How Culture Shapes Nature Reflections on Ecomuseum Practices

Nunzia Borrelli and Peter Davis

ABSTRACTThis paper describes the main characteristics of ecomuseums as a prelude toanalyzing the ways in which they interpret the relationship between natureand culture It appears that ecomuseums have the capability to interpret thisrelationship as a dynamic process However ecomuseum practices are notsimply dedicated to conserving aspects of heritage but also provide a sys-tem of norms and values that contribute to shaping habitus and where ldquoge-nius locirdquo or sense of place can manifest itself If society is to contribute tothe preservation and valorization of nature then frames of reference ndash suchas the ecomuseum ndash can seek to inform and change attitudes and percep-tions of the nature-culture dynamic Consequently people communitiesand democracy lie at the heart of ecomuseum philosophy encouraginggroups and individuals to work together to contribute to improving the en-vironment Social actions and the negotiation of forms of capital are essen-tial to the process

KEYWORDSecomuseum sense of place participation capacity building governance

Introduction

The most recent ndash and most accessible ndash definition of an ecomuseum1

is ldquoa community-based museum or heritage project that supports sus-tainable developmentrdquo (Davis 2007 116) Key ecomuseum character-istics include territoriality holism democracy and an inclusive definitionof heritage (nature culture intangibles) in addition to the objective ofsupporting sustainable development (Davis 1999 Corsane and Holle-man 1993 Maggi 2006) Ecomuseum establishment is a dynamicprocess through which communities are able to identify conserve in-terpret and manage their natural and cultural heritage resources forsustainable development An ecomuseum is based on a communityagreement and is often defined by a geographical territory but one thatmight cut across political boundaries The term ldquodynamic processrdquo

Nature and Culture 7(1) Spring 2012 31ndash47 copy Berghahn Journalsdoi103167nc2012070103

demands flexibility and implies that there is no defined trajectory out-lined in a written plan Thus rather than follow an imposed route lead-ing to a defined solution such a process encourages real actions ndashdialogue debate participation ndash which are empowering and maylead projects to unexpected yet pertinent solutions Ultimately thegoal of such processes is to cherish places and to sustain the commu-nities that live there Community involvement does not mean that lo-cal administrations are irrelevant or excluded but simply that pro-fessionals must involve local people in decision-making processesand actions In ecomuseology the terms ldquoidentifyrdquo ldquoconserverdquo ldquointer-pretrdquo and ldquomanagerdquo mean that caring for and communicating thescope of local natural and cultural heritage resources should providenew more meaningful interpretations and raise territorial self-aware-ness and profile while heritage reflects aspects of place including thenatural environment that have been given value by local people Itincludes the histories of inhabitants and all the sources of evidencetangible and intangible that have been socially identified and con-structed to be considered of lasting value Community agreement im-plies mutual consent and democratic reciprocal commitments be-tween all stakeholders with an invested interest in spatial planningand environmental management2

This paper describes the main characteristics of ecomuseums anddemonstrates how they interpret the relationship between nature andculture as a dynamic process Ecomuseum practices are not simplydedicated to conserving aspects of heritage but also provide a systemof norms and values that contribute to shape the habitus (Bourdieu1992) ie a system of lasting acquired schemes of perceptionthoughts and actions that frame ldquoforma mentisrdquo or literally ldquothe shapeof the mindrdquo and where ldquogenius locirdquo or sense of place can manifestitself (Hillier 2005) If society is to contribute to the preservation andvalorization of nature then frames of reference ndash such as the ecomu-seum ndash can seek to change attitudes and perceptions of the nature-culture dynamic Consequently people communities and democracylie at the heart of ecomuseum philosophy encouraging groups and individuals to work together to contribute to improving the environ-ment Social actions and the negotiation of forms of capital are essen-tial to the process

The following briefly describes ecomuseum origins their geo-graphical distribution their aims and their management systems Thethird section shows how the relationships between nature and culture

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

32

are demonstrated through a focus on the concept of sense of placeUsing examples from around the world we discuss how sense ofplace is negotiated through participation processes and how involve-ment in governance processes can contribute to capacity buildingThe concluding section demonstrates how ecomuseums can con-tribute to develop dynamic relationships between nature and cultureand explores their strengths and weaknesses

Ecomuseums An Overview

The roots of the ecomuseum movement can be traced back to the1960s although the word ldquoeacutecomuseacuteerdquo only came into use in 1971 af-ter being coined by Hugues de Varine (quoted in Davis 1999 and Hu-bert 1985) From the 1970s the concept of the ecomuseum hasevolved further and has been adopted as a means of achieving com-munity-heritage projects within a defined geographical territory in or-der to benefit local communities and conserve heritage assets Earlyecomuseum definitions included that of Mayrand who suggested thatldquothe ecomuseum is a collective a workshop extending over a territorythat a population has taken as its own It is not an end to itself it isdefined as an objective to be metrdquo (Mayrand 1982 quoted in Davis1999 69) Rivard (1985 125) provided a useful comparison betweenthe traditional museum (building + collections + experts + public) andthe ecomuseum (territory + heritage + memory + population) whereasde Varine suggested that the label ecomuseum was nothing more thanldquoan opportunity to run with new ideas to be imaginative to initiatenew ways of working even to be audaciousrdquo (de Varine 1992 quotedin Davis 1999 69) Today the concept of the ecomuseum is regardedas an active expression of the school of thought known as ldquoNewMuseologyrdquo that emerged between the 1960s and 1970s the originalnew museology focused on how museums might assist disadvantagedcommunities becoming a social actor in a process of societal cul-tural and environmental transformation While traditional museumshave frequently favored high culture ecomuseums encouraged an ap-preciation of the significance of the commonplace as local people began to recognize value and interpret their own cultural and envi-ronmental resources promoting the values of participation and com-munity control of heritage Today more than 400 ecomuseums existaround the world the majority being in Europe (Table 1)

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

33

Table 1 The approximate number of ecomuseums in each country (based on the database compiled by IRES Turin (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei)

Number of European Number ofState Ecomuseums Union Ecomuseums

Argentina 4 Belgium 4Australia 2 Czech Republic 4Brazil 16 Denmark 4Canadian 13 Finland 1Chile 1 France 87China 10 Germany 2Costarica 4 Greece 1Ecuador 1 Italy 143India 1 Netherlands 1Japan 9 Norway 2Mexico 1 Poland 22Senegal 1 Portugal 13USA 1 Slovakia 1Venezuela 1 Spain 43Vietnam 2 Sweden 12TOTAL 67 Sweden 12

Sweden 12Turkey 1United Kingdom 3TOTAL 348

Ecomuseums demonstrate huge variety in terms of the extent of theirgeographical area from the Kalyna Ecomuseum in Canada whichcovers several thousand square kilometers of Alberta (and includes aNational Park as well as other wilderness areas) to the Hemp Ecomu-seum in Carmagnola Italy an old rope works which is housed in smalloutdoor space of a few square meters An analysis of the ecomuseumobservatory database (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei) indicates that98 of ecomuseums are located in rural areas and emphasize thelink with local history local landscapes natural resources biotopesand agricultural practices

Ecomuseums also differ in terms of their management and gover-nance practices Although ecomuseum philosophy suggest they shouldbe initiated and managed by local communities a significant propor-tion are either privately managed (11) or have been created by pub-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

