Chapter-: 4-

Deori-Tiwa-Assamese: A Lexico Semantic Study

4.0. Introduction

Semantic domains play an important role in language maintenance. While language shift

is a widely occurring phenomenon, the domain usage of lexemes determines whether that

a language is going to sustain or not in the long run. If a language sees a huge impact of

borrowing, loan words, other linguistic aspects of lexicon and on the syntactic structure

from its surrounding dominant language, the language has to confront serious

competition for survival. This chapter deals with some important semantic domains and

their fields which are basically used in day to day conversation. The motive here is to

check whether the speakers of Tiwa and Deori are able to retrieve the right lexicon for

these domains and field or not. The discussion will also take in to account the degree of

lexical replacement by Assamese lexicon in the form of borrowings. Apart from this the

study also looks into the matter of domain loss in the context of various semantic fields.

The entire discussion is ordered in the following pattern.

1. Theories of Semantic domain

2. Analyses of the selective semantic domains for Tiwa and Deori languages:

a) Objects in the sky

b) Stages of life

c) Emotion

d) Physical action

e) Location

3. Conclusion:

4.1. Semantic Domain

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The predominant view in lexical semantics is the Saussure's structural semantics (de

Saussure: 1922) claiming that a word meaning is determined by the 'horizontal'

paradigmatic and 'vertical' syntagmatic relations between that word and others in the

whole language (Lyons: 1977). The Semantic Fields Theory (Trier, 1931) goes a step

further in the structural approach to lexical semantics by introducing an additional

aggregation level and by delimiting to which extend paradigmatic relations holds. The

basic assumption of this theory is that the lexicon is structured into Semantic Fields:

semantic relations among concepts belonging to the same field are very dense, while

concepts belonging to different fields are typically unrelated.72 In fact a word meaning is

established only by the network of relations among the terms of its field. Another

property of great interest is that there exists a strong correspondence among semantic

fields of different languages, while such a strong correspondence cannot be established

among the terms themselves.73 The structuralist approach in semantics has been

connected to the meaning-in-use assumption introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his

celebrated 'Philosophical investigations' (Wittgenstein: 1965). A word meaning is its use

into the concrete 'form of life' where it is adopted, i.e. the 'linguistic game' in

Wittgenstein's terminology. Frequently co-occurring words in texts are associated to the

same linguistic game. It follows that fields can be identified from a corpus based analysis

of the lexicon, exploiting the connections between linguistic games and semantic fields

already depicted. The notion of semantic domain arises from this convergence, providing

an objective criterion to identify semantically related words in texts, supported by a

lexical coherence assumption.74

Lexical semantic domains are used to describe the paradigmatic relationship between one

lexical item and other items that belong to the same category. A contextual semantic

domain corresponds to what cognitive linguistics describes as a cognitive frame or

cognitive context. It focuses on the syntagmatic relationships between a lexical item and

other lexical items that are used in the same context or cognitive frame. A semantic

domain may be constituted with a number of semantic fields. "A Semantic field is an

72 Gliozzo, Alfio Semantic Domains and Linguistic Theory, P.l n Ibid. P.2 74 Ibid. P.3

104

attempt capture a more integrated, or holistic, relationship among entire sets of words

from a single domain."75 But not necessarily all the lexicon belong to same semantic

fields would be etymologically related to each other. Since, "Etymology is concerned

with determining the synchronic or the diachronic identity of words. Identification has

traditionally involved the phonologically lawful association of sounds and combinations

of sounds through time. However, the semantic identity of cognates has been established

on the basis of lexical definitions and on researchers' intuition about the adequacy of

proposed semantic relationship (Malkiel 1968: 352)."

Synonyms are words with identical or similar meanings. While substitutions between

some pairs of words like car/automobile, big/large, tall/high or water/H20 are truth­

preserving, the words still give slightly different contextual meaning rather being

identical. Indeed, no two words are found which are absolutely identical in meaning, and

if we define synonym as identical meanings and connotations in all contexts, because of

this reason there cannot be absolute synonyms. The different facets of meaning which

distinguish these words are important besides propositional meaning. In practice the

word synonym is therefore commonly used to describe a relationship of approximate or

roughly similar in meaning. Although, in a specific environment one word is better fixed

than its synonymous counterparts, or may be to some extent they are rigidly

contextualized, more the number of synonymous words better for the semantic health of

the language. The proposed study will also try to capture the synonymous words both in

Tiwa and Deori.

