspect of the total remuneration. The short working

day, week, or year often associated with teaching frequently off sets low wages in

individual decision making (Farrell and Oliveira 1993:7). It should be noted that salary

scales typically mirror government policies towards public civil servants. If these are low

in relation to the private sector or other employment opportunities, the labour force will

tend to be of lower quality.

Since 1986, there has been constant improvement in teachers remuneration but

unfortunately this has not been commensurate to the rapidly changing economic spheres

greatly characterized by inflation. Up to 2005, teachers were still earning below

200,000/- yet the prices of commodities had escalated, let alone other social obligations

of teachers in educating their children. The table below shows the salary of primary

school teachers in fiscal 2005/2006.

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Table 6.3 : Salary Structure for Primary School Teachers (FINANCIAL YEAR 2005/2006MONTHLY ANNUAL

U6 Upper 231,571 2,778,851227,368 2,728,419223,252 2,679,025219,456 2,633,472215,255 2,583,064211,375 2,536,495

The entry point for Headteacher Gr. IV

207,570 2,490,840

U7 Upper 179,581 2,154,976175,607 2,107,281172,016 2,064,197168,512 2,022,139165,093 1,981,119161,756 1,941,074158,506 1,902,069155,330 1,863,965152,841 1,834,090

Entry Point for GR III Teachers 150,400 1,804,800

Teachers on trialTerms (fixed salary) U7 Lower 116,139 1,393,672

Non formal educationTrial teachers(fixed salary) U8 Lower 85,086 1,021,034

Source: An Extract from salary structure 2005/2006 ( $1 = 1,920/=)

In fiscal 2005/2006, the beginning salary for a grade III teacher was 150.400/= and the

teacher on trial earned 116.139.

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Table 6.4 Payment of Teachers (1950- 2000)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

91/= 114/= 36.000/= 68.000/= 72.432/= 112.654

The above table shows the payment of primary school teachers since 1950 to 2000.

Although 91/= in 1950 and 114/ in 1960 appears little, it gave teachers high purchasing

powers and they were able to cater for their essential needs and live a descent life. In

1970, the situation deteriorated when Amin took over power and the economy collapsed.

The 360/= had little value lowering the purchasing powers of primary teachers which

resulted into frustration and high rate of attrition.

The situation improved in 1986 when Museveni took over Government and revised

teachers’ salaries. There has been deliberate efforts to increase teachers’ pay, however

inflation has degenerated teachers’ purchasing power. This has led to agitation for

improved pay which marches with the trends in the economy. Up to 2005, despite the

increase of teachers pay to 150 400/=, their plight remained significant since the money

would not fetch much from the economy characterized by high inflation

On the other hand, the disaggregated salaries within the teaching fraternity cause

animosity and degeneration of morale especially among the classroom teachers. A

headteacher Grade I who is in U4 Upper earned 488,830 as a beginning pay, more than

two fold, beginner classroom teacher, despite the fact that he/she performs very heavy

tasks as compared to the administrator.

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Table 6.5 : Salary Structure for Primary School Teachers for Financial Year 2006/2007MONTHLY ANNUAL

U4 (Upper) 608,020 7,296,240604,265 7,251,183598,280 7,179,365586,550 7,038,605575,050 6,900,605563,770 6,765,240542,950 6,515,396535,305 6,423,655516,800 6,201,596491,910 5,902,920

Entry Point for Headteacher GR I 488,830 5,865,959U4 (Lower) 491,910 5,902,920

488,830 5,865,959479,245 5,750,940469,850 5,638,200454,850 5,458,200440,350 5,284,200424,080 5,088,960405,080 4,860,960385,740 4,628,880370,740 4,448,880

Entry Point for Headteacher GR II and Deputy H/Teacher GR I 355,740 4,268,880U5 Upper 345,950 4,151,401

339,165 4,069,977332,515 3,990,186325,995 3,911,935316,660 3,799,924310,450 3,725,404304,365 3,652,380298,395 3,580,741292,545 3,510,542286,810 3,441,719281,185 3,374,223275,675 3,308,097270,320 3,243,834265,015 3,180,182

Entry Point for GR III 259,820 3,117,837U6 Upper 256,571 3,078,851

252,368 3,028,419248,252 2,979,025244,456 2,933,472240,225 2,883,064236,375 2,836,495

Entry Point for Headteacher GR IV 232,570 2,790,840U7 Upper 229,181 2,750,176

225,207 2,702,481221,616 2,659,397218,112 2,617,339214,693 2,576,319211,356 2,536,274208,106 2,497,269204,930 2,459,165202,441 2,429,290

Education Assistant Grade II (Grade II Teacher) 200,000 2,400,000Entry Point for Teachers on Trial Terms (Fixed salary) U7 Lower 121,366 1,456,387Source: Ministry of Public Service

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There is need to close and harmonize the gap between a classroom and head teacher for

purposes efficiency, otherwise such a discrepancy would cause strain between

administrators and classroom teachers.

6.7 The Process of Up-grading and Promotion for Primary School Teachers

The basic requirement for teaching in a primary school is Grade III teachers’ certificate

obtained after a completion of a 2-year teachers’ course. The certificate is issued by

Kyambogo University which is responsible for all Grade III teachers training programme.

On appointment, a teacher is supposed to teach for two years on probation (Teaching

Service Regulation 1995). At the end of the two year probation and on recommendation

of the immediate supervision and inspector of schools, a teacher is supposed to be

admitted to the permanent and pensionable tenure by issuing a letter of confirmation.

In the past, it was after the two years of probation and the subsequent confirmation that a

teachers would be allowed to go for upgrading. This culture has changed because many

teachers may now go for upgrading immediately after the Grade III teacher training and

they are easily registered as Grade V teachers. In the past, if any teacher did not

complete probation and went for upgrading, the ministry would not register such a

teacher. This laxity in registration could perhaps explain why there are many upgraded

teachers who are devoid of competence and requisite skills for improved performance.

Initially, the idea of upgrading started when a certain grade was phased out, for instance,

when the Vernacular Teachers’ Certificate was phased out; the holder of such a

certificate went for upgrading to quality as Grade I teacher. Likewise, when the Grade II

teacher certificate was phased out in 1986, teachers went back for two years to attain

Grade III teachers’ certificate. In this context, the short courses for one week – 1 month

are outside the scope. However, it should be noted that wherein a teacher upgraded and

satisfied the requirement of set examinations, such a teacher would be appointed on

promotion. In effect this changed his salary scale and the take home package.

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Today the education system offers a number of upgrading opportunities and courses

including Diploma in Primary Education (DEP), Diploma in Teacher Education (DTE),

Diploma in Special Needs Education (DSNE). These courses were mainly offered by

National Teachers Colleges and Kyambogo University but now have been taken over by

almost all universities. All courses were full time, however owing to the shortage in

manpower, the ministry of Education and Sports directed that teachers should opt for in-

service training. In a circular (231/03) to all Chief Administrative officers, DEOs and

Heads of Institution, the permanent secretary directed that no study leave with pay should

be granted to teachers on upgrading courses. Teacher Development and Management

System Programme enhanced the policy by opening up National and Primary Teachers

Colleges for this undertaking.

The ultimate goal of upgrading, for the Ugandan primary school teacher, is not actually to

add value to profession training but equip him/her with the necessary qualification for

promotion. Kajubi (1989:107) noted that there were no promotional ladders in the

primary school section apart from those of deputy and head teacher. This limits the

member of promotion despite the huge members of primary school teachers who get the

opportunity to be promoted, the classes end up bring “robbed” of competent and diligent

teachers especially where promotion is done on merit. The Education Policy Review

Commission (1989) recommended the following ladders: teacher, senior teacher,

principal teacher, Deputy headteacher and head teacher. This would be an ideal prospect

in that it creates a number of promotional opportunities and those who go through would

still be useful in the classroom.

The paradox about upgrading in Uganda today is that teachers do it in order to qualify for

promotion but not basically to improve on their competencies. Actually teachers exhibit

better performance before upgrading than after because them they will be thinking in

terms of heading schools. To the dismay and frustration of many, there are very limited

chances of promotion and where they exist there is a lot of competition, let alone other

issues of corruption, tribalism and nepotism in the selection process. The minimal

opportunities for promotion in primary schools have adversely affected the education

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system in many ways. First, many teachers out of frustration have opted out of the

profession for business or join other lucrative opportunities elsewhere. Second, those

who remain constitute a disgruntled lot with hardly any morale to teach leading to poor

quality of education. Others have decided to take up side income activities like pet

businesses, cultivation and other ventures at the expense of their full time employment.

This has bred gross indiscipline and negligence of duty among teachers demonstrated in

late-coming, absenteeism, dodging of lessons and failure to prepare schemes and lesson

plan.

6.8 Teachers’ Organization and the Quest for Unionism:

For any viable profession, formation of a formidable organization or association is a

prerequisite for articulation and promotion of interests in a collective manner. Teaching

has been disputed as a profession because of lack of unanimity about professionalism.

Recognition by its members, government, the public and members of other professions

has hardly had any break through. Unlike other professional, setting standards and

principles, and the subsequent enforcement of the same has always hit a snag.

Consequently various teachers’ organizations have failed to promote and advocate for the

rights of their members contributing to poor working conditions and terms of service.

The formation of teachers’ associations dates back in 1942 when a group of teachers held

a meeting in Mbale to review their position. It was resolved that a communication be

made to the director of education requesting for a meeting where grievances could be

aired out. To their dismay the director just sent a representative who did not meet the

expectations of the teache rs. As way of perpetuating their cause, the forum of 19

teachers resolved to form an organization named the African School Teachers

Association (ASTA). In another development, Buganda and Kampala teachers formed

the Uganda African Teachers Association (UATA) in 1943 but due to lack of funds and

decampaign by the missionary, it died a natural death.

After the Second World War, the colonial government awarded war bonus to all civil

servants except teachers (Musoke 1969; 27). This did not auger well with the teaching

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fraternity and on 19th, March 1945, Mr. Kibebere led a group of teachers and presented a

memorandum to the director of education on teachers’ salaries and conditions of service.

The efforts of these teachers yielded results in that there were increments in salary

payments of 15% to married teachers and 10% to the unmarried. (Tiberondwa 1975;

459). This was a great impetus for teachers to continue in the fight for their rights with

intent to improving their terms and conditions of service. In 1959, the Uganda African

Teachers Association evolved into the Uganda Teachers’ Association extending its

tentacles beyond tribe and region. However, as Sekuma (1997:208) observes, it was not

easy task for UTA to be accepted by both the missionaries and the central government.

Deliberate efforts were made to weaken the Uganda Teachers Association because it was

viewed a “band” of disgruntled teachers. The missionaries responded by forming up

parallel associations under their control and campaigning against the Uganda Teachers’

Association.

Cracks started showing up within the teaching fraternity when splinter groups were

formed for instance, the Uganda Teachers Union (UTU). The union was more

comprehensive in composition because it opened doors do all including junior and

secondary school teachers. The element of unionism was prevalent within the ranks of

Uganda Teachers Union precipitating a spirit of violence in the articulation of teacher’s

interests. Many members saw this trend in the education system as unhealthy, saying it

was unprofessional for teachers to strike. Others reasoned that children of this nation

should not be made to lose because government had failed to redress their grievances.