34

demands flexibility and implies that there is no defined trajectory out-lined in a written plan Thus rather than follow an imposed route lead-ing to a defined solution such a process encourages real actions ndashdialogue debate participation ndash which are empowering and maylead projects to unexpected yet pertinent solutions Ultimately thegoal of such processes is to cherish places and to sustain the commu-nities that live there Community involvement does not mean that lo-cal administrations are irrelevant or excluded but simply that pro-fessionals must involve local people in decision-making processesand actions In ecomuseology the terms ldquoidentifyrdquo ldquoconserverdquo ldquointer-pretrdquo and ldquomanagerdquo mean that caring for and communicating thescope of local natural and cultural heritage resources should providenew more meaningful interpretations and raise territorial self-aware-ness and profile while heritage reflects aspects of place including thenatural environment that have been given value by local people Itincludes the histories of inhabitants and all the sources of evidencetangible and intangible that have been socially identified and con-structed to be considered of lasting value Community agreement im-plies mutual consent and democratic reciprocal commitments be-tween all stakeholders with an invested interest in spatial planningand environmental management2

This paper describes the main characteristics of ecomuseums anddemonstrates how they interpret the relationship between nature andculture as a dynamic process Ecomuseum practices are not simplydedicated to conserving aspects of heritage but also provide a systemof norms and values that contribute to shape the habitus (Bourdieu1992) ie a system of lasting acquired schemes of perceptionthoughts and actions that frame ldquoforma mentisrdquo or literally ldquothe shapeof the mindrdquo and where ldquogenius locirdquo or sense of place can manifestitself (Hillier 2005) If society is to contribute to the preservation andvalorization of nature then frames of reference ndash such as the ecomu-seum ndash can seek to change attitudes and perceptions of the nature-culture dynamic Consequently people communities and democracylie at the heart of ecomuseum philosophy encouraging groups and individuals to work together to contribute to improving the environ-ment Social actions and the negotiation of forms of capital are essen-tial to the process

The following briefly describes ecomuseum origins their geo-graphical distribution their aims and their management systems Thethird section shows how the relationships between nature and culture

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

32

are demonstrated through a focus on the concept of sense of placeUsing examples from around the world we discuss how sense ofplace is negotiated through participation processes and how involve-ment in governance processes can contribute to capacity buildingThe concluding section demonstrates how ecomuseums can con-tribute to develop dynamic relationships between nature and cultureand explores their strengths and weaknesses

Ecomuseums An Overview

The roots of the ecomuseum movement can be traced back to the1960s although the word ldquoeacutecomuseacuteerdquo only came into use in 1971 af-ter being coined by Hugues de Varine (quoted in Davis 1999 and Hu-bert 1985) From the 1970s the concept of the ecomuseum hasevolved further and has been adopted as a means of achieving com-munity-heritage projects within a defined geographical territory in or-der to benefit local communities and conserve heritage assets Earlyecomuseum definitions included that of Mayrand who suggested thatldquothe ecomuseum is a collective a workshop extending over a territorythat a population has taken as its own It is not an end to itself it isdefined as an objective to be metrdquo (Mayrand 1982 quoted in Davis1999 69) Rivard (1985 125) provided a useful comparison betweenthe traditional museum (building + collections + experts + public) andthe ecomuseum (territory + heritage + memory + population) whereasde Varine suggested that the label ecomuseum was nothing more thanldquoan opportunity to run with new ideas to be imaginative to initiatenew ways of working even to be audaciousrdquo (de Varine 1992 quotedin Davis 1999 69) Today the concept of the ecomuseum is regardedas an active expression of the school of thought known as ldquoNewMuseologyrdquo that emerged between the 1960s and 1970s the originalnew museology focused on how museums might assist disadvantagedcommunities becoming a social actor in a process of societal cul-tural and environmental transformation While traditional museumshave frequently favored high culture ecomuseums encouraged an ap-preciation of the significance of the commonplace as local people began to recognize value and interpret their own cultural and envi-ronmental resources promoting the values of participation and com-munity control of heritage Today more than 400 ecomuseums existaround the world the majority being in Europe (Table 1)

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

33

Table 1 The approximate number of ecomuseums in each country (based on the database compiled by IRES Turin (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei)

Number of European Number ofState Ecomuseums Union Ecomuseums

Argentina 4 Belgium 4Australia 2 Czech Republic 4Brazil 16 Denmark 4Canadian 13 Finland 1Chile 1 France 87China 10 Germany 2Costarica 4 Greece 1Ecuador 1 Italy 143India 1 Netherlands 1Japan 9 Norway 2Mexico 1 Poland 22Senegal 1 Portugal 13USA 1 Slovakia 1Venezuela 1 Spain 43Vietnam 2 Sweden 12TOTAL 67 Sweden 12

Sweden 12Turkey 1United Kingdom 3TOTAL 348

Ecomuseums demonstrate huge variety in terms of the extent of theirgeographical area from the Kalyna Ecomuseum in Canada whichcovers several thousand square kilometers of Alberta (and includes aNational Park as well as other wilderness areas) to the Hemp Ecomu-seum in Carmagnola Italy an old rope works which is housed in smalloutdoor space of a few square meters An analysis of the ecomuseumobservatory database (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei) indicates that98 of ecomuseums are located in rural areas and emphasize thelink with local history local landscapes natural resources biotopesand agricultural practices

Ecomuseums also differ in terms of their management and gover-nance practices Although ecomuseum philosophy suggest they shouldbe initiated and managed by local communities a significant propor-tion are either privately managed (11) or have been created by pub-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

34

are demonstrated through a focus on the concept of sense of placeUsing examples from around the world we discuss how sense ofplace is negotiated through participation processes and how involve-ment in governance processes can contribute to capacity buildingThe concluding section demonstrates how ecomuseums can con-tribute to develop dynamic relationships between nature and cultureand explores their strengths and weaknesses

Ecomuseums An Overview

The roots of the ecomuseum movement can be traced back to the1960s although the word ldquoeacutecomuseacuteerdquo only came into use in 1971 af-ter being coined by Hugues de Varine (quoted in Davis 1999 and Hu-bert 1985) From the 1970s the concept of the ecomuseum hasevolved further and has been adopted as a means of achieving com-munity-heritage projects within a defined geographical territory in or-der to benefit local communities and conserve heritage assets Earlyecomuseum definitions included that of Mayrand who suggested thatldquothe ecomuseum is a collective a workshop extending over a territorythat a population has taken as its own It is not an end to itself it isdefined as an objective to be metrdquo (Mayrand 1982 quoted in Davis1999 69) Rivard (1985 125) provided a useful comparison betweenthe traditional museum (building + collections + experts + public) andthe ecomuseum (territory + heritage + memory + population) whereasde Varine suggested that the label ecomuseum was nothing more thanldquoan opportunity to run with new ideas to be imaginative to initiatenew ways of working even to be audaciousrdquo (de Varine 1992 quotedin Davis 1999 69) Today the concept of the ecomuseum is regardedas an active expression of the school of thought known as ldquoNewMuseologyrdquo that emerged between the 1960s and 1970s the originalnew museology focused on how museums might assist disadvantagedcommunities becoming a social actor in a process of societal cul-tural and environmental transformation While traditional museumshave frequently favored high culture ecomuseums encouraged an ap-preciation of the significance of the commonplace as local people began to recognize value and interpret their own cultural and envi-ronmental resources promoting the values of participation and com-munity control of heritage Today more than 400 ecomuseums existaround the world the majority being in Europe (Table 1)