Describing meaning only by a single-word translation is of limited value, because, as

theorists like Zgusta ( 1984) have pointed out, equivalence is asymmetric: word meaning

cannot always be precisely rendered by a matching word in another language. 76

Consequently, a number of alternative translations are often offered, cumulatively giving

an approximation of the meaning. However, it is not enough to give multiple

translations. As Adrados ( l977b: 261) notes, a semantic and lexicographic study must

75 Jurafsky, Daniel and Martin, James. H, Speech and Language Processing: An introduction to NLP. computational linguistics and speech recognition. 76 Cited in Fraser, B.L. Beyond definition: Organizing semantic information in bilingual dictionaries.P.2

105

provide data to distinguish between those translations. The organisation of the entry may

sometimes be enough to show (implicitly) how the senses interrelate.77

Geeraerts (1997: 17) has provided two concepts witht regard to meaning of the name and

the reality. He has distinguished the ideas of Onomasiology and Semasiology by

asserting that 'onomastics has to do with the way names are associated with bits of

perceived reality taking into consideration salient aspects of that reality in a given time

and space. Semasiology deals with meaning in just the opposite way. In Semasiology a

word is analysed for the meanings it may represent and the way those meanings may

change. Onomastics has to do with initial processes, semasiology with results' .78

4.2. Analyses of the selective semantic domains for Tiwa and Deori languages

Semantic domains refer to a specific place or area where the ingredients of that area

share a set of meanings, some common characteristics within that given context. All

languages have their own body of lexicon in a certain domain. A concept or any physical

entity is being represented in a language through a lexeme or may be a set of lexicon.

More the number of lexemes for one idea/entity, there is lesser the vulnerability of

getting endangered of that particular _language. It indicates the usage of more number of

functional lexemes in that particular domain. When a language starts losing its lexicon

and getting replaced by other dominant language, it implies that that language is on the

verge of endangerment.

In this section, five semantic domains namely 'objects in the sky', 'stages of life',

'emotion', 'physical action' and 'location' have been taken for explanation. While

choosing these domains, it was taken into consideration that lexemes represented in these

domains should readily come to the minds of the speakers and the frequency of those

lexicon is also assumed to be more than other domains. Since these domains are very

common in nature, any human language cannot do away with the above mentioned

77 Cited in Fraser. B.L. Beyond definition: Organizing semantic information in bilingual dictionaries.P.2 78 Hart, D. The Semantic development of the Cognates Russian 'komhama' room -English 'chimney' P.3.

106

domains and their respective lexical items. If a language is reported to miss out these

lexical entities, there might be excessive use of borrowings and eventually this would

lead to taking over the language by respective dominant language. Here, the issue of

language endangerment arises.

Tiwa and Deori speech communities are small speech communities m terms of

population and are surrounded by Assamese speech community and other languages

along with English and Hindi which take centre stage in imparting education to the

children of these two language communities. The motive of the study was to check

whether the speakers of these two languages do use their indigenous lexical items or not.

The reason for taking up Assamese lexicon for comparison is that the speakers of these

two languages have to remain in constant touch with Assamese speakers in their day to

day activities and they are equally fluent in Assamese. This way there are huge

incorporations of Assamese borrowings in their language. Following domains will

extrapolate this assumption.

4.2.1. Objects in the sky

From time immemorial, human beings have been witnessing different entities of the sky,

such as Sun, Moon, Stars, etc. In fact all these entities have become part and parcel of

day to day life for every community. Prior to the extensive scientific discoveries, people

had even worshipped them considering God and goddess and savior of mankind.

Accordingly, these objects in the sky are given different names, and have been observed

meticulously to solve the mystery of the nature. Different language communities give

different nomenclatures for different objects in the sky and their movements.

1. Words refer to the objects in the sky:

107

Assamese7l) Tiwa~m DeorilS 1

akaxm:Jnd:Jl No pis;)im::mdJI

Observation: Tiwa has lost the generallexeme to represent

all the objects in the sky in totality or it may lack the lexeme.

2. Words refer to the study of the objects in the sky:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jyotirbidya No jyotirbidya

Observation: Almost all human tribes devote time to study

astronomy according to the standard and norms of their

education, believe and tradition. Not necessarily it will be

always a scientific study; it may be based on superstition

which is very much predominant among the illiterate tribal

communities live in remote areas. So does the name referring

to this study sure to exist. But the above data have shown

that Tiwa lacks the lexical item for it and Deori has

borrowed the same from Assamese language.

3. Sun: In this field the words related to the Sun and its movements were

searched. The intension was to find out the words which are mundane in nature and

secondly whether the speakers of Tiwa and Deori do use their lexicon or not in their

day to day conversation. The assumption is that if they are able to provide all the

words, they are not losing their lexicon, if they are using L2 lexicon to represent those

ideas, their language would moving towards the conversion with L2.

3.1. Words refer to the sun:

79 Nath, Arup Kumar/ Age 27/Pursuing PhD/15-01-2009 80 Deori, Guren (informant) I Age 43/ BA pass/18-01-2009 81 Deori. Chandra Singh (informant) /Age 811 Matriculate/25-01-2009

And Deori, Babuson (informant) Age 62/Senior Secondary/20-01-2009

108

Assamese

xurjy:J, beli,

adity.7, r.Jbi,

xuruj, dibak.Jr,

din.Jm.Jni

Tiwa

sal

Deori

sa

Observation: Sun is the epicentre of all natural objects in the

sky. There are lots of myths associated with Sun eulogizing

and worshipping the Sun God. Languages normally have

many lexemes referring to Sun. In the table, Assamese

language has shown many lexical items to represent Sun. But

Tiwa and Deori have revealed just two items for Sun which

share some phonetic similarities. This shows that these two

languages are genetically related to each other and have lost

the other lexical items in due course of time if they existed.