Divergent views and approaches of the various associations made registration with

government, claim for reasonable remuneration and improvement of teacher’s conditions

of service impossible.

In-fighting and counter accusation between 1950s and 1960s ensued consequently

weakening the bargaining powers of the various associations. The Uganda Teachers

Union was more popular and accused Uganda Teachers Association of collaborating with

ministry officials. The Uganda Teachers’ Association tended to follow a professional

line while the Uganda Teachers Union adopted the spirit of unionism. By 1970, the

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Uganda Teachers Union had shrunk into oblivion leaving the Uganda Teachers

Association on centre stage. It grew in strength and by 1971 its membership was over

50% of the teaching fraternity. The Association employed a general secretary on fulltime

basis who started drawing salary from government. This development was a clear

manifestation that Uganda Teachers Association was collaborating with government a

more reason for adopting a mild approach.

Uganda Teachers Association’s (UTA) performance was to be judged against its

professed aims and objectives in relation to the tangible outputs in the entire teaching

fraternity. The claim of promoting individual rights of teachers, improving conditions of

service, educational standards, professional competence and promoting socio-economic

services (UTA:17) was a complete fiasco. The association in the first instance failed to

mobilize and unite teachers to achieve the optimum level of solidarity (Akankwasa

1977:60). Many teachers lacked knowledge about the association and its operations, and

the few who knew about it did not recognize its significance. The status of UTA and the

relationship it enjoyed with the Ministry of Education and Sports rendered it a target of

manipulation which was a hindrance to the success of teachers’ attempts to introduce any

radical move a union would ordinarily take to protect the rights and interests of teachers

(Okot 1993:61). The attitude of teachers towards the association depicted self centered

interests which prevailed over the collective good for all the teachers and hence regarded

it a spent force organization in senile decay.

Uganda National Teachers Union (UNATU) was registered in March 2003 after a merger

between Uganda Teachers Association (UTA) and the Uganda National Union of

Teachers (UNUT). This merger eventually put an end to the existence of multiple

teachers’ organizations and the relevancy thereof which undermined the unity, bargaining

powers and the collective articulation of teachers’ interests. UNATU was formed to

promote and protect the rights of teachers and obligations for improved working and

living condition. UNATU is taking a strategic lead in transforming the teaching

profession and the trade union movement. The union has engaged a high level human

resource consultancy in performance management and corporate governance a key step to

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streamline and build the institutional capacity. However, the greatest challenge is for the

union to heal the wounds caused by former teacher’s organization characterized by

disunity and inability to articulate teacher’s interests.

Its membership of 68,000 out 132,500 in the primary section alone (ADM/282/287/01-

MOE&S dated 5th July 2006), is a very small number. This is a clear indication that the

Union has not largely extended its tentacles to the grassroots. In Kamuli district, for

instance, less than 1/3 of the 27643 have clear and precise knowledge about the union.

Apparently, the division line within the teaching fraternity has started to emerge. Most of

the members are from secondary and primary schools leaving out the bulky of other

teachers’ from the various sections. Mobilization and sensitization is still very low to

guarantee the numerical strength required by a union of a national nature. Sentiments

have started to emerge with regard to the 3,000/= deductions of teachers’ salaries, an

indication that teachers have not yet wholly embraced the union. Teacher’s terms and

conditions of Service continue to degenerate with poor remuneration yet no decisive steps

being taken.

Burk (1971:23) contends that teachers should be able to settle their difficulties by use of

reason, based on a spirit of co-operation with their employers rather than by use of naked

force in strikes. This view is based on the premise that teachers must put their duty to the

child above everything else. To differ from such an argument if that entailed failing to

strike over a salary or anything that tantamount to that, this could lead to a teaching

profession staffed by less capable and less qualified members who might be attracted

by more remunerative posts elsewhere, would then the children suffer. It is amazing to

witness a person passing-on when doctors are on strike claiming for their rights and

teachers to hesitate participating in a strike because the children would loose! Any viable

teachers’ organization should adopt and also encourage members to be radical in their

approach if anything has to be realized. Mr. Ben Jackson was quoted saying that

although strikes may be regrettable there was need to think seriously about the example

that was set in America. The salaries the teachers were receiving were unendurable and

they vowed not to accept such a position by use of radical means (Barke 191:58),

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registering enormous success in the improvement of this general terms and conditions of

service.

Doctors and lawyers have formidable organizations through which they can control their

conditions and terms of service, the manner in which they do their work and the

acceptance of members into their profession. The greatest task for UNATU to revive

and enforce professional standards in terms of membership and registration in the Union.

Teaching cannot be fully professional unless it is recognized by its members, the Uganda

government, the general public and members of other professions. But as Popkewitz

(1987:91) rightly observed teachers themselves will not allow theirs to be a profession

because few of them join and they never want to be held accountable for what they do?,

which differ from a profession. One of the decisive steps by the current union will be

prohibiting untrained teachers from executing their duties because it is very unreasonable

to incorporate untrained personnel into any profession.

Professionalism in teaching must be supported and encouraged in every way possible

through setting common standards and general principals. It is important for the teachers

to note that in order to succeed in the articulation of their interests; it is inevitable that

unionism must be injected in order to always remind their employer about their plight.

This could be termed a necessary evil especially where peaceful negotiation fails to have

any headway

6.9 The Role of School Management Committees and Parents Teachers’

Associations

When formal education was introduced in Uganda by missionaries in 1898, parents

assumed the role of meeting costs of educating their children through the provision of

services and material contributions. This state of affairs continued until 1963 when the

Education Act which gave Government control over schools that had been ran by the

missionaries (Ssekamwa, 1991). With time, financial implications warranted formal

partnership to form Parents Teachers Association (P.T.A) especially in parents’ schools.

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The purpose of PTA was to raise money so as to boost teacher’s salaries and put up

infrastructure. When the parents’ schools felt financial burden, government persuaded

them to hand over those schools to the Ministry of Education for assistance in financing

and enhancing their status. These schools were taken up by the ministry with their

structures of PTA and many other schools adopted the system. In cases of financial

constraints as a result of reduced or delayed government expenditure, parents took the

obligation of filling the funding gap. This gesture made government and Ministry of

Education to recognize the significant contribution of Parents Teachers’ Association.

The Period from 1970-1989 was characterized by inadequate funding of schools by the

central government which left the only option of parents’ contribution. This increased

significance and roles of PTAs because it became increasingly difficult for schools to

thrive without the contribution of parents. The money was used to construct classrooms,

feeding of children and paying of allowances for teachers among other things.

Significantly the morale of teachers kept glaring especially in the event of delayed

salaries which could come even after three months.

Parents’ contributions under the auspices of PTA continued until 1997 when the National

Resistance Movement Government declared the commencement of UPE programme.

President Museveni officially announced the abolition of PTA dues in all the U.P.E

schools and increased the primary teachers’ salaries to 72.000/- (New Vision 21/0197

Vol.64). It was declared that the building charges would be substituted by providing

construction materials in terms of cement, nails and timber (UPE guidelines 1997:5).

Parents were asked to feed their children through packed lunch popularly known as

‘Entanda’ as well as providing medical care, books and pens. Uniforms were a non

government priority and children were encouraged to put on anything while going to

school. Well as this move was in the right direction of the policy, the abolition of PTA

funds has caused retrogressive repercussions on the morale of teachers and the children

well-being because many of them go on without midday meals.

Pronouncements against parent’s contribution especially towards feeding have continued

to be made by politicians to the detriment of the children’s academic performance.

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Threats including arrests and loss of jobs have been preferred against head teachers who

deliberately refuse to comply. Realization of the damages and repercussions of not

feeding children, local politicians have created contradiction with the policy and in

particular, the president’s pronouncements by mobilizing and sensitizing the masses to

contribute towards feeding of their children. While addressing a mammoth rally at

Kagulu sub-county in Kamuli District, the President reiterated his stand on the P.T.A levy

of dues, and of course, to the ignorant peasants applauses are made. Such

pronouncements are made but the danger is that no learning can take place when a child

is hungry.

Defiance against the UPE policy and political pronouncement has continued to mount

especially in civilized rural and urban and areas. Politicians, Civil Society Organizations

(CSO) and individuals of good will have stepped up campaigns against UPE. guidelines

on feeding. There is now a great discrepancy between schools which contribute funds

towards the feeding of children and teachers as well as pay allowances. Primary Leaving

Examination results of 2003 in Kamuli district reveal that out of 255 government schools

only 22 got first grades totaling to 312. A scrutiny of these schools reveals the following

characteristics: availability of full or min- boarding facilities, feeding of children,

payment of allowances to teachers. It is true that the majority of the poorly performing

schools are those where parents have neglected contribution towards the learning and

wellbeing of their children.

In many developing countries providing incentives for teacher, recruitment, retention and

performance has been until recently, the responsibility of central and regional

government. Growing fiscal constraints, however, have led many governments to

tolerate, if not encourage local involvement, This can have distinct advantages: first and

foremost, communities control resources that are not available to the central government

for instance, communities can provide housing and opportunities for out of school

employment. Secondly, shared responsibility generates a level of community

involvement that is otherwise difficult to attain. It also helps perceiving school services as

an integral part of the community. It is also important to note that the community is able

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to respond quickly and more directly to problems for instance teacher attendance, that

affects school quality (Kemmerer and Thiagarajan, 1993:147). If responsibility for school

is shared with communities, difficulties that take months to resolve can be dealt with

promptly.

The School Management Committee (SMC) is the supreme management body of a

primary school that executes roles on behalf of government (Ekatan, et al 1996:8).

SMCS came into effect under statutory instrument (law) No.228 of 1964 which was later

amended under statutory instrument No. 224 of 1969. Under statutory instrument No.

224(1969) section (4), a school management committee is comprised of four members

appointed by the Education committee of the area, one of whom shall be appointed

chairman, two parents’ representatives (those with children in the school), and three

commissioner’s representatives. The Head teacher automatically becomes the secretary of

the school management committee. After the elections of school management

committees, members are duly appointed by the District Education Officer. Among other

things the SMC is charged with responsibility of overseeing the running of the school,

approve budgets and expenditures, monitor activities of school/employees as well as the

learning of children.

As top management, the committee is supposed to ensure development of the school in

terms of infrastructure as well as quality education. In order to carry out the functions of

the School Management School Committee, members ought to have a minimum level of

education as well as exposure in terms of induction to their roles. However owing to the

fact that most schools (primary) are located in rural areas, it is hard to get people of

substance who can take on the roles effectively. Government and Ministry of Education

and Sports have not been keen in training or at least sensitizing SMC’s hence failure to

execute their roles

The UPE guidelines (1997) spell out the various stake holders and their respective roles

right from the national to grass root level. This means that each of the stake holders have

a role to play in order to ensure successful implementation of UPE. When asked about

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her role as Chairperson of a SMC, one respondent confidently said that it is to sanction

U.PE funds. Many of the School Management Committee members are not aware of any

other roles apart from sanctioning UPE funds. It is true that many long to be members of

SMC’s with the expectation that they will reap monitory benefits. Many quarrels and

disagreements which break out in primary schools between the head teacher and the

committee revolve around money issues and failure to share to the satisfaction of

members. It is common to find no evidence of SMC meetings because head teachers fear

to invite them since they ask for facilitation. Many head teachers have resorted to

working with only the chairperson and the treasurer to avoid unnecessary pressure from

the whole committee. School Management Committees have neglected their roles as

supervisors and administrators of primary schools but mainly focus on how much the

school earn in form of UPE capitations. This has caused poor management resulting into

irregular attendance by head teachers, teachers and pupils, ineffective teaching,

indiscipline among pupils hence poor performance. Little do SMC members know that

they own the schools and therefore should give them a sense of direction.