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

33

Table 1 The approximate number of ecomuseums in each country (based on the database compiled by IRES Turin (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei)

Number of European Number ofState Ecomuseums Union Ecomuseums

Argentina 4 Belgium 4Australia 2 Czech Republic 4Brazil 16 Denmark 4Canadian 13 Finland 1Chile 1 France 87China 10 Germany 2Costarica 4 Greece 1Ecuador 1 Italy 143India 1 Netherlands 1Japan 9 Norway 2Mexico 1 Poland 22Senegal 1 Portugal 13USA 1 Slovakia 1Venezuela 1 Spain 43Vietnam 2 Sweden 12TOTAL 67 Sweden 12

Sweden 12Turkey 1United Kingdom 3TOTAL 348

Ecomuseums demonstrate huge variety in terms of the extent of theirgeographical area from the Kalyna Ecomuseum in Canada whichcovers several thousand square kilometers of Alberta (and includes aNational Park as well as other wilderness areas) to the Hemp Ecomu-seum in Carmagnola Italy an old rope works which is housed in smalloutdoor space of a few square meters An analysis of the ecomuseumobservatory database (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei) indicates that98 of ecomuseums are located in rural areas and emphasize thelink with local history local landscapes natural resources biotopesand agricultural practices

Ecomuseums also differ in terms of their management and gover-nance practices Although ecomuseum philosophy suggest they shouldbe initiated and managed by local communities a significant propor-tion are either privately managed (11) or have been created by pub-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

34

Table 1 The approximate number of ecomuseums in each country (based on the database compiled by IRES Turin (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei)

Number of European Number ofState Ecomuseums Union Ecomuseums

Argentina 4 Belgium 4Australia 2 Czech Republic 4Brazil 16 Denmark 4Canadian 13 Finland 1Chile 1 France 87China 10 Germany 2Costarica 4 Greece 1Ecuador 1 Italy 143India 1 Netherlands 1Japan 9 Norway 2Mexico 1 Poland 22Senegal 1 Portugal 13USA 1 Slovakia 1Venezuela 1 Spain 43Vietnam 2 Sweden 12TOTAL 67 Sweden 12

Sweden 12Turkey 1United Kingdom 3TOTAL 348

Ecomuseums demonstrate huge variety in terms of the extent of theirgeographical area from the Kalyna Ecomuseum in Canada whichcovers several thousand square kilometers of Alberta (and includes aNational Park as well as other wilderness areas) to the Hemp Ecomu-seum in Carmagnola Italy an old rope works which is housed in smalloutdoor space of a few square meters An analysis of the ecomuseumobservatory database (wwwirespiemonteitecomusei) indicates that98 of ecomuseums are located in rural areas and emphasize thelink with local history local landscapes natural resources biotopesand agricultural practices

Ecomuseums also differ in terms of their management and gover-nance practices Although ecomuseum philosophy suggest they shouldbe initiated and managed by local communities a significant propor-tion are either privately managed (11) or have been created by pub-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

34

lic bodies such as National Park authorities or local government bod-ies (41) to create a network of local heritage attractions many ofthese individual sites are volunteer-led As a result even in this lattersituation the involvement of local people is still significant Ecomuse-ums jointly managed by local associations and public authorities arealso common

Some examples indicate the variety of governance systems in eco-museum projects The Ecomuseo del Castillo de Ainsa (Spain) is a ru-ral ecomuseum managed by the Fundaciograven por la conservacion delQuebrantahuesos a national nongovernmental organization whichcarries out research conservation and public information with theobjective of assisting the recovery of populations of the Bearded Vul-ture (Gypaetus barbatus) in the Spanish mountains The Babia GoacuteraEcomuseum in Malopolskie Poland is a rural ecomuseum founded in2003 and managed by a local association it is a network of places ofinterest which specialize in conducting a wide array of educationalactivities concerned with the regionrsquos natural and cultural heritage3

The Ecomuseacutee du Peuple Lebou Senegal is a rural ecomuseum thatwas initiated as a follow-on project of the Third International Eco-Cities and Eco-Villages Conference which took place in Yoff Senegalin January 1996 The Conference adopted a manifesto for the Ecolog-ical Rebuilding Program which serves as a platform from which theproject pledges to create a sustainable neighborhood by the year20204 This program is now supported by the CRESP Seacuteneacutegal a NGOaffiliated to the American NGO Center for Religion Ethics and SocialPolicy (CRESP) Ithaca New York The Ecomuseacutee Daviaud in the Vendeacuteeregion of France interprets the past ways of life of the people who in-habited this harsh and unforgiving low-lying area of salt marsh an ex-traordinary environment consisting of a maze of canals and drainageditches rich in plant insect and bird life The ecomuseum is an ac-tive member of the eco-Vendeacutee network managed jointly by the localcommunes of Ocean-Marais de Monts Each of these ecomuseumsseeks to demonstrate the relationship between nature and culturewhich is discussed further below

Ecomuseums Strengthening Sense of Place by Developing Reflexive Habitus and Capacity Building

Theoretical discourse about ecomuseums frequently makes connec-tions to concepts of place and ldquosense of placerdquo Sense of place is de-

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

35

pendent on human engagement for its existence Feelings about placemay be derived from the natural environment but are more often madeup of a cocktail of natural and cultural features and includes peoplewho occupy the place (Tuan 1977 Buttimer and Seamon 1980)5

Davis (1999) claimed that a major objective of ecomuseums was tostrengthen sense of place and to promote a positive and dynamic re-lationship between communities and their environment SimilarlyHillier (2005) using the term ldquohabitusrdquo rather than ldquosense of placerdquosuggested that the development of reflexive habitus ndash ie the poten-tial to reconsider behaviors and develop new practices towards ourenvironment ndash is essential in order to create positive relationships be-tween nature and culture

One major feature in recent years has been the development ofthe alternative heritage discourse which has given a new role to localpeople as local guardians of their own heritage preserving the dis-tinctive characters of their place (Smith 2006) Globalization and cul-tural homogenization have been factors in this rediscovery of localheritage and territorial identity Other values have emerged includingthe role of inhabitants in the regeneration of places the perception ofthe importance of place by local communities the need to conserveand manage places and the benefits of taking responsibility Suchtrends are evident in the findings of some researchers (Magnaghi 2000Dematteis 1999 Coaffee and Healey 2003) and are referred to in sev-eral UNESCO Conventions particularly in the European LandscapeConvention guidelines which emphasize the interrelationships be-tween local people and their environment and specify that territorialdevelopment policies require specific awareness-raising and educa-tion policies

Hillier highlights that strengthening sense of place demands re-flexive habitus to promote dynamic and positive relationships be-tween human beings and their natural environment (Hillier 2005 399)Habitus a set of structures and habitual ways of understanding char-acteristic and constitutive of a society or a group can be changed bynew experience education or training In other words it tends to per-petuate to reproduce itself but is also subject to change (Bourdieu1992 133) To effectively strengthen sense of place reflexive habitusshould not only concern local stakeholders and encourage them tobecome aware of their territoryrsquos assets (including their heritage) butalso territorial governance systems Painter has demonstrated thatthanks to reflexive habitus territorial governance systems could be re-characterized by capacity building a continuing process in which all