3.2. Words refer to the rising of the sun:

Assamese

xurjyod:Jy, puwa,

dh.Jlphat, udit

Tiwa

sal naid::>,

phUfUIJ

Deori

sa higaruba,

siga

Observation: Languages normally show a set of words to

describe the rising of the Sun. It may be a compound form of

lexeme describing 'sun' and 'rising' like xurjyod:Jy in

Assamese language or the time period referring morning

when the sun rises. To refer this domain Tiwa and Deori

languages represent 'Noun (Sun)+ Verb (rise)' structure as

well as two other words to refer to 'morning' time. They

have shown only two lexical items in this context.

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3.3. Words refer to the setting of the sun:

Assamese Tiwa

xurjyasty:J, s:Jkaduba, sal k:Jid:Jik:owa

x:Jndhya, beli p:Jril,

beli duba

Deori

sa dubirum

Observation: Like the rising of the Sun, languages have

different lexemes to represent the process of 'the setting of the

Sun'. Assamese shows a series oflexemes describing this

phenomenon. But Tiwa and Deori give just limited number of

lexemes in this context. Here the structure is 'N + V'. In case

of Deori language, the verb form dubi itself is a borrowing

from Assamese language.

3.4. Words describing when the sun is shining:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

din, r:Jd sal thaid:J sau, sadu

Observation: The Tiwa structure for this semantic field is 'N

+ V' while Deori actually gives the time period representing

when the Sun is shining like the way it is found in Assamese

language.

3.5. Words describe when or where the sun doesn't shine:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

saya, sayagh:Jn, sJyan, say:J-gr:Jh::ln

kh· g:Jr.? , za sa, salja satring

xurjy:Jgr:Jh:Jn, saduja

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xurjy:Jbihin,

xurjy:Jr lukabhaku

Observation: This phenomenon has various lexical items in

Assamese language, but Tiwa and Deori give a limited

number of lexemes in this context. In the Deori word say.J-

gr:JhJn the latter part is taken from Assamese which means

'eclipse'. Both the languages seem to have borrowed lexeme

from Assamese languag{:.

3.6. Words refer to the light of the sun:

Assamese

r:Jd, kas:Jli,

xurjy.Jr rey.Jni,

belir poh:Jr,

belir abha,

kir:Jn, r:Jdali

Tiwa

sal naiJa

Deori

sadu

Observation: The general understanding for this semantic

field is that every language should have more than one

lexeme to represent it. Although these are synonymous in

character, but context dependent. Assamese shows a series of

lexicon for this semantic field, but Tiwa and Deori have

displayed just one lexeme each.

3.7. Words describing the brightness of the sun:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

roudrujj:Jl sal na!Jd::>/phaiJd::> sa dagajiba

Ill

Observation: For this semantic field Tiwa and Deori both

represent their lexical items by using the lexemes for Sun as a

modifier. But Assamese language represents it through an

independent word for this semantic field.

3.8. Words describing the damage done by sunlight:

Assarnese Tiwa Deori

r:Jde pora, sal khama sa nidani

m:Jr:Jha,

r:Jde d:Jha

Observation: This semantic field is also represented by one

word each both in Tiwa and Deori with the word Sun as

modifier.

3.9. Words used to tell time by the sun:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

dokmokali(dmvn), phUruiJ (morning) siga (morning),

puwa (morning), diph:)f(noon) saku (evening),

dup:Jria(noon), bhatibela( afternoon) g::>dhuli (evening) ,

bh:Jr dup:Jriya(noon), h::>r( evening) dup::>ria (noon)

abeli(evening), siri (night)

g:Jdhuli(evening),

x:Jnd)a(evening),

x:Jndhiya(evening),

beli bhiuwa(erening).

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Observation: This sub-field is one of the predominant areas relating

to Sun and its movement. Assamese language has a set of words to

represent the time according to Sun's various positions in the day.

Similarly, Tiwa and Deori have also shown different lexemes to

represent the major breaks of time in the day.

4. Moon: This field tries to attract all the words associated with moon, its

natural movements, how it is being represented in various positions etc.

4.1. Words refer to the moon:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

. h d JOn, c .Jn r.J, JOlla! tya

c".Jndr:Jma, jonbai,

Observation: The Moon has always been the centre of all

traditional myths for all human communities. Languages

have various attributions for Moon. Assamese is also no

exception. But, surprisingly, Tiwa and Deori have just one

word each for Moon. Most strikingly, the Tiwa word is a

borrowing word from Assamese.