6.10 Support Supervision and Monitoring in Primary Schools

Support Supervision is a prerequisite technical intervention in improvement and

maintenance of standards hence quality education. At the school level, it is conducted by

the head teacher as head of institution, assisted by the deputy(ies) and heads of

departments. Senior teachers can also be involved especially in the mentoring of up

coming teachers in the profession. Monitoring is undertaken by individuals outside the

teaching brackets but very crucial in education implementation. These individuals

include politicians/policy makers, school Management Committee members, Parents

Teachers Association (PTA) members, local and opinion leaders. These two elements

play a very vital role in the evaluation of any educational programme since it embraces

the administrative, human resource management, the learners, infrastructure as well as

the activities that go on in an educational institution.

As a leader, a head teacher should take a lead role to improve teaching and learning at the

school by ensuring that support supervision takes place. Therefore, the head teacher

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should establish high expectations and standards for teaching and learning, monitor the

progress of pupils’ learning, maintain good teacher and pupil morale at school that is

helpful to the learning as well as establishing a school climate that supports progress

towards goals and expectations. A headteacher should also be positioned to demonstrate

to teachers’ good teaching and learning approaches and help them in a supportive or

corrective manner (MOE & S 2000:15). The administrative role of training and working

closely with the deputies is crucial in joining efforts to offer effective guidance in support

supervision.

Effective teaching and learning require adequate preparation, use of varied methods of

teaching, selection and the use of appropriate instructional materials. Support supervision

therefore involves teacher’s performance as well as pupil performance. It, therefore, goes

without saying that, teachers must be facilitated to conduct their roles so as to have

effective support supervision. A common tool should be designed and disseminated to

teachers so that they are aware of areas of concern. However the reality is different

because teachers are not equipped with the necessary materials due to financial

constraints yet they are supposed to prepare and be seen in action.

Support supervision as a strategy for advocating change in teaching (Hart 1990: 3) offer

assistance in teaching strategies, subject content, use of instructional materials and

refresher causes to improve standards through regular visits. This undertaking dates back

to 1904 when the missionaries got interests in overseeing baptism and confirmation

classes. The Philip Stokes Commission (1924) observed that the education system in

Uganda lacked adequate supervision. According to Sekamwa and Lugumba (1873: 17),

the weakness was due to absence of a department in charge of education and inspectors

of schools who were few and lacked requisite qualifications. A department of education

was set up under a director in 1925. The department drafted the 1927 education

ordinance which provided for school inspection with powers to close schools which do

not meet the required standards as well as taking disciplinary action against any teacher

for misconduct. The excessive powers given to inspectors planted seeds of negative

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attitude and hatred because it appears as if school inspection was basically for fault

finding.

The Castle Commission Report (1963) recommends that inspection of education institute

be a joint responsibility of both central and local government. In essence centre

(Department of Education) was to have specialists in school inspection that would in

addition to regular visits, give advice and guidance to local inspectorate staff. According

to Sekamwa and Lugumba, (1973;93) the Education Act of 1970 spelt out powers of and

responsibilities of inspectors of schools as follows:

(i) To enter at any time and inspect, without permission or notice, any education

institution.

(ii) To inspect and report to Chief Inspector of Schools with respect to the school any

aspects there of its premises.

(iii) To inspect and audit the account of the school and may temporarily remove any

books and records for inspection purpose.

However, the powers and responsibilities bestowed upon inspectors by the Education Act

0f 1970 did not provide any opportunity for support supervision to cater for professional

development and growth of a teacher. Indeed it was more of investigatory police

inspection geared at fault finding rather than appraisal of teachers’ performance.

The Education Policy Review Commission (1989) recommended the functions of

inspectorate to act as a setter and monitor of standards, controller of quality and provider

of guidance and supervision of all education institutes. The inspectorate would also

conduct research and evaluation in areas of teaching effectiveness and develop

appropriate tool of inspection and supervision (Government White Paper 1992:195).

This was a more viable approach to institute and support supervision which would

guarantee continuous professional development among teachers and also encourage

growth of learning institution. The major challenge with this subsidiary legislation is to

change negative attitudes which were planted by the 1927 education ordinance and

watered by the chief inspector of schools and his henchmen at the local level.

Under the Teacher Development and Management Systems (TDMS) which was

introduced in 1997 as part of the Primary Education Reform Programme, support

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supervision has been greatly enhanced. The programme set out 939 Coordinating

Centres (CC) countrywide which are manned by Centre Coordinating Tutors (CCTs).

These CCTs are in charge of 10-40 schools in their catchments areas which they visit

regularly. They provide a more teacher friendly service by way of guiding teachers in

classroom instruction, organization of Continuous Professional Development (CPDs)

workshops, let alone training in-service teachers. This innovation has supplemented the

efforts of District Education Staff, particularly the inspectorate division by regularly

visiting and giving support to teachers.

At the district level, the department is divided into 3 sections namely: administration,

inspectorate and sports. The District Education Officer (DEO) heads the directorate

assisted by a Senior Education Officer. The District inspector, a subordinate of the DEO

heads the inspectorate section and under him are county inspectors.

Figure E: An Organogram of Kamuli District Education Department:

Source: Education Report: 2004:6

District Education Officer (DEO)

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Senior Education Officer District Inspector of Schools

Education Officer County Inspectors Sports Officer

Stenographer Stenographer

Driver Driver

Office Attendant Office attendant

In agreement with the Education Policy Review Report (1989), Inspectors at the district

do not carry out their supervisory role as required. In the first instance, the district staff is

poorly facilitated with hardly any transport means, fuel and other relevant logistics. This

situation does not allow for regular school visits and in most cases, inspectors fail even to

visits schools near their offices. When asked, the District Education Officer Akoyo

Charles said they hardly visit schools due to irregularity in the disbursement of UPE

funds. Like the old fashioned inspectors, teachers express, negative attitudes about their

visits claiming they are harassed. Odaet (1983:10) contends that although inspectors are

supposed to be custodians of quality, they cause a great threat to the peace and freedom

of schools.

6.11 The Loan Scheme and its Effects on the Teachers’ Status

For quite a long time, teachers were well known for financial appropriation despite the

meagre salaries earned. Actually the women gender were preferred by men wishing to

marry because of their financial discipline and diligence in expenditure. However owing

to changes in the social and economic spheres of life, this position and general perception

of teachers has continuously taken a difference angle. The unrealistic terms and

conditions of service, unsatisfactory remuneration and poor motivation systems have

prompted the teachers to look for alternative means to supplement their income in order

to sustain their families (Mchazime and Seege 1998:16)

In 2000 Stanbic Bank initiated a new brand of Service by way of extending loan services

to teachers. The formular used for calculation of the amount to be loaned was a Month’s

salary X 12 ÷ 2 (Stanbic Regulation 2000:3). The teachers would receive between

400,000 to 1,600,000/= which may be payable between 1-2 years depending on the

amount received. The interest rate was at 24 percent per annum and in this respect, the

longer payment period, the more the interest. Many teachers hoped to better their

financial position and hurried to access the benefit of this bank service. However, this

facility would not elevate the financial positions of the teachers but instead made it worse

in the long run. Most of the teachers received loans to pay fees for their children,

complete or start construction of houses rather than hatching out small investment

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ventures. Definitely, the economic repercussion has been negative since the loans are not

invested in economic ventures yet it attracted interests.

The interest rate of 24% is at the extreme and an obvious exploitation of teachers. Efforts

by government and Bank of Uganda to reduce on the high interest rates have been futile

leaving no option for teachers but to continue to be exploited by the financial institutions.

Because of the nature of business, many banking institution entered business including

Uganda Finance Trust, FINCA, Micro Provident, Baypot to mention but a few. The

various opportunities available to teachers predisposed them to financial indiscipline and

exploitation especially by the Micro Finance Institutions. There were variations in

methods of accessing loans as well as the interest rates levied in a bid to compete

favourably and win more customers. Many micro-finance institution lured teachers into

transactions that ended into cheating than mere exploitation.

Many teachers have found themselves entangled in viscous circles poverty because of the

continued recycling of debt repayment. Stanbic and Uganda Finance Trust have adopted

a new policy of top up where a teacher is allowed to access tenure of loan facility before

completing the previous one. For instance, if a teacher applied for and was granted

2,000,000/= as loan, he/she would make-up to one million and the bank would extend yet

another loan of 2,000,000/= and deduct the outstanding debt of 1,000,000/= leaving the

teacher with one million. This means that the teacher will have borrowed 2 million but in

reality receives 1,000,000/= and the repayment period will be extended to two years.

This kind of scenario has a number of implication one; that a teacher will continue in

viscous circle of debts, two, that he/she will continue be exploited, three, the economic

status of this teacher will even diminish leaving him/her in a very hopeless financial

and economic status.

The continued exploitation and dependency on loan schemes has had both social and

economic implications. Socially the esteem and respect that teachers used to have in

society is long gone because of financial impropriety. A number of teachers have gone in

for multiple loans, that is, from more than one bank as well as to individual money

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lenders. In most cases, these teachers give away their ATM cards as security and

disclose the personal identification Numbers (PIN) so that when salary comes, the lender

may be able to recover the money. Giving away the ATM cards and the PIN tantamount

to a social vice because people will know how much you earn and your inability to meet

your financial obligation. Many teachers have learnt to sweet talk and even tell lies to

money lenders and in some instances cases have been lodged against them.

Economically, it has caused financial indiscipline in terms of expenditure and in some

instances cheating banks and individual money lenders. Some teachers have become so

elusive that after accessing a loan in one bank, he/she processes pay change report forms

with intent to evading recovery deductions from the initial bank. In 2005, a total of 65

teachers defaulted in receiving Stanbic loan payment which amounted to 50,046.716

(Stanbic Circular Letter to CAO St:Ad/11/2005).

To cab the increasing vice of defaulting, the district in conjunction with the banks

instituted some measure to ensure that the percentage of loan recovery is raised. One of

the measures was to scrutinize the filling of pay change report forms by the personnel

office to ensure that teachers with debts do not change the bank codes unless loan

clearance is ascertained. The process of application for loans was tightened to include

two guarantors with their photographs, attachment of appointment and confirmation

letters as well as endorsement by the headteacher, education officer, Chief Finance

officer and then Chief Administrative Officer. This elaborate and rigorous procedure

was instituted to guard against financial indiscipline among defaulting teachers. In case

of failure to clear the outstanding loan, the guarantors suffer the consequences because

the banks go ahead to deduct the money from their accounts until the loan is fully

recovered.