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

36

stakeholders participate (Painter 2005 140) This system aims on theone hand to create an enabling environment with appropriate policyand legal frameworks and on the other hand to promote institutionaldevelopment including community participation human resourcesdevelopment and strengthening of managerial systems (Cuthill 2005)

In ecomuseum projects by means of reflexive habitus and capac-ity building a sense of place strengthening and positive relationshipsbetween nature and culture are carried out at two levels firstly at alocal level implementing participation processes and secondly at agovernment level involving the ecomuseum in governance processesIn other words an ecomuseum might be initially created by a groupof local heritage activists but in order to be sustainable it requires aninterface with local authorities and other experts for financial supportand knowledge guidance The nature of such relationships will de-pend on local experiences and circumstances

Participation as a Tool for Developing Reflexive Habitus

The development of reflexive habitus in ecomuseums occurs mainlythrough participative processes However people need realistic op-portunities to participate According to Fareri participation can be de-fined as a local event whose main target is the production and use ofknowledge andor the development of learning processes of the in-volved stakeholders in order to increase the effectiveness and effi-ciency of the decision-making process While this theoretical stand-point is useful the notion of participation is central to ecomuseumphilosophy and is much more than gaining knowledge or having amore effective process Participation in ecomuseum terms has moreconcrete goals linked to conserving heritage and communities6 (Fareri2000 68) The following examples explain the role of participationprocesses in ecomuseums

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam is part of an archipelago ofthousands of limestone pinnacles an area of outstanding natural beautythat supports an exceptionally wide range of animals and plants Itwas declared a World Heritage Site in 1994 Not without its problemsndash tourism overfishing urbanization mineral extraction ndash the devel-opment of the ecomuseum was seen as a way of considering these is-sues (Schwartz 2001) In the ecomuseum community participation isone of the main functions of the ecomuseumrsquos main building (its Eco-museum Centre) as it provides both a setting and opportunities forthe local fishing community to actively take part in the development

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

37

of their natural and cultural assets Capacity-building in relation tocultural heritage management environmental management and op-erational management of the Centre itself strengthens the participa-tion aspect of the project Efforts are being made to conserve heritagefor future generations by re-establishing traditional approaches tomanaging fish stocks and enhancing community awareness in theiruse all cultural and natural resources in order to reanimate the region

In Spain near Valencia the Ecomuseu Val Vernissa established theso called ldquoCatalog de Patrimonirdquo (Heritage List) an agreement reachedwith the local farmers producers and inhabitants to encourage themto take care of their heritage and to make it available to the rest of thecommunity The first agreement of the ldquoheritage listrdquo was made be-tween a farm the Molloacute de la Creu de Gandia the Ecomuseu de laVal del Vernissa and a local environmental association called Neroliwith expertise in organic farming According to the agreement thefarm will be converted to organic farming and a discovery trail (ldquoHis-tory of the crops of the Valencia countryrdquo) will be created and man-aged by the farm The Ecomuseum will enable the farm to receivesome 12000 euros over a two-year period as recompense for its adop-tion of green practices and its new role

In Italy two good examples can be found at Cortemilia Ecomu-seum in Southern Piedmont and in Casentino Ecomuseum in TuscanyIn Cortemilia there had been progressive abandonment of the ter-raced landscape which was producing extensive damage leading tohillside erosion The efforts of the local ldquoEcomuseum of the Terracesand the Vinerdquo led to the restoration of an old farm (figure 1) and givingit a renewed purpose as a center for community activities and a placefor tourists to stay along with the rescue and cultivation of some ter-races and finally to the successful launch of a quality red wine for aniche market This example was then followed by other local farmersresulting in production for a larger market and the restoration of manyterraces and the ultimate revitalization of the terraced landscape7

The Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany followed a similar pathHere the former local economy based on forestry and woodlandmanagement but especially on the harvesting of sweet chestnuts wasin crisis because of the abandonment of the land the aging of the in-habitants and the loss of woodland craft skills A renewed interest inchestnut cropping was achieved after patient and prolonged work byecomuseum activists with the inhabitants Some old trails used by thewoodsmen were re-established and an ancient stone dryer for chest-nuts was renovated Elegant chestnut and chestnut flour packs are

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

38

now sold for a niche market chestnut wood chips are burned in thedryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village A newquality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village an indicator ofa healthier economy while the establishment of a group of youngadults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Rag-giolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and re-newed vitality

In England Parish maps have been promoted as good participa-tion tools The technique of the Parish Map8 introduced by CommonGround in 1996 results in an expression of the main cultural featuresof a defined territory Because the tool was developed in England theselected territory was the Parish ndash the smallest area of local govern-ment ndash and hence these maps are termed ldquoParish mapsrdquo Parish mapsidentify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map they are notcartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale However they area means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity andalso allow for the development of local leadership They are the startof the empowerment process Parish maps portray existing heritagebut can be used both to analyze the ldquostatus quordquo and to project thefuture being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993 Clif-ford Maggi and Murtas 2007)9 An interesting experience of parish

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

39

Figure 1 Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia Italy)(Source Donatella Murtas used by permission)

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

pendent on human engagement for its existence Feelings about placemay be derived from the natural environment but are more often madeup of a cocktail of natural and cultural features and includes peoplewho occupy the place (Tuan 1977 Buttimer and Seamon 1980)5

Davis (1999) claimed that a major objective of ecomuseums was tostrengthen sense of place and to promote a positive and dynamic re-lationship between communities and their environment SimilarlyHillier (2005) using the term ldquohabitusrdquo rather than ldquosense of placerdquosuggested that the development of reflexive habitus ndash ie the poten-tial to reconsider behaviors and develop new practices towards ourenvironment ndash is essential in order to create positive relationships be-tween nature and culture

One major feature in recent years has been the development ofthe alternative heritage discourse which has given a new role to localpeople as local guardians of their own heritage preserving the dis-tinctive characters of their place (Smith 2006) Globalization and cul-tural homogenization have been factors in this rediscovery of localheritage and territorial identity Other values have emerged includingthe role of inhabitants in the regeneration of places the perception ofthe importance of place by local communities the need to conserveand manage places and the benefits of taking responsibility Suchtrends are evident in the findings of some researchers (Magnaghi 2000Dematteis 1999 Coaffee and Healey 2003) and are referred to in sev-eral UNESCO Conventions particularly in the European LandscapeConvention guidelines which emphasize the interrelationships be-tween local people and their environment and specify that territorialdevelopment policies require specific awareness-raising and educa-tion policies

Hillier highlights that strengthening sense of place demands re-flexive habitus to promote dynamic and positive relationships be-tween human beings and their natural environment (Hillier 2005 399)Habitus a set of structures and habitual ways of understanding char-acteristic and constitutive of a society or a group can be changed bynew experience education or training In other words it tends to per-petuate to reproduce itself but is also subject to change (Bourdieu1992 133) To effectively strengthen sense of place reflexive habitusshould not only concern local stakeholders and encourage them tobecome aware of their territoryrsquos assets (including their heritage) butalso territorial governance systems Painter has demonstrated thatthanks to reflexive habitus territorial governance systems could be re-characterized by capacity building a continuing process in which all