4.2. Words used when the moon is shining:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jonak, jonaki rati, jonali jonai plaiJd:~ iya dagaba

Observation: In this sub-field, Assamese has shown phonetically

similar synonymous words with suffixal derivation. But Tiwa

and Deori use the lexemes for 'moon' as modifiers ofthe verb

'shining'.

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4.3. Words used when or where the moon doesn't shine:

Assamese

jonakbihin

ch:Jndr:J gr:Jh:Jn,

auxi, m:Jr auxi,

ghop m:Jra andhar,

:Jmab:Jsya,

Tiwa

jonai ja,

jonai said::>

Deori

iya higaya

iya gr::>h::>n

Observation: The words represented in this context are

mostly used in literature as imagery or simile. But Tiwa and

Deori have shown very limited set of words. The assumption

here would be either they have lost those lexemes or stopped

using them in the conversation. In Deori, to express

'eclipse', it has borrowed the lexeme from Assamese

language.

4.4. Words refer to the light of the moon:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jonak, jonaki, jonai plaiJd::> No

jonali

Observation: The data clearly say that Deori has lost the

word to refer to this semantic field.

4.5. Words refer to the rising of the moon:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jon utha jonai naid::> iya xigaharuba

Observation: All three languages use 'N + V' structure to

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express the lexeme for this semantic field.

4.6. Words refer to the setting of the moon:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jon para, jon duba jonai bidJ iya khuguruba

Observation: This phenomenon is also expressed through 'N

+ V' structure.

4.7. Words refer to the phases of the moon:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kasijon (the first duguju xigaruba iya,

moon) Jmab;)isya purnima,

pr:Jtip.Jd, dwitiya,

tritiya, S:Jturt"i,

h . h· p.JflC .Jml, X:JSt l,

x.Jpt:Jmi, :JSt:Jmi,

mb:Jmi, d:Jx:Jmi,

ekad:Jxi, dwad:Jxi,

tr.Jyud.Jxi, s:Jturd.Jxi,

purnimahmab:Jsya

Observation: The Assamese fortnight has fifteen separate names

for each day according to the size and brightness of the moon,

whereas Tiwa has just two words for 'full moon' and 'completely

no moon' and both of them are borrowings from Assamese

language. Although, Deori has also borrowed these two lexemes

from Assamese, it has still remained the expression to refer to the

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J 'first day moon'.

5. Star: Stars form another important field of the domain 'objects in the sky'.

Field like this one is a universal field. All languages must have their lexical

representation to describe this field.

5.1. Words used to refer to the stars:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

t.Jra, t:Jrali t::>ra, phunt::>ra, phund::>ra t::>ra, jeti t::>ra

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori languages use the Assamese

representation of the lexeme star. But they still retain their own

lexicon as well.

5.2. Words describing the sky when the stars are shining:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

t:Jramli phunt::>ra naid::> jeti daga jiruba

Observation: The Assamese word is derivative adjective, but

Tiwa and Deori express this semantic field with the help of

verb 'shining'.

5.3. Words used when or where the stars don't shine:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

t:Jra-bihin phunt::>ra ja jeti ja, t::>ra ja

Observation: In all three languages, the idea was conveyed

with the help of negative expression such as bihin in

Assamese and )a in Tiwa and Deori.

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5.4. Words refer to the light of the stars:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

tirbir.Jni phunt::>ra j::>led::> jilik jalak

Observation: The Deori wordjilikjalak is actually an

expressive morphology in Assamese language which means

glittering, but not necessarily it refers to only the light of the

star. This is a borrowing from Assamese, but it doesn't have

'field to field' correspondence. In Assamese this same

expression is synonym but used in different context. Tiwa

expresses it with the help of 'shine' verb along with it.

5.5. Words refer to a group of stars:

Assamese

t.Jram:Jnd:Jl,

t.Jrabor,

tar:Jkarajy:J,

tar:Jkam:Jnd:Jl,

hatip:Jti,

Tiwa Deori

hatip::>ti,

xatbhai k::>kai

Observation: Assamese shows a series oflexemes to denote

this semantic field, but Tiwa merely expresses it by adding

the plural classifier rau with the lexeme, whereas, Deori

explains this field with the help of imageries where the first

one means 'the road taken by the mystery elephant (the

milky way in English context)' and the second one says 'the

seven brothers'. But all these expressions are borrowed from

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I Assamese language.

4.2.2. Stages of life

This semantic domain is used to collect the lexemes representing different stages of life,

names for various phases etc. Human beings are the prime area of study or discussion in

all languages and while doing so the speakers are bound to refer them with various

lexemes. Let us consider the following Tiwa and Deori lexicon for this domain.

1. Words refer to the time periods of a person's life:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jiv:Jn p.Jrjay No m::>si::> x::>m::>i

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori languages seem to lose

the independent lexical item for life. Although Deori put in

to words this concept through a clausal expression where

m:Jsb denotes female in general which is a Deori lexeme and

the lexeme x:Jm:Ji means time in Assamese language.