The loan scheme has retrogressively impacted on the performance of teaching in terms of

execution of professional duties. Many of them have entangled themselves in vicious

circles of debts that they can hardly meet their family obligations hence inability to carry

out school duties effectively. After acquiring multiple loans, it becomes very difficult for

any teacher to solve a simple problem which may be personal or family related, for

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instance, medical treatment of children, buying food, soap or paraffin. Faced with

personal or family financial challenges to sort out, any teacher cannot be in position to

prepare for and deliver lessons effectively. This contravenes the teachers’ code of

conduct (Part III, V, VI, X, XIV and XV) and this has caused sharp conflicts with head

teachers and antagonism with fellow teachers who are regular and diligent in the

execution of their duties.

In contravention to part IV subsection (a, b, c) of the teachers’ code of conduct, some

teachers have initiated side income generating projects resulting into irregular

attendance, absenteeism, french leaves, and dodging of lessons. As Ssekamwa and

Lugumba (64) argue, this is done in a bid for the teachers to struggle and better their

financial positions to mitigate on the social embarrassment suffered as a result of

inadequate salaries. Some run small shops within the vicinity of the school premises,

others use loans to purchase motorcycles which they use as “boda-bodas”, others deal in

charcoal, and others act as lumberjacks. Others have established gardens, poultry

farming or cattle rearing on a small school compounds. Today it is common to find

teachers attending to their gardens, poultry, cattle, shops or even transporting people

during class hours. In other words, they trade or transact private business or engage in

personal activities when they are expected to teach or supervise learning and other co-

curricular activities. This causes indignation among parents and community members

who watch professional teachers neglecting duty at the expense of the learning of their

children.

Teachers have become subjects of exploitation by banks, micro finance institution and

individual money lenders. The interests have continued to be high despite government

efforts and Bank of Uganda to reduce the rates. Individual money lenders in most cases

demand for 50% or even more within a period of one month or even a week! The fight

for economic emancipation has raged on in vain and teachers are becoming poorer and

poorer. This has had depreciating, effect on the execution of their duties resulting into

ineffective teaching hence poor quality of primary education.

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6.12 Housing and Accommodation for Primary School Teachers

One of the most repelant factors in the attraction of teachers to rural areas is the lack of

housing and accommodation and lack of access to social amenities. It goes without

question that most of the primary schools are located in the most remote areas in the

country. Posting a teacher to a village where there is no accommodation and where it

exists, it is inhabitable can be the most demotivating thing that can be done to a newly

appointed teacher. The policy makers need to come up with strategies which will induce

teachers to go to rural schools by way of providing concessions. This could be in terms

of allowances for hard to-reach areas, intensification of the staff housing programme and

payment of premium. The diagram below looks at policy problems and the suggested

solutions.

Figure F: Policy Problems and Suggested Strategies

Source : World Bank Senor 1993: 142.

Infrastructure in terms of transport and communication is an aspect of frustration to

teachers posted to rural areas. Some of the areas are inaccessible by vehicles and the

alternative means of Boda-bodas is very expensive for an ordinary teacher. In this era of

mobile telephone technology, one would really be completely cut off if it is an area

without network. This affects communication since many of the teachers have their

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Policy Problems Motivating Teachers

Finding skilled teachers for rural areas

Payment Merit Pay Premiums

Strategies

Policies for specific response

Small grants programs

Recruitment of teachers from the rural areas

families and relatives far away. Suggestion of posting husband and wife teams to rural

schools and encouraging them to settle has denied teacher’s children access to high

quality education.

Accessibility to social amenities like medical care, electricity, piped water, shopping

facilities and social centres is a dream that can never be realized. Even to an uneducated

man, living such a life can be disturbing let alone being a threat to personal health. In

comparison to other professions, where a health facility is put up in the rural area, staff

houses are provided as well as solar panels for lighting.

There are also concerns of social life in terms of marriage prospects especially for the

young, single male and female teachers. An opportunity of acquiring a suitable partner

dwindles with distance away from an urban area. It is therefore, not surprising that many

teachers are not married which predisposes them to indecent and immoral living. Cases

of defilement and rape are on the increase in primary schools a result of the environment

in which they operate. To make it worse, these atrocities are committed against the

children they teach giving way to high prevalence of sexually transmitted disease.

Many schools have been viewed as though they were meant to be penal settlements.

They are built in remote areas cut off from the main centres of the population and

comforts of civilized existence (Jonnes 1962). Far away from the main road, teachers

become so isolated that they have difficulties not only in receiving school supplies and

equipment but also monthly salaries. Purchase of food, access to clean water and

habitable shelters make the lives of primary school teachers very cumbersome. Many

reside in houses which neither protect them from rain nor termites, let alone sharing them

with reptiles and rodents. It is a very painful struggle not merely to practice one’s

profession under exceedingly difficult circumstances, but even to exist; done to this,

many have abandoned the profession because life in rural areas has been very hard.

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6.13.1 The Impact of Infrastructure and other Learning Facilities on Teachers’ Performance

Infrastructure in terms of classroom, accommodation, teachers’ housing, office and staff

room space, library facilities compare unfavourably with those for other professionals.

Classrooms are not adequate, forcing some teachers to operate under shades and where

they exist the buildings are dilapidated and some have leaking roofs. In some cases the

classes are over crowded with hardly any space for mobility to supervise children’s’

work. Shutters are lacking and this predisposal the teachers’ learning material at risks of

being destroyed. For this reason, the classrooms learning environment in many schools is

not conducive for learning at all.

There is a problem of poor and isolated building which compare very unfavourably with

the much more modern buildings or at worst much more stolid surrounding of other

professional members of the community. This is a stress factor, and many teachers are

forced to seek for employment in other fields offering greater prestige, better salaries and

other good working conditions (Namawa 19:16). The public image of the teaching

profession depends not only on the caliber of the teachers and the size of their package

but also on the nature of environment in which they practice their profession.

Dilapidated buildings, tree shades, broken furniture, leaking roofs all form the routine,

working environment of most primary school teachers.

Teachers, both as a group and individuals are judged by the same criteria as other

members of the community. It is true that their status is determined by material

professions and other factors which include: salaries, houses they live in, clothes they

wear and indeed their general style of life. The material conditions under which they

work are so cumbersome that not only the rate of attrition is high but many prospective

teachers are turned away to other lucrative fields.

The idea of “Teachers Resource Centres” which was pioneered by Britain in 1960s is

very important in meeting the developmental needs of teachers, as identified by

themselves, and to function between individual schools and local community as a form of

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support network for teachers (Nduhukira, 1992.100). By independence (1962), the

British government had established Teachers’ Resource Centres (TRCs) which were

connected to the nearest teachers colleges for guidance and provision of tutors to

facilitate workshops. According to Quist and Omari (1996:78), these useful centres were

closed because the military regime of 1970’s was suspicious of clandestine meetings

being held there. Teachers Resource Centres’ closure meant compromised quality of

teaching because teachers had nowhere to turn to given the fact that their training was

inadequate. Although they have been revived by TDMS through construction of co-

ordinating centres, they lack the necessary equipment and teachers rarely go there.

The World Bank (1990:61) notes that instructional materials are critical ingredients in

learning because they provide information, offer learners opportunity to use what they

have learnt and help teachers assess pupils learning Lockheed and Gespoor (1991) assert

that textbooks are the single most important instructional materials for provision of basic

education. In a related research work conducted by Jamison (1982), he compared the

availability of reading materials and textbooks to educational quality and academic

achievement in Nieragna. In Uganda, government has undertaken the responsibility to

provide instructional material through various programme like SUPER, TDMS and

Decentralized Instructional Materials procurement under the planning unit. This has

greatly reduced pupil/book ratio from 10.1 to 3.1 between 1997 and 2005 respectively

(Education Census Report 2030. In addition, the Ministry of Education and Sports has

encouraged teachers (Circular No. 2/15 January 10th) to place these books in the hands of

children. However the ratio should be reduced, preferably 1.1 in order to allow for access

to books by all the children.

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Table 6.6: Pupil-textbook Ratios in Government-Aided Primary Schools

Year Total Pupils Absolute number of textbooks Ratio

1995 2,636,409 991,270 874,190 896,060 2.7 3.0 2.9

1996 3,068,625 654,280 567,082 336,857 4.7 5.4 9.1

1997 5,303,564 1,407,757 1,187,493 756,762 3.8 4.5 7.0

1998 5,276,209 1,696,205 1,367,628 1,375,532 3.1 3.9 3.8

1999 5,942,498

2000 5,351,099 2,019,476 1,661,493 1,715,677 2.6 3.2 3.1

2001 5,917,216 2,267,152 1,911,221 1,925,203 2.6 3.1 3.1

Source: ESA between 1990 and 2001

Furniture is very important in the provision of quality education. In a survey conducted

in Botswana by Mwanwenda (1989) it revealed that pupils performed better with

adequate desks and chairs. Farrant (1980.37) concurs on the same issue by emphasizing

that furniture which is suitable and comfortable has correlating effects on pupils’

performance. As a component of school facilities Grand (SFG) government has provided

furniture to primary schools and by 2005, desk/pupil ratio had improved to 1.7.

However, this is still too high and the situation in schools is appalling especially in infant

classes were 40% of pupils, for example in Kamuli, sit on the Floor (Education Report

2005). Children cannot learn to write well when they are sitting on the floor. This has

led to many failures in PLE especially in the rural areas.

Kajubi (1989) recommended the classroom ratio of 1:40 pupils and the Government

White Paper (1992) opted to implement that of 1.50. Despite this option, the quantitative

explosion of pupil enrolment overwhelmed the arrangement giving 1.110 for infant

classes and 1.55 for upper primary (Mushega 1997). The situation on the ground is quite

different and it is common to find 200 children occupying a classroom. Teachers can

hardly more around to guide children let alone many classrooms that are under tree

shades. This challenge hits rural areas most and government should increase on SFG

funding to redeem poor performance arising out lack of classrooms.

116

6.14 The Teacher and the Community.

A teacher is expected to project a good image in the Community and set a good example

to the pupils and the public at large (Teachers’ Code of Conduct 1997). In this way, the

teacher, prior to independence earned immense respect and honour owing to the

orientations of church values. Those selected to teach were of very sound mind and of

high integrity and in some instances, the teacher had an additional role of conducting

church services. Knowledge and affluence had positive influence on the status of African

teachers during the early years of education. When knowledge is accompanied by

personal moderation, out spoken ness and some kind of affluence above the majority of

the people around you, it excites confidence and trust and usually turns you into a

community lead ( Sekamwa and Lugumba 19:56). The teacher was compatible with the

community as he was viewed as a model and a light to the world.

The respect, trust and confidence in the teacher continued up to the time of independence

owing to involvement in politics. The church which started and owned schools became

fertile grounds for political activities which became a motivating factor for the teachers to

join the platform. The work of teachers became very difficult and antagonistic simply

because their actions were interpreted more in political rather than professional terms.

The formerly respected teachers competed with peasants and half-baked politicians who

rose to the same levels and in some instances out-competing them (Tiberondwa

1975:368). Teachers were confronted openly in public places and usually lost their

argument in parliament, something that had never happened before.

The political area provided a lucrative avenue for greener pastures causing brain drain

from the teaching profession. Primary school teachers who had not joined the ranks of

district local council paved their way to leadership in the local branches of their

respective political affiliations. Their knowledge of English language and exposure to

public speeches earned them jobs of interpreters of their political party philosophies.