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

36

stakeholders participate (Painter 2005 140) This system aims on theone hand to create an enabling environment with appropriate policyand legal frameworks and on the other hand to promote institutionaldevelopment including community participation human resourcesdevelopment and strengthening of managerial systems (Cuthill 2005)

In ecomuseum projects by means of reflexive habitus and capac-ity building a sense of place strengthening and positive relationshipsbetween nature and culture are carried out at two levels firstly at alocal level implementing participation processes and secondly at agovernment level involving the ecomuseum in governance processesIn other words an ecomuseum might be initially created by a groupof local heritage activists but in order to be sustainable it requires aninterface with local authorities and other experts for financial supportand knowledge guidance The nature of such relationships will de-pend on local experiences and circumstances

Participation as a Tool for Developing Reflexive Habitus

The development of reflexive habitus in ecomuseums occurs mainlythrough participative processes However people need realistic op-portunities to participate According to Fareri participation can be de-fined as a local event whose main target is the production and use ofknowledge andor the development of learning processes of the in-volved stakeholders in order to increase the effectiveness and effi-ciency of the decision-making process While this theoretical stand-point is useful the notion of participation is central to ecomuseumphilosophy and is much more than gaining knowledge or having amore effective process Participation in ecomuseum terms has moreconcrete goals linked to conserving heritage and communities6 (Fareri2000 68) The following examples explain the role of participationprocesses in ecomuseums

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam is part of an archipelago ofthousands of limestone pinnacles an area of outstanding natural beautythat supports an exceptionally wide range of animals and plants Itwas declared a World Heritage Site in 1994 Not without its problemsndash tourism overfishing urbanization mineral extraction ndash the devel-opment of the ecomuseum was seen as a way of considering these is-sues (Schwartz 2001) In the ecomuseum community participation isone of the main functions of the ecomuseumrsquos main building (its Eco-museum Centre) as it provides both a setting and opportunities forthe local fishing community to actively take part in the development

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

37

of their natural and cultural assets Capacity-building in relation tocultural heritage management environmental management and op-erational management of the Centre itself strengthens the participa-tion aspect of the project Efforts are being made to conserve heritagefor future generations by re-establishing traditional approaches tomanaging fish stocks and enhancing community awareness in theiruse all cultural and natural resources in order to reanimate the region

In Spain near Valencia the Ecomuseu Val Vernissa established theso called ldquoCatalog de Patrimonirdquo (Heritage List) an agreement reachedwith the local farmers producers and inhabitants to encourage themto take care of their heritage and to make it available to the rest of thecommunity The first agreement of the ldquoheritage listrdquo was made be-tween a farm the Molloacute de la Creu de Gandia the Ecomuseu de laVal del Vernissa and a local environmental association called Neroliwith expertise in organic farming According to the agreement thefarm will be converted to organic farming and a discovery trail (ldquoHis-tory of the crops of the Valencia countryrdquo) will be created and man-aged by the farm The Ecomuseum will enable the farm to receivesome 12000 euros over a two-year period as recompense for its adop-tion of green practices and its new role

In Italy two good examples can be found at Cortemilia Ecomu-seum in Southern Piedmont and in Casentino Ecomuseum in TuscanyIn Cortemilia there had been progressive abandonment of the ter-raced landscape which was producing extensive damage leading tohillside erosion The efforts of the local ldquoEcomuseum of the Terracesand the Vinerdquo led to the restoration of an old farm (figure 1) and givingit a renewed purpose as a center for community activities and a placefor tourists to stay along with the rescue and cultivation of some ter-races and finally to the successful launch of a quality red wine for aniche market This example was then followed by other local farmersresulting in production for a larger market and the restoration of manyterraces and the ultimate revitalization of the terraced landscape7

The Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany followed a similar pathHere the former local economy based on forestry and woodlandmanagement but especially on the harvesting of sweet chestnuts wasin crisis because of the abandonment of the land the aging of the in-habitants and the loss of woodland craft skills A renewed interest inchestnut cropping was achieved after patient and prolonged work byecomuseum activists with the inhabitants Some old trails used by thewoodsmen were re-established and an ancient stone dryer for chest-nuts was renovated Elegant chestnut and chestnut flour packs are

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

38

now sold for a niche market chestnut wood chips are burned in thedryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village A newquality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village an indicator ofa healthier economy while the establishment of a group of youngadults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Rag-giolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and re-newed vitality

In England Parish maps have been promoted as good participa-tion tools The technique of the Parish Map8 introduced by CommonGround in 1996 results in an expression of the main cultural featuresof a defined territory Because the tool was developed in England theselected territory was the Parish ndash the smallest area of local govern-ment ndash and hence these maps are termed ldquoParish mapsrdquo Parish mapsidentify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map they are notcartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale However they area means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity andalso allow for the development of local leadership They are the startof the empowerment process Parish maps portray existing heritagebut can be used both to analyze the ldquostatus quordquo and to project thefuture being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993 Clif-ford Maggi and Murtas 2007)9 An interesting experience of parish

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

39

Figure 1 Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia Italy)(Source Donatella Murtas used by permission)

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

stakeholders participate (Painter 2005 140) This system aims on theone hand to create an enabling environment with appropriate policyand legal frameworks and on the other hand to promote institutionaldevelopment including community participation human resourcesdevelopment and strengthening of managerial systems (Cuthill 2005)

In ecomuseum projects by means of reflexive habitus and capac-ity building a sense of place strengthening and positive relationshipsbetween nature and culture are carried out at two levels firstly at alocal level implementing participation processes and secondly at agovernment level involving the ecomuseum in governance processesIn other words an ecomuseum might be initially created by a groupof local heritage activists but in order to be sustainable it requires aninterface with local authorities and other experts for financial supportand knowledge guidance The nature of such relationships will de-pend on local experiences and circumstances

Participation as a Tool for Developing Reflexive Habitus

The development of reflexive habitus in ecomuseums occurs mainlythrough participative processes However people need realistic op-portunities to participate According to Fareri participation can be de-fined as a local event whose main target is the production and use ofknowledge andor the development of learning processes of the in-volved stakeholders in order to increase the effectiveness and effi-ciency of the decision-making process While this theoretical stand-point is useful the notion of participation is central to ecomuseumphilosophy and is much more than gaining knowledge or having amore effective process Participation in ecomuseum terms has moreconcrete goals linked to conserving heritage and communities6 (Fareri2000 68) The following examples explain the role of participationprocesses in ecomuseums

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam is part of an archipelago ofthousands of limestone pinnacles an area of outstanding natural beautythat supports an exceptionally wide range of animals and plants Itwas declared a World Heritage Site in 1994 Not without its problemsndash tourism overfishing urbanization mineral extraction ndash the devel-opment of the ecomuseum was seen as a way of considering these is-sues (Schwartz 2001) In the ecomuseum community participation isone of the main functions of the ecomuseumrsquos main building (its Eco-museum Centre) as it provides both a setting and opportunities forthe local fishing community to actively take part in the development

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

37

of their natural and cultural assets Capacity-building in relation tocultural heritage management environmental management and op-erational management of the Centre itself strengthens the participa-tion aspect of the project Efforts are being made to conserve heritagefor future generations by re-establishing traditional approaches tomanaging fish stocks and enhancing community awareness in theiruse all cultural and natural resources in order to reanimate the region