2. Words refer to the entire period of time a person lives:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jiv;m, jiv:Jn kal, ajiv:Jn jiv::>n m::>sb jiv::>n

Observation: Tiwa and Deori both borrowed equivalent

lexeme from Assamese to express this semantic field in their

languages.

3. Words refer to the life cycle of a person:

118

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jiv:Jn s:Jkr:J, jiv.Jn bitr.J jiv:m ph:)r No

Observation: Tiwa has borrowed the lexemes from Assamese

to represent this semantic field whereas the Deori word

remains untraced.

4. Baby

4.1. Words refer to a very small child:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kesua, bnmani, xixu thegela giriri-m:)isa

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori refer to this semantic field

in one lexeme each.

42 Words refer to the time period when a person is a baby:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xixu-kal brkhia ph:)f, thegela ph:)f ffi:)ISa p:)r

Observation: All the three languages here show the same structured

lexemes, while the p:Jr is Assamese borrowing which means time.

4·3

· The sounds babies make:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

blbla kh:)Jkh:)laid:) ffi:)isa kelkelari

Observation: All the three languages show the evidences for

reduplication to explain this semantic field. Tiwa uses the

borrowed form from Assamese, while the Deori kelkela can

119

also be traced in some non-standard varieties of Assamese

such as Darrangia, Kamrupia variety.

s. Care for a baby

s.1. Words refer to feeding a baby:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ahar khuowa, piyah k\wwa s;:, khuwawa suhareba, hareba

Observation: The Tiwa verb for 'feed' is a clear borrowing from

Assamese, while Deori is still retaining the lexemes in this context.

5·2· The way babies are carried:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kolat lowa/bba kh;:,r;:,j;:, laua sekuhJ laba

Observation: Here also the verb has been borrowed from

Assamese language in both Tiwa and Deori.

5·3

· The place babies are kept:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

/ulna kubai laua, pag;)l laua teliiJ betiiJ,

imarihJ barba baga duruba

Observation: Since, the mothers of North East Hill Tribes are used to of

using various tools and techniques to keep their babies safe while they are

working either at home or in the field, this field shows a series of lexical

items both in Tiwa and Deori.

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6. Child

6·1. Words refer to a child (from birth to puberty):

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xixu, kixorli, kh::>r::>la, mJisa m::>ji,

s:Jru l:Jra!sowali pan thai, deka sakati

k:~mman kJrkhia

Observation: This sub-field is well represented in both Tiwa

and Deori languages.

6·2· Words refer to the time period when a person is a child:

Assamese Tiwa Deori r------x.Jix.Jb, bixor, baly:Jkal kh::>r::>la ph::>r, brkhia ph::>r suru p::>r

x.Jrukal

Observation: Here, in both Tiwa and Deori the word p:Jr is a borrowing

from Assamese and in Deori suru is also derived from Assamese word

x:Jru which means small.

7. Youth:

?.1. Words refer to a youth (between puberty and adulthood):

Assamese Tiwa Deori

yub:Jk, yub:Jti, pan thai mtra

dekalora, kh::>rla mirasi,

deka, ji.Jri, dekaji::>ri

sevelia,

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I I Observation: Assamese offers a series of lexical items in this

context, but Tiwa and Deori offer just two indigenous words

each. Deori borrows deka jbri from Assamese language.

7·2· Words refer to the time period when a person is a youth:

.Assamese Tiwa Deori

dekaka.l, joub:mkal, kh::>r::>la ph::>r, mira p::>r, mirasi p::>r,

gabh;;rukal k::>rkhia ph::>r deka kal, jiy::>ri kal

Observation: This sub-field also gives ample lexicon in both

Tiwa and Deori languages along with borrowings such as

p;;r, ph;;r (with !pi aspiration in Tiwa), deka kal, jiy;;ri kal from

Assamese language.

s. Adult

s.1. Words refer to an adult:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

purux, prapt;;b;;y;;sb/a, meua margi mukagu misigu,

b;;y;;x;;st;;, m;;hila bJyJXJStJ

Observation: Deori borrows the second lexeme from Assamese.

8·2• Words refer to time periods of adulthood:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

pow·h.J, ad;;hia p::>Dixal ad::>hia

Observation: In this sub-field Deori has lost its lexeme and

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expresses it through borrowing word from Assamese.

83 Words refer to becoming an adult:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

prapt:Jb:Jy.Jsb/a t;)ralibiiJ No

Observation: Assamese shows marked gender distinction to

denote this semantic field, Tiwa has a generic lexeme, but

Deori has lost its lexicon.

9. Older person

91 Words refer to an old person:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

p;)r;)i-libiiJ, gira girasi,

buri-libiiJ tal)gira tal)girasi,

lurluria gira/si,

d£h ffi;)Si

Observation: The nouns to denote this semantic field in

Assamese language show clear-cut gender distinctions and

so is the case with some lexicon of Deori. In Deori, by

adding /si/ with the masculine noun, it converts to feminine.