Generally, teachers got deeply entangled in politics which greatly compromised their

neutral and respected status in the community. To make matters worse, teachers who

joined political parties which were not supported by their denominations suffered

117

rejection. Teachers were discredited in society and their status was tinted because of

embracing politics. By 1963, it was clear that teaching was linked to divisive elements of

religion, politics and tribalism.

The economics of numbers is a powerful tool because of the influence which it exerts

especially in the community. Higginson (1996.36) regarded teachers as the single largest

unit of profession in the world. By way of numbers coupled with the level of education,

teachers can influence and direct change in terms of development in the community.

Participation in leadership roles and membership in the various community organizations

instills confidence among members and paves way for clearheaded developmental

programmes. Teachers have been known for their leadership and developmental roles in

the communities wherever they live.

The community can be a very strong tool in providing incentives for the teacher to

facilitate his work. Uganda does not have well–articulated central and local incentive

system. Government incentives tend to be restricted to recruitment or retention rather

than performance. While little research has been done on local incentives, an anecdotal

evidence suggests that provision of such incentives is sporadic. Communities often lack

the formal authority on the information to select incentives that reinforce those of

government. There is need to change the culture in the community which assumes that

the rural people are poor and that government has to direct them even on issues of

feeding their own children at school.

The teacher training curriculum must be assessed in light of its usefulness and

effectiveness in feeding and promoting thought. Thought that enlarges the world of a

teacher, equips him for his work and his place in the community. This enhances the

value of a teacher as a person. It is important to note that teachers make impact more by

what they are than what they do. A teacher needs ability to invent and treat knowledge

imaginatively. A.L. Binns, the Chief Education Officer for Lancashire said, every

where, a teacher is teaching and people learn from him whenever he is teaching even if

118

he does not mean to teach at all. This statement depicts importance of a teacher in the

community and how he is viewed as a model.

Teacher training colleges have not yet been oriented to the development needs of

communities recorganising the interrelationships between the school, home and society

as an integral recipe in formal and other forms of education. Colleges should train

teachers in informing behaviour that will not only transform them is potentially good

teachers but also inculcate into them a spirit of nationalism as change agents of society.

This will automatically propel teachers to instill a sense of responsibility into the young

generation that will translate into virtues of acceptable citizenship. Charity begins at

home but without influence of formal education, the impact can never be felt. This

exemplifies the relationship between home and school and how the two elements form a

basis for a progressive society.

Bologur etal (1981:149) contends that the school is a planned social institution which

acts as an instrument of society for teaching the young. In this institution, the interests of

both the adults and the children within the school should converge with those of parents

and citizens outside, although this does not always happen. Unavoidably, the public

holds certain convictions about schools and when the word “school’’ is pronounced it

conjures up a particular mental image of the school. These convictions, opinions and

images are the product of public relations whether planned or otherwise. Education is an

activity which involves the cooperation of teachers, parents, children and the community

as a whole. The parents in particular and community are interested in educating their

children and sometimes, want to know who is doing the teaching and what is being

taught. When uncertainties arise about the progress of children, the parents’ anxiety and

that of community is usually expressed freely at all costs. The basic characteristics of the

relation ship between the school and community must be flexibility. The school should

be willing to take on and drop functions and services in light of the changing needs and

developments within the community and must resist becoming a static institution.

119

The effective teacher is someone who actively participates in community activities and is

perceived as the source of inspiration and feedback. Teachers can be a crucial human

resource in the community in as far as prevention of crimes, improvement and use of

modern farming methods, implementation of government policies are concerned. Battern

(1957:61) shared that same view with Kajubi (1989) when he reiterated that teachers are

useful in stimulating, helping and teaching people to adopt new methods and learn new

skills that develop communities. However, the teachers’ status in community and

personal conduct will greatly determine their usefulness.

In Kamuli the relationship between the teachers and the community is characterized by

lack of respect to one another, insults to throw children and communication gap. This is

as a result of both parties failing to realize their expectations from one another. Parents

expect their children to do well especially at P.7 yet they hardly provide their children

with the requisite necessities as they are expected by the teachers. The scenario is that

parents insult teachers for failure of their children well as the teachers blame the parents

for failure by the parents to meet the basic learning requirements for their children.

6.4 Summary

This chapter looked at the teachers conditions of service, code of conduct, appointment,

transfers, and posting, welfare and social benefit, remuneration, upgrading and

promotion. Others include; teachers’ organization and the quest for unionism, SMCs,

support supervision, the loan scheme, housing as well as infrastructure. In conclusion the

primary school teachers’ working environment is characterized by low pay, lack of basic

facilities, and poor organization. Teachers’ relationship with the community is detoriating

as one group continues to blame the other for intrigue and sabotage. This has negative

and disastrous effects on up-country districts like where teachers hardly get any

opportunity to supplement on their meager remunerations.

120

CHAPTER SEVEN

PRESENTATION, DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

7.1 Introduction

The study was conducted in Kamuli district. The subjects included: twenty Primary

schools selected from the counties of Buzaaya, Budiope and Bugabula. Sixteen teacher

trainees, twelve head teachers and eight centre co-ordinating tutors, giving a total of sixty

respondents. Out of 60 questionnaires administered 58 were retrieved giving a 96.7%

recovery. This chapter discusses the various data on recruitment, training and the

working environment of primary school teachers in Kamuli district.

After collection of data, editing was carried out in order to ensure accuracy, consistency,

uniformity and comprehensiveness. This enabled the researcher to eliminate errors as

well as filling blank spaces. All questions were checked to ascertain whether relevant

answers were given. Data was processed using SPSS computer programme forming a

basis for the subsequent analysis and discussion.

7.1.1 Recruitment of Teacher Trainees

Focus was made on the age of primary school teachers, location of the primary schools,

academic performance of both serving and teacher trainees, teacher trainees perception of

the teaching profession, parents education and income levels, reasons for choosing

teaching as well as reasons for liking teaching.

Table 7.1: Age of Teachers

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid 25-30 yrs

31-35 yrs

36-40 yrs

13

6

1

65.0

30.0

5.0

65.0

30.0

5.0

65.0

95.0

100.0

Total 20 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

121

Out of twenty practicing teachers 13 were between 25-30 years, 6 were between 31-35

years and one was between 36-40 years, giving 65%, 30% and 5% respectively. This is a

clear indication that many teachers are young and able bodied and capable of doing the

job of teaching very effectively. However, due to the prevailing circumstances,

government is not able to exploit their potentials basically due to poor policies in place

and other personal challenges. For instance 85% of the teachers are married with

children between 2-5 years. If teachers have many children to educate and look after

under very strenuous working conditions, their output is always placed at very low levels.

Table 7.2: Location of Primary Schools Sampled in Kamuli.Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Rural

Urban

16

4

80.0

20.0

80.0

20.0

80.0

100.0

Total 20 100.00 100.00

Source: Primary Data

Out of twenty primary school teachers sampled, sixteen of them teach in rural schools

(80%) and only four (20%) teach in semi-urban or urban schools. Most of the primary

schools are located in rural areas with basically no access to clean water, electricity and

reasonable medical care. According to the teachers ‘Terms and Conditions of Service,

posting or transfers can be made to any part of the district at any time and without much

flexibility. Primary schools would be ideal places for working since they are located in

villages where low income could be supplemented with substance agriculture but the

nature of the job leaves very little time, if anything at all, to attend to other side

occupations.

7.1.2 Academic Performance

Fifteen out of 20 teachers passed in division II at ordinary level giving 75% whereas five

passed in division III giving 25% of total number of respondents and none passed in

division I.

122

Table 7.3 Performance of Teachers at O’ Level (S.IV)

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

DI 00 00.0 00.0 00.0

Valid DII

DIV

15

5

75.0

25.0

75.0

25.0

75.0

100.0

Total 20 100.0 100.0 100.0Source: Primary data

Likewise twelve out of 16 teacher trainees at Kaliro P.T.C. passed in Division II, three in

division III and one in division I.

Table 7.4 Performance of Student Teachers at O’ Level (S.IV)

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid DI

DII

DIII

1

12

3

6.3

75.0

18.8

6.3

75.0

18.8

6.3

81.3

100.0

Total 16 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

One out of sixteen teacher trainees and none out of 20 practicing passed in division I.

This indicates that very bright and good performing students do not normally opt for the

Grade III teaching course.

7.1.3 Teacher-Trainees perception of the Teaching Profession

According to the research findings, if one’s perception of a profession is positive, he/she

would always give it first choice trial and the reverse is true. Thirteen respondents

indicated that they had teaching as their third choice, two indicated that they had teaching

as their second choice and only one indicated teaching as a first choice. Generally, it is

deduced that 81.3% of the total students in Primary Teachers Colleges went there because

their first and second choices had failed. This partly explains why teacher training is

ineffective and also the reason for having half-baked and incompetent teachers in our

123

primary schools. The table below shows how the sixteen Teacher Trainees made their

choices in order of preference.

Table 7.5 The Position of Teaching in the Choices Made by Student Teachers

Choices Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid First choice

Second choice

Third choice

1

2

13

81.3

12.5

6.3

81.3

12.5

6.3

81.3

93.8

100.0

Total 16 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

7.1.4 Parents’ Education and Income levels

The results reveal that parents of teacher trainees mostly lie in the peasantry strata of

livelihood. Nine out of sixteen teacher-trainees had their parents practicing peasantry,

four had their parents practicing petty trade and three had their parents working in the

civil service. Given such a background, such parents could not afford to take their

children to the “first-world” schools which greatly determined their academic

performance and hence influenced the type of career to opt for.

Table 7.6 Parents Occupation in Kamuli DistrictFrequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Civil servant

Petty trader

Peasant

34

45

97

25.0

31.3

43.8

25.0

31.3

43.8

25.0

56.3

100.0

Total 16 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

On the other hand, the level of education of most of parents of teacher trainees is below

senior four. Since many of them are living in villages and their incomes are low, they

could not take their children to good schools where they would perform well and perhaps

124

join other professions. The table below shows the level of education of teacher trainees’

parents.

Table 7.7 Trainees Parents Level of Education

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid P.1-P.4

P.5-P7

S1-S4

S5-S6

None

1

5

6

2

2

6.3

31.3

37.5

12.5

12.5

6.3

31.3

37.5

12.5

12.5

6.3

37.5

75.0

87.5

100.0

Total 16 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

7.1.5 Reasons for Choosing Teaching

Student teachers gave varying reasons for their choice of the teaching profession. 16.4%

chose teaching because they wanted to use it as a spring board to further their education

and join better professions. Other reasons included: easy entry 16.4%, lack of funds –

4.9%, respectable job 11.5% etc. This clearly indicates that most teachers joined the

profession for reasons other than an exalted love for teaching.

Table 7.8 Reasons for Choosing TeachingCategory Label Code Count Pct of

Responses

Pct of Cases

Interested in teaching

Interested in a learning environment

Lack of funds

To earn a living

Respectable job

To upbringing young ones

To further studies

Easy enrolment

1

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

3

3

4

7

8

16

10

16.4

4.9

4.9

6.6

11.5

13.1

26.2

16.4

62.5

18.8

18.8

2.0

43.8

50.0

100.0

62.5

Total responses 61 61 381.3

125

7.1.6 Reasons for Liking Teaching

When the same question was administered to the practicing teachers, only 16.7%

indicated that they were interested in teaching as a profession. However, the majority had

varying reasons including easy entry, opportunities for further studies, lack of funds and

so on.