In Spain near Valencia the Ecomuseu Val Vernissa established theso called ldquoCatalog de Patrimonirdquo (Heritage List) an agreement reachedwith the local farmers producers and inhabitants to encourage themto take care of their heritage and to make it available to the rest of thecommunity The first agreement of the ldquoheritage listrdquo was made be-tween a farm the Molloacute de la Creu de Gandia the Ecomuseu de laVal del Vernissa and a local environmental association called Neroliwith expertise in organic farming According to the agreement thefarm will be converted to organic farming and a discovery trail (ldquoHis-tory of the crops of the Valencia countryrdquo) will be created and man-aged by the farm The Ecomuseum will enable the farm to receivesome 12000 euros over a two-year period as recompense for its adop-tion of green practices and its new role

In Italy two good examples can be found at Cortemilia Ecomu-seum in Southern Piedmont and in Casentino Ecomuseum in TuscanyIn Cortemilia there had been progressive abandonment of the ter-raced landscape which was producing extensive damage leading tohillside erosion The efforts of the local ldquoEcomuseum of the Terracesand the Vinerdquo led to the restoration of an old farm (figure 1) and givingit a renewed purpose as a center for community activities and a placefor tourists to stay along with the rescue and cultivation of some ter-races and finally to the successful launch of a quality red wine for aniche market This example was then followed by other local farmersresulting in production for a larger market and the restoration of manyterraces and the ultimate revitalization of the terraced landscape7

The Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany followed a similar pathHere the former local economy based on forestry and woodlandmanagement but especially on the harvesting of sweet chestnuts wasin crisis because of the abandonment of the land the aging of the in-habitants and the loss of woodland craft skills A renewed interest inchestnut cropping was achieved after patient and prolonged work byecomuseum activists with the inhabitants Some old trails used by thewoodsmen were re-established and an ancient stone dryer for chest-nuts was renovated Elegant chestnut and chestnut flour packs are

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

38

now sold for a niche market chestnut wood chips are burned in thedryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village A newquality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village an indicator ofa healthier economy while the establishment of a group of youngadults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Rag-giolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and re-newed vitality

In England Parish maps have been promoted as good participa-tion tools The technique of the Parish Map8 introduced by CommonGround in 1996 results in an expression of the main cultural featuresof a defined territory Because the tool was developed in England theselected territory was the Parish ndash the smallest area of local govern-ment ndash and hence these maps are termed ldquoParish mapsrdquo Parish mapsidentify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map they are notcartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale However they area means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity andalso allow for the development of local leadership They are the startof the empowerment process Parish maps portray existing heritagebut can be used both to analyze the ldquostatus quordquo and to project thefuture being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993 Clif-ford Maggi and Murtas 2007)9 An interesting experience of parish

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

39

Figure 1 Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia Italy)(Source Donatella Murtas used by permission)

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

of their natural and cultural assets Capacity-building in relation tocultural heritage management environmental management and op-erational management of the Centre itself strengthens the participa-tion aspect of the project Efforts are being made to conserve heritagefor future generations by re-establishing traditional approaches tomanaging fish stocks and enhancing community awareness in theiruse all cultural and natural resources in order to reanimate the region

In Spain near Valencia the Ecomuseu Val Vernissa established theso called ldquoCatalog de Patrimonirdquo (Heritage List) an agreement reachedwith the local farmers producers and inhabitants to encourage themto take care of their heritage and to make it available to the rest of thecommunity The first agreement of the ldquoheritage listrdquo was made be-tween a farm the Molloacute de la Creu de Gandia the Ecomuseu de laVal del Vernissa and a local environmental association called Neroliwith expertise in organic farming According to the agreement thefarm will be converted to organic farming and a discovery trail (ldquoHis-tory of the crops of the Valencia countryrdquo) will be created and man-aged by the farm The Ecomuseum will enable the farm to receivesome 12000 euros over a two-year period as recompense for its adop-tion of green practices and its new role

In Italy two good examples can be found at Cortemilia Ecomu-seum in Southern Piedmont and in Casentino Ecomuseum in TuscanyIn Cortemilia there had been progressive abandonment of the ter-raced landscape which was producing extensive damage leading tohillside erosion The efforts of the local ldquoEcomuseum of the Terracesand the Vinerdquo led to the restoration of an old farm (figure 1) and givingit a renewed purpose as a center for community activities and a placefor tourists to stay along with the rescue and cultivation of some ter-races and finally to the successful launch of a quality red wine for aniche market This example was then followed by other local farmersresulting in production for a larger market and the restoration of manyterraces and the ultimate revitalization of the terraced landscape7

The Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany followed a similar pathHere the former local economy based on forestry and woodlandmanagement but especially on the harvesting of sweet chestnuts wasin crisis because of the abandonment of the land the aging of the in-habitants and the loss of woodland craft skills A renewed interest inchestnut cropping was achieved after patient and prolonged work byecomuseum activists with the inhabitants Some old trails used by thewoodsmen were re-established and an ancient stone dryer for chest-nuts was renovated Elegant chestnut and chestnut flour packs are

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

38

now sold for a niche market chestnut wood chips are burned in thedryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village A newquality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village an indicator ofa healthier economy while the establishment of a group of youngadults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Rag-giolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and re-newed vitality

In England Parish maps have been promoted as good participa-tion tools The technique of the Parish Map8 introduced by CommonGround in 1996 results in an expression of the main cultural featuresof a defined territory Because the tool was developed in England theselected territory was the Parish ndash the smallest area of local govern-ment ndash and hence these maps are termed ldquoParish mapsrdquo Parish mapsidentify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map they are notcartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale However they area means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity andalso allow for the development of local leadership They are the startof the empowerment process Parish maps portray existing heritagebut can be used both to analyze the ldquostatus quordquo and to project thefuture being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993 Clif-ford Maggi and Murtas 2007)9 An interesting experience of parish

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

39

Figure 1 Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia Italy)(Source Donatella Murtas used by permission)

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

now sold for a niche market chestnut wood chips are burned in thedryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village A newquality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village an indicator ofa healthier economy while the establishment of a group of youngadults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Rag-giolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and re-newed vitality

In England Parish maps have been promoted as good participa-tion tools The technique of the Parish Map8 introduced by CommonGround in 1996 results in an expression of the main cultural featuresof a defined territory Because the tool was developed in England theselected territory was the Parish ndash the smallest area of local govern-ment ndash and hence these maps are termed ldquoParish mapsrdquo Parish mapsidentify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map they are notcartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale However they area means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity andalso allow for the development of local leadership They are the startof the empowerment process Parish maps portray existing heritagebut can be used both to analyze the ldquostatus quordquo and to project thefuture being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993 Clif-ford Maggi and Murtas 2007)9 An interesting experience of parish

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

39

Figure 1 Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia Italy)(Source Donatella Murtas used by permission)

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz Thisis an urban ecomuseum with its ldquoparticipatory inventoryrdquo (a sort ofParish map) its active ldquosamba schoolrdquo and its street theatre perform-ances providing an effective example of community involvement inthe protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban contextin a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes Instruments for Capacity Building

When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes they canhelp to implement a culture of territorial governance ndash governmental-ity ndash that pays attention to issues related to local development

Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or aresource of central government but an opportunity for self-governanceHence it indicates the ldquoart of governmentrdquo in the widest sense ie witha concept of ldquogovernmentrdquo that is not limited to state or local politicsbut includes a wide range of actors and control techniques Combin-ing the idea of ldquogovernmentrdquo and ldquomentalityrdquo it refers in particular tothe relationship between the practices of government and local knowl-edge of governmentrsquos objectives (Painter 2005134) Ecomuseums byencouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance promoteresponsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual peo-ple Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucialto strengthen sense of place to promote participation and lead to theconservation of the natural and cultural environment When ecomu-seums start being part of spatial governance process (as described be-low) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to com-munities and their environment at localregional and national levels

Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agree-ment between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO with theNorwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as afunding partner Officially opened in 2003 it is part of the MasterPlan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020 In orderto address the challenges of sustainable tourism the ManagementDepartment of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoplersquos Commit-tee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Planwhich was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001 It will pro-vide a coordinated planning framework to control development thatcould affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond theprotection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec-

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

40

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

tion Nevertheless many current and potential future activities con-flict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marineresources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay Clearly identi-fiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing num-bers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access tocaves and grottoes expansion of commercial shipping and touristvessels fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods as wellas coal mining In addressing these conflicts between conservation anddevelopment in July 2000 the official and community stakeholdergroups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosoph-ical frameworks of ecomuseology The directive was that both conser-vation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha LongBay Management Department had to develop the best possible ap-proach to establish a way forward (Galla 20025ndash6)

The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 aspart of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan aiming to strengthenthe bonds between the people and the river and to foster a strongersense of community in the newly amalgamated City of MiramichiThe core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural independent cul-tural heritage and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Mi-ramichi River all linked via a water taxi system and trail network Theobjectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beautyand lifestyle of the place to keep the special local neighborhood her-itage to revitalize the economy with tourism small manufacturingagriculture service and knowledge-based industries and encouragelocal young people to remain in the city

Relevant examples can also be found in Italy notably in Emilia-Romagna and Puglia in central and southern Italy In Ferrara (Emilia-Romagna) where new urban development had been created aftermajor land reclamation in the 1930s the authorities decided to adopta participative approach to spatial planning as a new town it had ashort history no real traditions or local gastronomy and no legends orstories The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this plan-ning process utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consul-tative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets It willprobably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporateParish maps results A similar larger-scale initiative is being under-taken in Puglia where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to workon Parish maps They were then contacted by the regional planningoffice which wished to profit from their participative experience andto include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

41

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

Plan How this will be achieved is still debatable how a marriage be-tween ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in otherplaces in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuse-umsrsquo agenda

Independently from the nature of their governments all countriesexperiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify prob-lems in collective decision-making However there is some potentialfor the application of the participative tools and landscape interpreta-tion methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums How tomake them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge inthe framework of ldquoactiverdquo spatial governance

Nature and Culture Opportunities and Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects

The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by en-couraging local actors ie inhabitants and other stakeholders to takeresponsibility for their natural and cultural environment Reflecting onecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011) it is rec-ognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscovertheir cultural and natural heritages trigger participation processeswith local stakeholders and develop relationships between differentlocal authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integratedgovernance

Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the con-servation of heritage values but take into account the relationshipsbetween different actors and between actors and place Place is acomplex notion in ecomuseum projects It has multiple integrated com-ponents (physical environmental economic social cultural and po-litical) emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the valuesof territorial capital This people-centered point of view has resonancewith the more recent definitions of landscape ie definitions that rec-ognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory butat the same time attributes a core value to the communities withinthat geographical space The role of the individual is elaborated fur-ther by taking into account that territory mediates human actions(Raffestin 1981) affirms that individual behavior is influenced by rep-resentation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995) and emphasizes theperceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995)In the European Landscape Convention landscape is defined as rdquoan

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

42

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

area as perceived by people whose character is the result of the ac-tion and interaction of natural andor human factorsrdquo (European Land-scape Convention 2000) These ideas of landscape and the ldquoterritoryrdquosupported by ecomuseums encapsulate both a physical reality andpersonal subjectivity Landscape becomes more closely related to theconcept of ldquoinscaperdquo an internal landscape where physical space isfiltered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there

Participation among local actors like learning processes permitsthe growth of the local populationrsquos awareness about the importanceof local heritage assets Moreover participation processes encouragepeople to work together and make decisions In general ecomuseumspursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individualsto become a ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo As noted above participation proc-esses develop local community habitus In addition stimulating actorsto recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improve-ment of cultural capital At the same time participation processes en-courage local people to organize themselves strengthening the trustamong actors and their social relationships and therefore consolidat-ing social capital Finally participation processes helping to identifythe values of a territory and empower local actors improve capacitybuilding and the formation of institutional capital

Moreover ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to gov-ernance because they aim to start social actions in which local actorsare involved in democratic and participative decision-making proc-esses They involve the local community empower local people en-courage learning and seek to identify sustainable development strat-egies within a defined geographical space spaces that often havehigh wildlife values

However it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also haveweaknesses they are not a panacea for all environmental concernsThey cannot necessarily resolve for example conflicts between con-servation and development or environmental protection and eco-nomic interests or the conflicting interests of communities and am-bitious politicians or developers Such issues may require interventionsby recognized authorities or legal decisions In addition although thereis now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum prin-ciples ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governancethe landscapes in which they are located and their individual aimsand objectives Every ecomuseum is different consequently it is im-possible to declare universal principles It is important to accept and

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

43

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

recognize their individual peculiarities Ecomuseums could be impor-tant opportunities for territories but it is important not to regard themas a romantic ideal Conserving heritage demands not just a set of prin-ciples it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by lo-cal culture and political economy Ecomuseums are also not immuneto the realities of national and local fiscal economies in Italy recentdrastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the developmentof important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont Campania and Lazio

Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local Development at Turin Polytechnic Italy with a thesis on Urban and Territo-rial Governance In 2007 she spent several months as a visiting researcherand lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies atNewcastle University UK In 2009ndash2010 she was a Fulbright researchscholar at Loyola University Chicago IL USA Currently she is a contractLecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and worksas a consultant Address Via Paestum 30 00174 Rome Italy Email nunziaborrelligmailcom

Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University His researchinterests include the history of museums the history of natural history andenvironmentalism the interaction between heritage and concepts of placeand ecomuseums He is the author of several books including Museums andthe Natural Environment (1996) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (1999 2ndedition 2011) and with Christine Jackson Sir William Jardine A Life in Nat-ural History (2001) Address International Centre for Cultural and HeritageStudies 18 Windsor Terrace Newcastle University Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU UK E-mail peterdavisnclacuk

Notes

1 In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum it is impor-tant to explain the ldquoecordquo prefix The terms ecology and economy are derived from theGreek word oikos which means a house or living place In 1866 the German biolo-gist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the inter-relationships between different organisms and the components making up their par-ticular habitats hence ecology Similarly in ecomuseology the word ldquoenvironmentrdquoneeds to be viewed holistically embracing both natural and human aspects within avery intricate and interconnected system This network encompasses both biophysicalfeatures and those elements which have been manipulated modified or constructedby people as well as intangibles such as economic social cultural and political di-mensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999 20)