In the Tiwa lexicon, the modifier buri in buri-libil} and in

Deori lurluria in lurluria gira/si are borrowings from

Assamese language.

92 Words refer to the process of becoming old:

123

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b:Jy:Jx bhati diya, p:x::>i XUIJga, buri XUIJga gira!si, sar::>ri

brid"y:J howa,

burha/burhi howa

Observation: Assamese reveals a set of lexicon to describe this

phenomenon. Tiwa borrows the lexeme buri to express the same.

9·3

· Words refer to the time period of old age:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

bridhav:Jstha, bardh:JAy:J, No girai x::>m::>i

burha/burhi kal, xex kal,

bhati kal

Observation: Here also, Assamese shows a series of words for

this semantic field. Tiwa has simply lost its lexicon and Deori is

using a borrowed structure.

10. Male, female

101· Pairs of words refer to male and female people:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

purux m:Jhila, meva margi mukagu misigu,

m:Jta maiki, muka misi,

munih timta, m::>isa m::>si,

bra sowali mira mirasi,

Observation: The striking feature is that Tiwa has retained

124

just one pair of words to represent this semantic field unlike

Assamese and Deori.

10·2 Words refer to a man:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

purux, m:Jta, meua, mUIJSa mukagu, deka,

munih, bra, muka, mJisa,

day:Jria, deka, mira, gtra

yub:Jk, sriman

Observation: Like the previous fields here also Tiwa gives a

limited set of lexicon for this semantic field.

10·3· Words refer to whether or not a man is married:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

:Jbibahit:J, b:Jr."Jla bJrJla bJrJla

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori have borrowings from

Assamese to refer to this sub-field.

104· Words refer to a woman:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

m."Jhila, nari, margi, khJrla misigu, misi,

yub:Jti, tirota, mJsi, mirasi,

grihini, srim:Jti, girasi

sowali

Observation: Like the man field, this semantic field also has

125

limited number of lexicon in Tiwa language.

105· Words refer to whether or not a woman is married:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

jbri, abi:Ji, p::>hari lijaua biya sayaba

:Jbibahita, gh:Jini

Observation: In Assamese the first lexeme means that the

girl is waiting for marriage. Second and third lexemes are

used for unmarried woman and the fourth one is for married

woman. But in Tiwa and Deori both the structures refer to

unmarried woman.

11. Die

ILL General words refer to dying:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

mrit:J, nih:Jt:J,

mrityu, m:Jra, kera xul)ga

p:Jr:Jlok prapti

xipuri powa,

}orne loi jowa,

ih:Jlila tyag bra

Observation: Assamese language has a number of lexicon to

represent this semantic field. But Tiwa and Deori have just

few words for this field.

126

112· Words refer to being close to death:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

mumurxu, mrityumuk"i, thina kamd:l chiba p:lr, chin:li nuni

mrityur duard;;li

mrityur mukhamuk"i,

j;;m;;r duar dekhi ;;ha

Observation: Although the phrases in this semantic field are

figurative in meaning, Assamese has many expressions in this

context. But Tiwa and Deori provide very limited expressions for

this semantic field.

ll.3. Euphemisms and idioms used to refer to death:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xex nisxax tyag bra, No No

ih.Jlila x.Jmb;;r;;n bra,

x.Jr.Jg jatra,

xipuribi jowa,

sir.J bidai Iowa

Observation: Tiwa and Deori languages do not express death

through euphemism and idiomatic expressions or else they

have lost all the expressions.

11.

4. Words refer to losing someone in death:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

herua, kale horile khumai lagal) chir:lm

127

Observation: Although Assamese and Tiwa have preferred to

use independent word for this sub-field, Deori expresses this

subfield through the generic word for death only.

4.2.3. Emotion

This semantic domain was triggered to collect the lexemes related to human emotional

world, happiness, sorrow, likings, dis-likings, anger etc. Since, these are all human

nature; no language can be devoid of these words. To express these human natures,

characters, if a language takes help of another language, the assumption would definitely

be that that language is under the threat of getting endangered. Let us consider the

following lexicon ofTiwa and Deori in this domain.

1. Words refer to feeling emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

abeg, anubh:Jv, No No

anubhuti

Comment: Tiwa and Deori are unable to retain the words to

refer to feeling emotions.

2. Words refer to the part of a person that enables him to feel emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

hiya, hrid:Jy, :Jnt:Jr, buku, kha hrid:ly

Observation: Assamese has a series of words to explain this

semantic field under the domain of emotion. Tiwa shows just one

lexeme for this field, while Deori comes up with the borrowing

from Assamese.