Table 7.9 Reasons for Liking Teaching

Category Label Code Count

Pct of

Responses Pct of Cases

Interested in teaching

Interested in a learning environment

Mother of all other professions

Lack of funds

To earn a living

Respectable job

To upbringing young ones

To further studies

Easy enrolment

Interesting

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

10

7

1

1

6

6

4

10

6

9

16.7

11.7

1.7

1.7

10.0

10.0

6.7

16.7

10.0

15.0

66.7

46.7

6.7

6.7

40.0

40.0

26.7

66.7

40.0

60.0

Total Responses 60 100 400

At the same time of filling in their choices, very few students put teaching as their first or

second choice. Asked about their preferences, 55% had wanted to become doctors, 20%

wanted to become nurses, 15% wanted to become teachers, while 10% wanted to join

other professions. This explains that teaching is always the last or second last choice as a

profession among school leavers, as indicated in the table below.

126

Table 7.10 Order of Choice Before Joining P.T.C.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Teaching

Nursing

Police

Secretarial

Medical

3

4

1

1

11

15.0

20.0

5.0

5.0

55.0

15.0

20.0

5.0

5.0

55.0

15.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

100.0

Total 20 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

7.2.0 Training of Primary School Teachers

Focus was the location of primary teacher training colleges, contact between the

practicing teachers and the colleges, staffing position of primary teachers’ colleges,

qualification of centre co-ordinating tutors the pre-service and in service modes of

teacher training and performance of teacher trainees.

7.2.1 Location of Teacher Training Colleges

Fourteen out of twenty students trained in colleges outside their locality and were not

teaching in their villages. This affects the retention of teachers especially in districts like

Kamuli which don’t have such a facility.

Table 7.11 Location of Teacher Training Colleges

Trained within

locality

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

percent

Yes

No

15

05

75

25

75

25

75

25

Total 20 100 100 100

Source: Primary Data

7.2.2 Contact Between Practicing Teachers and the College

Three students indicated that they always get into contact with the college, 15 said

sometimes, one said rarely and one confessed that there is no contact in terms of follow-

up of teachers by the college as shown below.

127

Table 7.12 Contact Between Teachers and the College Staff

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Always

Sometimes

Rarely

No contact at all

Total

3

15

1

1

20

15.0

75.0

5.0

5.0

100.0

15.0

75.0

5.0

5.0

100.0

15.0

90.0

95.0

100.0

Total 20 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

Results from the table reveal that there is very little follow-up of practicing teachers by

their tutors to help them develop their careers. The two years of congested programme of

training is such a little time that students are not mature and confident enough to go it

alone in the field. There is need for continuous guidance to help teachers develop their

careers. The colleges are also incapacitated due to poor facilitation and the fact that

centre co-ordinating tutors have so many schools in their catchment areas. This cannot

give them adequate time to move and effectively supervise/guide the teachers.

7.2.3 Staffing Position in Primary Teachers’ Colleges

One of the reasons for having catchment areas with many schools and some coordinating

centres lacking CCTs, is the fact that colleges are grossly understaffed. Out of eight

coordinating centres only 6 had CCTs as indicated below.

Table 7.13 Co-ordinating Centres in Kamuli District by 2005

Name of CC No of Schools Staffing Position

Balawoli

Bulopa

Mbulamuti

Bukandago

Kigingo

Baganzi

Namulikya

Lwanyama

110

60

41

62

20

38

120

48

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

TOTAL 499 6

Source: Primary Data

128

Asked about the problem, the principal of Iganga Core Primary Teachers’ College said

that the problem of tutors is a national problem and that the Ministry was trying to

address the same. However, he noted that many who take up teacher education courses

have found their way into primary schools for greener pastures as head teachers and

deputies.

As for the quality of staff viewed in terms of training and qualification, the results reveals

that 62.5 of the centre coordinating tutors have diplomas as shown in the table below.

Although the minimum requirement for teaching in a Primary Teachers’ College is a

diploma in teacher education with basic training in primary methods, that is grade III

certificate, addition training and professional qualification to a degree level would add

quality tutors.

Table 7.14 Qualification of Centre Co-ordinating Tutors

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Diploma

Degree

5

3

50.0

50.0

50.0

50.0

50.0

100.0

Total 8 100.0 100.0

Source : Primary Data

7.2.4 In-service Training Programme

Out of 267 schools within 6 coordinating centres only one hundred and three in-service

teacher trainees were enrolled representing 38.6%. Given the above figures, one would

comfortably say that in-service training of primary school teachers is not viable due to

poor enrolment. After eight years of implementing TDMS, most of the license teachers

have been trained and the traditional way of teacher training (pre-service) should be

emphasized. This would be more cost effective and also allow time for CCTs to give

support to the practicing teachers.

129

Table 7.15 Enrolment in the Coordinating Centres

Coordinating Centre No. of Schools Total Enrolment Percentage

Namulikya 43 24 42.9Baganzi 38 02 11.8Kigingi 45 04 8.9Bulawoli 80 70 87.5Bulopa 60 03 6.4Bupadhengo 40 00 00Lwanyama 36 05 1.8Mbulamuti 41 02 0.82Total 381 110 28.9Source: Primary Data

7.2.5 Performance of Teacher Trainees

In a bid to ascertain the relationship between the negative perception of student teachers

about the teaching profession and how it affects their training, a triangulation question

was asked about their performance during their course of training. Out of the eight tutors

none committed him/herself to say that the performance was excellent. One said it was

good, four said it was fairly good and three said it needed improvement. Therefore, the

perception of teachers (attitude) influences training to the effect that if it is negative, the

performance will definitely be poor.

Table 7.16 Performance of Student Teachers

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Excellent

Good

Fairly good

Needs improvement

00

1

4

3

0.0

12.5

50.0

37.5

0.0

12.5

50.0

37.5

0.0

12.5

62.5

100.0

Total 8 100 100

SOURCE: Primary Data

Therefore, we do not have excellent or very good performance among student teachers

partly due to their negative attitudes about teaching which affects their training and hence

their competence in delivery of lessons.

130

7.3.0 The Working Environment of Primary School Teachers

Focus was on the remuneration of primary school teachers, provision of accommodation,

staffing of primary schools, the teacher/pupil ratio, infrastructure in primary schools,

morale of teachers, allowances, discipline of teachers.

7.3.1 Remuneration for Primary School teachers

Table 7.17 Take Away Home Package for Teachers

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid 100.000 –150.000

150.000– 200.000

>200.000

4

15

1

20.0

75.0

5.0

20.0

75.0

5.0

20.0

75.0

100.0

Total 20 100.0 100.0

Source: Primary Data

As seen from the above table, only one teacher earns more than 200,000/=, representing

5% of the total teaching fraternity of the sample taken and 95% of the teachers earn

below 200,000/=. Given the fact that 85% of the respondents are married with children

yet most schools do not provide accommodation and food, the salaries are so meagre that

they cannot sustain a teacher with such responsibilities including the education of their

children.

Out of the meagre salary of less than 200,000/= 30% of the teacher rent houses ranging

from 10,000 – 30,000/= per month. 70% of the teachers are either coming from their

homes or using school premises which are in a sorry state.

7.3.2 Provision of Accommodation

One of the reasons why most primary schools are understaffed is because of lack of

accommodation for teachers both at school and even around the villages. Out of 162

teachers only 41 are accommodated.

Table 7.18 Accommodation for Teachers in Sampled Schools

131

Schools No. of Teachers Teachers

Accommodated

Vicinity to Trading Centre

Nabwigulu 15 10 2½ Km

Buwuda 12 00 4 Km

Buzibirira 14 04 2 Km

Igoola 16 03 8 Km

Namwendwa 13 04 2 Km

Baganzi 12 01 1 Km

Nawanyago 16 06 3 Km

Bupadhengo 18 00 2½ Km

Namulikya 12 06 3 Km

Itukulu 11 05 3 Km

Lwanyama 10 00 4 Km

Kagulu 13 02 1 Km

Total 162 41

Source: Primary Data

It is also important to note that this accommodation is sub standard. Because of this

many teachers look for opportunities elsewhere including the option to exit the

profession. This can be further evidenced from the table below showing the staffing

position of primary schools.

7.3.3 Staffing of Primary Schools

Out of the 12 schools sampled only 4 had an adequate number of teachers and of course

these were in semi-urban centres which were easily accessible with better

accommodation premises for rent. Otherwise, 66.7% of the school had fewer teachers

than they required.

This situation is worsened by the overwhelming number of children enrolled.

Table 7.19 Staffing Position of Primary Schools

132

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid Adequate

Inadequate

4

8

33.3

66.7

33.3

66.7

33.3

100.0

Total 12 100.00 100.00

Source: Primary Data

7.3.4 Teacher/Pupil Ratio

The table below shows the schools sampled, enrollment figures and the number of

teachers.

Table 7.20 Enrolment and Staffing of Teachers

SCHOOL ENROLMENT

BOYS GIRLS

TOTAL STAFFING OF TEACHERS T/P RATIO

MALE FEM

ALE

TOTAL

Nabwigulu 2 851 853 10 5 15 1.56

Buwuda 245 513 758 8 4 12 1.63

Buzibirira 357 509 866 12 6 14 1.62

Igoola 379 506 885 12 4 16 1.55

Namwendwa 389 480 829 7 6 13 1.64

Bugainzi 403 460 863 8 4 12 1.74

Nawanyago 428 458 886 3 3 16 1.55

Bupadhugo 930 905 1835 10 8 18 1.102

Namulikya 437 386 823 7 5 12 1.69

Itukulu 447 352 799 10 1 11 1.73

Lwanyama 501 272 773 7 3 10 1.70

Kagulu 532 258 890 9 4 13 1.68

Source: Primary data

The district ceiling as per the Ministry of Education and Sports stands at 1.61

Teacher/pupil ratio. As seen from the above table, the teacher/pupil ration is very high

implying a heavy burden on the part of the teachers in terms of preparation for lessons,

teaching and marking of pupils’ work. The above situation is worsened by the

inadequate classrooms which is a problem in almost all the schools.

133

7.3.5 Infrastructure in Primary Schools

The table below shows the pupil/classroom ratio. Whereas the district average

pupil/classroom ratio is at 86.1, there are overwhelming revelations especially in the

rural areas.

Table 7.21 Pupil/Classroom Ratio

C/pupil ratio Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

60.1 0 00 00 00

70.1 1 5 5 5

80.1 2 10 10 15

90.1 2 10 10 25

>100.1 7 75 75 100

Total 12 100 100

Source: Primary Data

75% of the schools do not have adequate classrooms to accommodate the number of

children enrolled. Schools resort to tree shades and it is normally the infant classes that

suffer leading to a poor foundation which consequently affect the quality of learning. If

primary children are congested or learn from outside they get little attention from

teachers and fail to develop their writing and reading skills.

7.3.6 The Morale of Primary School Teachers

The majority of teachers are continuing in the profession due to lack of any available

opportunity and they form a band of disgruntled workers. Teachers who are disgruntled

due to poor working conditions yield very little and this affects the quality of primary

education.