2 Further info can be found at wwwirespiemonteitecomusei

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

44

3 In Poland where 22 ecomuseums exist a very important role in their manage-ment is played by EPCE Environmental Partnership for Central Europe It is an inde-pendent and self-governing foundation whose mission is to promote support helpand implement environmental protection activities undertaken by not-for-profit organ-izations and local communities

4 Culture and Religion Food Security and Economy Education and TrainingPopulation Health and Nutrition Environment Infrastructure and Geographic Infor-mation Systems The first issue of this program included an ecomuseum

5 To understand ldquosense of placerdquo the geographic concept of place needs first tobe defined Geographic space is the space that encircles the planet through which bi-ological life moves It is differentiated from ldquoouter spacerdquo and ldquoinner spacerdquo (insidethe mind) One definition of place proposed by Tuan is that a place comes into exis-tence when humans give meaning to a part of the larger undifferentiated geographicspace Any time a location is identified or given a name it is separated from the un-defined space that surrounds it Some places however have been given strongermeanings names or definitions by society than others These are the places that aresaid to have a strong ldquosense of placerdquo (Tuan 1977 4ndash7)

6 This participation definition centers also with a governance concept Gover-nance indicates the new government procedures which is characterized by the in-volvement of public and private actors belonging to different organizations and by thebuilding of a network of social relationships

7 For further information wwwosservatorioecomuseinetPDFUKTRAININGkretepdf

8 According to Common Ground a charity that introduced this method in the80s Parish Maps allow people to chart the things that they value locally to make theirvoice heard amongst professionals and developers to inform and assert their need fornature and culture on their own terms and to begin to take action and some controlin shaping the future of their place (Common Ground 1996)

9 Parish Maps can be considered as a ldquoslowrdquo approach that permits the growthof the awareness of the local population about the importance of territorial valuesThey also permit progressive capacity-building to manage the territory and to get peo-ple used to working together and making decisions By taking collective responsibil-ity communities can avoid waiting for external help and direction In general eco-museums also pursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage acommon ideology but also to give responsibility of ldquoterritorial guardianrdquo to the localpopulation Stimulating actors to recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allowsthe improvement of cultural capital and this is true for ecomuseums (Davis 2011) Ed-ucation such an important focal point in ecomuseum projects is inspired by PauloFreirersquos principles of constructivism training consisting of horizontal learning basedon a ldquoworking togetherrdquo approach (Freire 2002)

10 The Matadouro itself is an old slaughterhouse restored by volunteers

References

Bourdieu Pierre 1992 Risposte Per unrsquoantropologia riflessiva Torino Bollati Bor-inghieri

Buttimer Ann and David Seamon eds 1980 The Human Experience of Space andPlace London Croom Helm

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

45

Clifford Sue and Angela King eds 1993 Local Distinctiveness Place Particularityand Identity London Common Ground

Clifford Sue Maurizio Maggi and Donatella Murtas eds 2007 GENIUS LOCI Per-cheacute quando e come realizzare una mappa di comunitagrave Torino Strumentires n102007

Coaffee Jon and Patsy Healey 2003 ldquoMy Voice My placerdquo Tracking Transformationsin Urban Governancerdquo Urban Studies 40(10) 1979ndash1999

Common Ground 1996 Promotional Leaflet Common Ground London CommonGround

Corsane Gerard and W Holleman 1993 ldquoEcomuseums A Brief Evaluationrdquo Pp111ndash125 in Museums and the Environment eds Rienk De Jong Pretoria SouthAfrican Museums Association

Cuthill Micheal and John Fien 2005 ldquoCapacity Building Facilitating Citizen Partic-ipation in Local Governancerdquo Australian Journal of Public Administration 64 (4)63ndash80

Davis Peter 1999 Ecomuseums A Sense of Place London Leicester University PressDavis Peter 2007 ldquoEcomuseums and Sustainability in Italy Japan and China Con-

cept Adaptation Through Implementationrdquo Pp 198ndash214 in Museum RevolutionsHow Museums Change and are Changed eds Simon Hnell Suzanne MacLeodand Sheila Watson London Routledge

Davis Peter 2008 ldquoNew Museologies and the Ecomuseumrdquo Pp 397ndash414 in The Ash-gate Research Reader in Heritage and Identity eds Brian Grahamand and PeterHoward Alderhot Ashgate

Davis Peter 2011 (1999) Ecomuseums A Sense of Place (2nd Edition) New YorkContinuum

Dematteis Giuseppe 1995 Progetto implicito Il contributo della geografia umanaalle scienze del territorio Milano Francoangeli

Dematteis Giuseppe 1999 ldquoSul crocevia della territorialitagrave urbanardquo Pp 117ndash128 inI futuri della cittagrave Tesi a confronto eds Giuseppe Dematteis Francesco Indo-vina Alberto Magnaghi Elio Piroddi Enzo Scandurra e Bernanrdo Secchi Mi-lano Francoangeli

De Varine Hugues 1988ldquoRethinking the Museum Conceptrdquo Pp 33ndash40 in Oslashkomu-seumsboka ndash identitet oslashkologi deltakelse eds John Aage Gjestrum and MarcMaure Norway ICOM Tromsoslash

European Landscape Convention 2000 European Treaty Series - No 176 Florence20102000

Fareri Paolo 2000 ldquoRelente Notes sur lrsquoapproche partecipative du point de vue delrsquoAnalyse des politiques publiquesrdquo in Lrsquousage du project Pratiques sociales etconception du project urbain et architectural eds Soderstrom Cogato LanzaBarbey Lawrence Lausanne Payot

Freire Paulo 2002 [1971] La pedagogia degli oppressi Torino Italy EGAGalla Amaresw 2002 ldquoCulture and Heritage in Development Ha Long Ecomuseum

A Case Study from Vietnamrdquo Humanities Research 9 (1) 63ndash76Healey Patsy 2001 ldquoPlace Identity and Governance Transforming Discourses and

Practicesrdquo Pp 173ndash202 in Habitus A Sense of Place eds Jean Hillier and EmmaRooksby Aldershot UK Ashgate

Hillier Jean 2005 Habitus A Sense of Place Aldershot UK Ashgate

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

46

Hubert Francois 1985 ldquoEcomuseums in France Contradictions and DistortionsrdquoMuseum 37(4) 186ndash190

Maggi Maurizio 2006 ldquoEcomuseums Worldwide Converging Routes among similarObstaclesrdquo Chinese Museum 3 31ndash33

Magnaghi Alberto 2000 Il progetto locale Torino Italy Bollati BoringhieriPainter Joe 2005 ldquoGovernmentality and Regional Economic Strategiesrdquo Pp 131ndash157

in Habitus A Sense of Place eds Jean Hillier and Emma Rooksby AldershotAshgate

Raffestin Claude 1981 Pour une geacuteographie du pouvoir Paris LITECRivard Reneacute 1985 ldquoEcomuseums in Quebecrdquo Museum 37 (4) 202ndash205Schwartz Aprile 2001 ldquoSustainable development in a World Heritage Area The Ha

Long Bay Ecomuseumrdquo Httpwwwcsiwisepracticesorgread=372 (accessed 9March 2010)

Smith Laurajane 2006 Uses of Heritage London RoutlegeTuan Yi-Fu 1977 Space and Place the Perspective of Experience Minneapolis Uni-

versity of Minnesota Press

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

47