128

3. Words describe someone who has strong emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b:Jr abegik, X:Jl)bed.Jnxil, kha kurua giriri hrid:->y

kom:Jl .Jnt.Jr.Jr

Observation: To explain this field all three languages use modifier

adverb which denote the nature of the emotion. The only

exceptional word is the Assamese X:Jl)bed:mxil which means

sensitiveness.

4. Words describe someone who does not show any emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

abeghin, anubhutihin, bthor, kha kerva sava hrid:->y

bthin hrid:Jy, tan :mt.Jr, tan hrid:->y

Observation: Like the previous field, here also this concept is

expressed by using adverbial modifier in all three languages.

Assamese also expresses it by adding suffix -hin (which is used in

negative connotation) with the words abeg and anubhuti. Deori has

borrowed even the adverbial modifier from Assamese along with the

modified noun.

s. Words refer to the way a person feels at a particular time:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

man:Jxiklm:Jn:Jr .Jb:Jstha, No sui

ulah

129

Observation: To deal with this semantic field, Tiwa doesn't

retain any word and Deori has just one lexeme unlike Assamese.

6. Positive emotions: The lexemes representing emotions can be classified into

two dimensions-positive and negative emotion. Both lexemes of these two

semantic fields are studied separately in the following.

6.1. General words refer to positive emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

an:Jndanubhuti, phurti kumun naiJa purti nunuma,

utsah, usah, an::md::>,

xuk"anub"uti pr::>fulb

Observation: For this semantic field Assamese offers a series

of lexicon, while Tiwa is represented by just one lexical

expression and Deori borrowed all the lexemes from

Assamese.

6.2. Like, love

6.2.1. Words refer to liking something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

bhal bga, up:Jbhog, kumun naiJa chu nimanuma,

j:Jtn:J Iowa

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori explain this semantic

field with the use of auxiliary verb like Assamese.

6.2.2. Words refer to liking someone:

130

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b"al powa, kumun nama chu nimanuma

x:mman k:Jra,

anurag

Observation: The lexemes representing this field are also

similar to the previous one in case ofTiwa and Deori are

concerned, but Assamese shows some exceptions having

more lexicon.

6.2.3. Words refer to liking something very much:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

k"ub b 17al bga, para kumun naiJa khub chu nimanuma

:Jti b17al,

b:Jhut b"al bga

Observation: This semantic field is generally described by using

adverbial modifiers. In Assamese k"ub, .Jti, b:Jhut etc. are

modifiers. Tiwa and Deori also use adverbial modifiers to

describe this field. Deori is shown to have borrowed the

modifier from Assamese language.

6.2.4. Words describing something that is liked:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

m:Jr:Jm:Jr, ad:Jr.Jr, kumun naiJa chu nimanuma

seneh:Jr, alax:Jr

Observation: For this semantic field also Tiwa and Deori

show san1e structure as they did for verb like. But Assamese

131

has a set of adjectives to denote this field.

6.2.5. Words refer to a person who likes something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

:Jnuragi, :Jnugrahi, No ::muragi

:Jttutxahi

Observation: This semantic field is not represented in Tiwa

language, but Deori has borrowed the lexeme from

Assamese language.

6.2.6. Words refer to liking something more than something else:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

priy:J, iyatbi, tatbi penekuri kumun naiJa lasinag::>i basi sui, m::>r::>m::>r, priy::>

Observation: In this semantic field, modifiers are used to explain the degree of

comparison. They are adverbs in all three languages. The last two lexemes in Deori

are borrowings from Assamese.

6.2.7. Words refer to the thing you like the most:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ataitbi priy:J, s:Jb:Jtbi para kumun naiJa atainag::>i subase, s::>bneke priy::>

priy:J

Observation: In this semantic field the degree of superlative is being tested.

There is remarkable phonetic similarity between the Deori and Assamese

adverbials. This could also be an evidence of borrowing from Assamese. Even

the last expression here also borrowed from Assamese. Here the structure of

the modifier goes like this: s:Jb:Jtke (Assamese) -7 s:Jbneke (in Deori).

132

7. Happy

7.1. Words describing how a person feels when something good happens:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xuk\ amndit.J, utp"ullit.J kumun xukhi

Observation: Deori and Tiwa have displayed just one lexeme each

for this semantic field. But Deori uses the borrowed item from

Assamese language.

7.2. Words describing a person who is very happy or joyful:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

;ytt;mt:J!b:Jhut xuk\ k"ub xuk"i para kumun khub chu

Observation: Assamese shows a number of adverbs to express the

degree of superlative. But Tiwa and Deori have just one lexeme each

for this purpose. Deori has again borrowed the adverb from Assamese.

7.3. Words describing a person who usually feels good:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xuk"i, an:Jndit:J kumun xuk chu nimama

Observation: The Tiwa word kumun occurs in various

semantic environments. Here also it is used to express the

feel good condition. Assamese has adjectives for this

semantic field whereas Deori uses adverbial in this context.