Table 7.22 Morale of Teachers

Rating Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

134

High 1 8.3 8.3 8.3

Low 8 66.7 66.7 66.7

Very low 3 25.0 25.0 25.0

Total 12 100 100 100

Source: Primary data

Out of 12 head teachers, eight indicated that the morale of their teachers is low

representing 66.7%, three indicated that the morale of their teachers was very low and

only 1one indicated the level of morale was high.

7.3.7 Allowances and Other Fringe Benefits

The introduction of UPE in 1997 and the subsequent abolition of PTA fees left teachers

in the cold especially those who are not teaching in schools with mini boarding facilities.

Table 7.23 Allowances for Teachers

Type of Allowance Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

P.T.A 1 8.3 8.3 8.3

Accommodation 00 00 00 8.3

Transport 00 00 00 8.3

Overtime 00 00 00 8.3

Medical 00 00 00 8.3

Per diem 00 00 00 8.5

None of the above 11 91.3 91.3 100

Total 12 100 100

Source: Primary Data

Out of the twelve schools visited, teachers in Lubaga Girls’ Boarding School indicated an

offer of PTA allowances; however, the rest indicated that no any form of allowances is

given to them at all. Lubaga Girls is a semi-urban school and the rest of the schools are

rural. The conclusion is that it is only schools in the urban and semi-urban areas that give

PTA. allowances to their teachers. Teachers of P7 and P6 are, in addition given extra

135

lessons allowances, but other allowances including duty, housing medical and transport

are not being given.

7.3.8 Discipline of Teachers

Like members in the civil service, teachers have rules and regulations and are liable to

disciplinary measures in case of any deviations from the norms of the profession.

However, when head teachers were asked about their mandate to discipline teachers, they

confessed that they are limited in many ways.

Table 7.24 Authority to Discipline Teachers

Authority Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Full 00 00 00 00

Limited 12 100 100 100

Total 12 100 100 100

Source: Primary Data

100% of the Head teachers indicated that they are limited to talking, warning and later

submitting indiscipline cases to the D.E.O., who, in most cases does not submit these

cases to the service commission. The major hurdle is bureaucracy, which has led to

relaxation of teachers in observance of their professional ethics hence indiscipline. When

the District Education was approached to verify the claim, he contended that head teacher

fail to build cases and more often than not, there is no supporting evidence in their

submissions. In such circumstances it is very hard to prove a case against any teacher

unless there is evidence and following of procedures.

7.4 Qualitative Results

7.4.1 Objective 1: To Examine the Academic Performance and Entry

Qualifications into PTCs and How they Affect both the Training and Quality

of Teachers Produced.

Interviews on the academic performance and entry qualifications did not yield

much since the target group were not so conversant in this area, however, asked

about their comments about the teachers and the teaching profession, many of the

136

respondents had negative attitudes. Kambugu who had an experience in forgeries

contented that the fact that some teachers enter the profession illegally, it is a clear

indication that their performance is poor.

“Some teachers are highly doubted from the way they talk and do their

things. Some of them cannot express themselves in English properly, so

how can I be convinced that they were academically sound?”

he asked. In support of this argument, Kwala said that some teachers seem not to

have been trained at all because of their behavior.

7.4.2 Objective 2: To Evaluate the Training Needs Primary School Teachers and

their Effects on the Practical Experiences in the Field

Commenting on the training of teachers, Mr. Dhikusooka a retired headteacher said

that there were a lot of changes as compared to the 1950s when he was in the college.

He explained that the selection of teacher trainees was based on merit. He wondered

whether the problem was with the training institutions or the people who are

recruited. Although most of the community members were not familiar with the

process of teacher training, they expressed concern about the performance of their

children saying it shows that either the teachers are not well-prepared or they are

frustrated. One of the parents said ,

“When I look at the work of my child, I see very little work in the books

and wrong things marked as right.”

Indeed even the villagers know that there is something wrong in as far as the

training of teachers is concerned.

7.4.3 Objective 3: To Discuss the Working Conditions of Primary School Teachers

and their Effects on the Recruitment and Training

Asked about the PTA contributions, 87% of the respondents said that they were

relieved from that burden and appreciated government for the UPE programme.

137

On the contrary, Mr. Makubo, a chairperson of one of the SMCs argued that the

abolition of PTA contributions has greatly affected the morale of teachers because

they no longer expect anything. He expressed concern about the hard times SMCs

go through in running schools especially in terms of accommodation, feeding and

maintenance of teachers

CHAPTER EIGHT

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

138

8.0 Introduction

This study dealt with the history of Uganda teaching policies; a case study of primary

school teachers in Kamuli district. After exploring the three basic factors, namely

teachers’ conditions of service, recruitment, and training and, after analyzing the data

obtained, the following conclusion and recommendations were made:

8.1 Conclusion

8.1.2 Working Environment/Conditions of Teachers

It is evident that 75% the teachers earn between 150.000/= to 200.000/= which is too

little to sustain a responsible person with a home and obligations to be met. Teachers end

up with multiple loans from banks and micro-finance institutions which renders their

economic status low. There is lack of accommodation because 75% of the teachers are

not accommodated by the schools. It also evident that most primary schools in rural areas

characterized by lack of clean water, electricity and are not easily accessible. To make

matters worse, no allowances are given save for the 8.3% who get PTA hence rendering

their morale very low. In view of the above, the researcher concludes that the poor and

unfavourable terms/conditions of service for primary school teachers renders the

profession unattractive to potential teachers trainees as well as degenerating the morale of

the existing staff, hence, assigning the teaching profession a low status in society.

8.1.3 Recruitment of Teacher Trainees

Historically, those who joined teaching did it on merit because only the best performing

students were selected. However, after independence there was need for a rapid

expansion of the working force in order to meet the demands of teachers, therefore, the

entry qualifications were lowered. As enrolments increased leading to shortage in

qualified teachers, licensed personnel were recruited on assumption that anybody can

teach. It was also discovered that most teachers came from poor socio-economic

backgrounds and that teaching was a last resort but not first choice. In examining the

academic performance of teacher trainees, it was discovered that 75% passed in D.II,

139

therefore, they were academically. The entry qualifications into PTCs are set as a

benchmark and is not responsible for the poor quality of teachers produced. Therefore it

can be concluded that recruits are good academic performers but are frustrated by poor

working conditions.

8.1.4 Training of Primary School Teachers

Findings show that the PTC curriculum is overloaded and requires revision. The 2 years

for the course is inadequate to cover the theoretical, practical and general aspects of the

curriculum. This worsened by lack of adequate training materials, infrastructure and

manpower. The in-service mode of training teachers supplements the traditional pre-

service and has contributed to the increase in the number of teachers. In conclusion, the

production of poorly trained teachers is attributed to lack of instructional materials,

infrastructure and inadequate manpower.

8.1.5 Testing of Hypotheses

The study had two 2 hypotheses namely: “academic performance and entry qualification

into primary teachers’ colleges significantly affects the training of and quality of

teachers” and “Perception rather than working conditions of primary school teachers

greatly influence entry into the teaching profession”

In hypothesis one, it was proved that academic performance of prospective teacher

trainees significantly affects the training and quality of teachers produced. Students who

excel academically can successfully withstand the hectic 2 year training and can be able

to relate their training field experiences. On the contrary, entry qualifications are merely

used as a benchmark to recruit teachers into PTCs and have less effects the training and

quality of teachers produced. Therefore, it was partially accepted.

In hypothesis two, it was proved that perception had no significant influence on the

training and quality of teachers produced. The working conditions of primary school

teachers had significant influence in the entry into the teaching profession. Therefore the

hypothesis was rejected.

140

8.2 Recommendations

Government should improve on the remuneration of classroom teachers in terms of take-

home package to a minimum of 30% increment. This will remove the disparate between

classroom and head teachers. Accommodation and hard-to-reach areas’ allowances

should be given in order to ensure retention of teachers in the remote places.

Primary Education should be compartmentalized where the current grade III teachers

should be deployed to teach up to Primary Four. A one-year course of study should be

organized to prepare the current grade III teachers for lower primary task. Another cadre

should be recruited from Advanced level to handle Primary Five to Seven (upper

primary). The idea of preparing general teachers for primary schools should be abolished

but instead specialization be adopted to develop competence and talents among teachers.

Free teachers training should be supplemented by financial diversification by instituting

cost recovery programmes to make up for the every increasing inadequacies. This will

ensure timely execution of college programmes to minimize time wasting and maximize

efficiency and effectiveness in teacher.

Primary Teachers’ Colleges should treat the training of teachers as a life long pursuit by

following up their graduates in schools. Engagement in educational research should be

given priority to allow for innovation in teacher training. Continuous professional

development courses should based on findings relevant to teachers field expenses.

Support supervision for teachers should be well coordinated between the Ministry, the

District Local Authorities and the Primary Teachers’ Colleges. Funds should be disbursed

on time from the centre so as to increase the presence of district inspectors of schools in

the filed.

Teachers’ Colleges should emphasise the traditional primary school pre-service training

of teachers as opposed to the in-service mode. The course duration should be increased to

141

3 years to allow for effective training in professional pedagogical and academic

development.

Licence teachers should be prohibited from executing duties of teachers in schools. This

is one way of professionalizing the teaching fraternity and improving on the public

image. Licence Teaching should be phased out as it has been the case with grade II

teachers and those who are not trained can be offered 2 years of further training to qualify

as teachers.

Teachers’ Organization should be more active in mobilizing and uniting teachers for a

common cause. Effective articulation of teachers’ interests should involve some kind of

unionism if the terms and conditions of service should be improved at all. Sensitization

and creation a sense of belonging should be the basis for setting common standards which

should be followed by all teachers.

The Primary Teachers’ College curriculum should be revamped to make it more relevant

to the needs of the Uganda society and teachers in particular. Practical skills, professional

development, pedagogical skills and academic excellence should form the core of the

curriculum and all aspects should be accorded adequate time. Over crowding of

curriculum should be treated by an additional year of training to facilitate adequate

coverage in order to produce competent teachers. Curriculum innovation should be

accompanied by instituting the required facilities in PTCs for effective teacher training.

Upgrading of primary school teachers should be accompanied by promotion. This calls

for the introduction of promotional ladders within the system rather than the traditional

portfolios of deputy and head teachers. This will be a motivating factor as well as a

guarantee of not denying pupils the services of excelling teachers in the name of

promotion.

The teachers’ code of conduct should be revised to make it more secular than

denominational. This will render the code of conduct all embracing and relevant to the

142

multi-cultural and changing society. Some areas of the code like addressing code need to

be redefined to match with current generation in view of the various liberties and

freedoms.

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APPENDIX A

152

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEAD TEACHERS

Name……………………………………………………Age……………………………..

What is your title? Headteacher Grade I Headteacher GradeII

Headteacher Grade III Headteacher Grade IV (tick)

What is your working experience?…………………………………………………………

What are your professional qualifications? G III Certificate Diploma

Degree Others (specify)…………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………

What is your Current station (School)……………………………………………………

What is the enrolment in your school? Boys_________ Girls__________

Total___________

Teaching staff: Male_______________Female____________ Total_________________

Details:

Name Qualification Classes taught Subjects

What is your Staffing position? adequate inadequate (Tick).

Comment on teachers’ abilities to deliver in the classroom………………………………..

Comment on teacher’s general professional behaviour today: …………………………….

As a Headteacher, how do you motivate your teachers to work hard?

accommodation food allowances others

(tick)

Is there any strange behaviour among teachers in the handling of children (teacher-pupil

relation)? What was the performance of children in the last ten years at P.L.E?

Year Division I Division II Division III Division IV Fail200

1990

How does the school relate to the community? …………………………………………

153

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

What is the attitude of the community around your school about teachers? ……………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

What should be done to improve the teaching profession?……………………………….

154

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CENTRE-CO-ORDINATING TUTORS

Name……………………………………… Age………………………………….…….

What is your designation? Tutor Senior Tutor Principal Tutor

Senior Principal Tutor (tick)

What are your qualifications? Grade II Grade III Diploma

Degree Others (specify) …………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

What is the name of your Co-ordinating centre? ………………………………………

How many schools are in your catchment area…………………………………………

What is the total number of teachers in your catchment area:

a) Qualified Male ………………………….

Female …………………………

b) Unqualified Male ………………………….

Female ………………………

What is the criteria for selections of in-service teacher trainees?…………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………

How many teachers have enrolled in your catchment area: - 1st year…………………….

2nd year……………………

3rd year…………………….

Total………………………

How do you attribute poor academic standards of children to teachers’ abilities to deliver

in the classroom?……………………………………………………………………………

Give two advantages of in-service training……………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

What should be done to improve on the status of the teaching profession?………………

155

.APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PRINCIPALS OF PRIMARY TEACHERS COLLEGES

Name……………………………………………………..Age……………………………

Designation…………………………………………………………………………………

Working experience………………………………………………………………………

What is the Name of College………………………………...…………………….…….

What is the type of the college? (Tick) Core PTC Non Core PTC

Number of student teachers enrolled: 1st year Female Male Total

2nd year Female Male Total

What is the criterion for admission of student teachers in the Primary Teachers Colleges

today?………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

How does this criterion differ from that of 1980-1990?…………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Any general comment on new guidelines for students’ admission to Primary Teachers’

Colleges……………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

What is the record of recruitment of teacher trainees from 1980-1990?

Year Number of Students

Male Female

Minimum Requirements

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

How relevant is the P.T.C curriculum to the needs of a professional teacher?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

156

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Are training facilities in the P.T.C adequate? (Instructional materials, classrooms,

furniture, library, laboratory equipment)…………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Results of qualified teachers since 1995

YEAR NO OF TEACHERS WHO PASSED

NO. OF TEACHERS WHO FAILED

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

What should be done to improve the status of the teaching profession in Uganda?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

157

APPENDIX D

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TUTORS

Name…………………………………………………….. Age………….

What is your Designation? Tutor Senior Tutor Principal Tutor

Senior Principal Tutor (tick)

What are your academic qualifications P.7 S.4 S.6 (tick)

What are your professional qualifications? Grade II Grade III Diploma

Degree (tick)

Current station………………………………………………………………………………

Which subjects do you teach…………………………. ……………………………………

Comment on the duration of the Grade III Teachers course Adequate inadequate

As a teacher-trainer what changing patterns do you see in teaching profession today about

the following?

a) Behaviour of Teachers…………………………………………………………………

b) Competency…………………………………………………………………………..

c) Commitment to work.…………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Comment on the Primary Teachers’ College Curriculum…………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Does your college keep in touch with teachers in the field after they have qualified?

Yes No

If yes, what programmes do you have for them? …………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

What should be done to improve the teaching profession?……………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………

APENDIX E

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS

Name……………………………………………………….Age…………………………..

Marital Status: Single Married Widowed

No. of Children……………………………………………………………………………..

In which school do you teach? …..………………………………………………………..

Classes taught………………………………………………………………………………

Tick the subjects you teach: English Maths SST Science

Others (specify) ……………………………………………………………………………

1. What is your highest level of Education? (P.7) (S.4) (S.6)

Junior 1 or2 (Tick)

2. Which secondary schools did you attend? 3. Which of these subjects did you do at

O’ level? Tick

4. In which division did you pass? D I D II D III D IV

Fail Ungraded

5. Name three professions you wanted to join after S.4 in order of preference:

1st Choice………………………………………………………………………….

2nd Choice …………………………………………………… ………………………

3rd Choice……………………………………………………………………………

6. Which Primary Teachers’ College did you attend and when?………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Which subjects did you study in the P.T.C.? …………………………………………

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8. What Award/certificate did you obtain? Grade II Certificate Grade III certificate

Vernacular Teachers’ Certificate Both Grade II and Grade III Certificate

Grade IV Certificate

9 How many years have you taught? 1 – 5 years 5 – 10 yrs

11 – 15 years 16 – 20 yrs Over 20 years

10. Have you attended an upgrading course? Yes No (Tick)

When were you last promoted? Yes No (Tick)

11. What is your salary scale? 50,000= to 100,000= 100,000 to 150,000

150,000= to 200,000= Over 200,000=

12. Which of these allowances or utilities does the school provide you:

(a) Accommodation (b) Food

(c) Allowances for housing (d) Allowances for Electricity Bills

(e) Allowances for Transport (Tick)

Do you stay in a rented house? Yes No (Tick)

13. If yes, how much is the house rent? 10,000= - 20,000= 30,000 - 40,000=

50,000= - 60,000= Over 70,000=

14. Comment on the availability of the Instructional materials (both text and non-text

book materials): Abundant Adequate Inadequate

15. Comment on the availability of the Infrastructure (classroom accommodation):

Very adequate Adequate barely adequate Not adequate

16. Comment on the library stock in terms of text books.

Very adequate Adequate barely adequate Not adequate

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17. Comment on the amount of equipment in the laboratory.

Very adequate Adequate barely adequate Inadequate

18. Comment on the furniture (benches)

Very adequate Adequate barely adequate Inadequate

19. Comment on the children’s abilities to read and write stories

(a) All children in class can read and write

(b) ¾ of the children can read and write

(c) ½ of the children can read and write

(d) Very few children can read and write

(e) No child can read and write any story

20. Expression in English:

90% of the children can express themselves in English

70% of the children can express themselves in English

50% of the children can express themselves in English

30% of the children can express themselves in English

21. Do you have any side income-generating activity you engage in?

Yes No

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23. Give four reasons why you like teaching.

(i) ………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) ………………………………………………………………………………

(iii) ………………………………………………………………………………

(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………

24. Give four reasons why you do not like teaching

(i) ………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) ……………………………………………………………………………

(iii) ……………………………………………………………………………

(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………

25. Give four ways in which teachers’ status in society can be improved.

(i) ………………………………………………………………………………

(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………

(v) ………………………………………………………………………………

(iv) ………………………………………………………………………………

26. Are you registered with any Teachers Organisation e.g. Uganda National Teachers’

Organisation (UNATO) Yes No

27. Do you have contacts with any P.T.C. by way of guiding you at your work?

Always Sometimes Rarely

No contact at all

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APENDIX F

QUESTIONAIRE FOR STUDENT TEACHERS

Name………………………………………………………………………..Age…………

1. What is the name of your former Senior Secondary School? ……………………

2. In which division did you pass? D I D II D III

D IV Ungraded

3. Was the teaching profession your: First choice Second choice

Third choice Last resort

4. What is the occupation of your father? Civil servant Petty trader

Working with an NGO Peasant

5. What is the level of education of your parents? P.1 – P.4 P.5 – P. 7

S. 1 – S.4 S. 5 – S.6 Graduate None of these

6. Give your reasons why you chose the teaching professions

7. Give four reasons why you like

teaching……………………………………………………...

8. Give reasons why you do not like

teaching……………………………………………………

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APPENDIX G

COMMUNITY INTERVIEW GUIDE

Name/Age

Contact address

Occupation

Residence (County, Sub county, Village)

Marriage status (single) (married)

Number of children:

How often do you visit the school to see your children?

Comment about the abolition of PTA charges?

How do you relate to the teachers who handle your children?

How often do you attend the general parents’ meeting in your school?

What kind of person do you expect in the teaching profession?

What is your comment about teachers and the teaching profession as a whole?

What contribution should the community make towards primary education?

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APPENDIX H

THE LIST OF RESPONDENTS

NO NAME SEX AGE TITLE/OCCUPATION

1 Idhambi Michael M 52 Center Coordinating Tutor

2 Bamugamba James M 34 Parent

3 Badaza Thomas M 53 Inspector of schools

4 Ngobi David John M 55 Tutor

5 Ayanga Caroline F 38 Teacher

6 Naisambi Margaret F 49 Parent

7 Kwatulira Sarah F 45 Peasant

8 Mugabi Eliot M 56 Chairman SEM

9 Wambi Noah M 61 Peasant

10 Waiswa Eric M 58 Businessman

11 Wantanda Eridad M 56 Night Watchman

12 Bamutaze Stella F 46 Member SMC

13 Konso Faisi F 38 Parent

14 Gonza Balibaseka M 47 Parent

15 Bamuze Silver M 30 Retired police officer

16 Kakolo Michael M 31 Peasant

17 Wansede Matia M 60 Peasant

18 Kirunze George M 53 Chairman UNATO

19 Tirusasira Baker F 22 Student

20 Kalulu Joseph M 49 Head teacher

21 Maka Farouk M 30 Peasant

22 Bamuleteira Juma M 23 Student

23 Nabirye Faridah F Teacher

24 Isabirye Erusania F Peasant

25 Nabutundu Hawa F Peasant

26 Wamukota Amina F Peasant

27 Waidhalubi Mohamed M Trader

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28 Kiiza David M 34 Teacher

29 Tibiwa Tapenensi F 60 Peasant

30 Kapiima Eva F 39 Teacher

31 Mukenya Ahamed M 54 CCT

32 Bamuboine Gladys F 50 CCT

33 Kalifa Wilson M 48 CCT

34 Katube Julius M 38 Head teacher

35 Kambedha Egulansi F 40 Teacher

36 Walekaki Amina F 36 Teacher

37. Mbodhogo Wansadya M 38 Teacher

38 Bamuwaira Kamya M 36 Deputy Head teacher

39 Matama Ruth F 46 Head teacher

40 Bulimbo Michael M 51 Parent

41 Nabirye Elizabeth F 48 Community Volunteer

42 Nabitundu Cortrida F 48 Peasant

43 Mugaya Sanon M 60 Parent

44 Mbedha Fatuma F 50 Parent

45 Mudondo Peninah F 62 Teacher

46 Wamukota Emma M 61 Parent

47 Muziransa Ponsiano M 70 Parent

48 Wandawa Efulansi F 50 Parent

49 Kalya Stephen M 54 Principal

50 Mulemesi Betty F 52 Education Officer

51 Dhauke Waiswa M 50 Inspector of Schools

52 Akoyo Charles M 52 District Education Officer

53 Chuka Muzaham M 52 Inspector of Schools

54 Adupa James M 53 Center Coordinating Tutor

55 Bwire Dison M 46 District Inspector of Schools56 Tenywa Kazungu M 45 Senior Education Officer57 Kiirya Nathan M 48 Head teacher58 Kwala Esther F 36 Teacher59 Waibi Wilberforce M 32 Teacher60 Kalembe Walusa F 38 Teacher

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