7.4. Words describing a person who feels good about someone's behaviour:

133

Assamese Tiwa Deori

x:Jntust:J, b 11al bga, xuk11i ho1va, kumun naiJa chu nimama

m:Jn khowa

Observation: In all three languages, this semantic field is expressed

through 'adjective +verbal' structure. Assamese has a series of synonyms

for this field.

8. Laugh: Every language has lexemes to refer to the action of laugh, various

styles and way of laughs. People express their happiness; make joy and

merriment through laughter. And people have to behave differently according

to the demand of the situation and so they laugh accordingly. Let us consider

the lexicon to represent laugh in Tiwa and Deori in the following.

8.1. General words referring to laughing:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

h:Jha, phurti, tamsa miniua hati garuba, purti

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori have retained their

lexicon for this semantic field. But Deori has borrowed one

lexeme from Assamese.

8.2. Words refer to laughing a little or quietly:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

eukeuka No kikkiksa hatigari

Observation: Assamese and Deori have expressed this

semantic field through expressive morphology. But Tiwa is

unable to retrieve this lexeme.

134

8.3. Words refer to laughing a lot or loudly:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

girj:mi, :Jtt:Jhasy:J ..

gEhsa hatigari, rausi kubsi paiJa mmma

Observation: This semantic field is well represented in all the three

languages.

8.4. Words refer to laughing for a long time:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b"al hJha, paiJa minid::>IJ, ::>msa p::>r

hahi n:Jr:Jk"a, mini mini mudi naid::> samaine hatigari,

hahi b"ag:Jra, hatigaiJna hatigaiJna

hahi s.Jkur pani ola, mukumuji liguiJna

b:Jr hahi ut"a, khinri

hahit pet bik"ai jowa

Observation: Assamese and Deori have.enough lexical representation

for this semantic field. Tiwa gives just two lexical expressions for this

field.

8.5. Words refer to laughing at someone because they did something

wrong:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

t"atta m:Jsbra bra, jokowa, mini d::>na s::>se ninuma ,

besu duruba

Observation: This semantic field also brings into fore adequate

lexemes in all the three languages.

135

8.6. Words refer to beginning to laugh:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

hahib:J dh:Jra, miniva hamd:J hatigami nuni

hahi utha,

hahib:J ar:Jmb":J bra

Observation: This semantic field is used as a first step of

laughing, i.e. the process of beginning to laugh. Deori and

Tiwa are represented by one lexeme each.

8.7. Words describing someone or something that causes people to laugh:·

Assamese Tiwa Deori

hahir k"orak, No damamujai xu hatigari,

hahiyat.Jr patr:J, jijiruba

r:Jxal

Observation: Deori is well represented for this semantic field like

Assamese. But Tiwa failed to retain the word for this semantic

field.

8.8. Words refer to smiling:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

misikia, lahebi h:Jha, teppe minid:J misikia hatigaruba

kom:Jlbi h:Jha,

Observation: For this semantic field both Tiwa and Deori have

one lexical expression each. But Deori has borrowed the

modifying lexeme from Assamese.

136

9. Negative emotions: Like the positive emotions, human languages also have

words to represent negative emotions. The following data elicitation would

give the lexicon for Tiwa and Deori languages in this context.

9.1. General words refer to negative emotions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

beya bhab, durb"av.Jna keria naiJd;:, saba bhab/cintaJbhabiba

Observation: To represent this semantic field Tiwa has its own

lexeme, but Deori has borrowed all the nouns for this field while

retaining the adjectival for it.

9.2. Words refer to emotional pain:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

bixad, bed:ma, No saba bed::ma

bir;;h, bix;;nn;;ta,

niraxa

Observation: This semantic field has many synonymous

words in Assamese language. But Tiwa has lost all the words

for this field, whereas Deori is representing it through

borrowing word from Assamese.

9.3. Sad

9.3.1. Words describing a person who is sad:

\ Assamese Tiwa Deori

137

duk"i, duk"it:J, keria naiJd::l dukh nimani

;;xuk"i, niran;;nd;;

Observation: In opposite to a series of lexicon in Assamese

language, Tiwa still retains a single lexical expression for

this field, while Deori has borrowed the adjectival from

Assamese.

9.3.2. Words describing a person ·who is very sad:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

bixadgr;;st;;, keria naiJd::~, kera naiJd::l b::~r saba nima mni

b;;r duk"i, h;;tax,

b"agi p;;ra,

m;;nok;;st:J howa,

;;st"ir howa,

Observation: To explain this semantic field Assamese offers a series

of lexicon, while Tiwa offers two equivalent expressions and Deori

has one expression for it with the borrowing of adverbial from

Assamese.

9.3.3. Words describing a person who usually feels sad:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

h;;tax, duk"i duk"i, ;;xuk"i, dukhi saba nimanuma

;;xanti, m;;nobst:J

Observation: For this semantic field Tiwa has borrowed Assamese

lexicon, Deori retains its lexeme.

138

9.3.4. Words describing how a person feels when his hopes are not

fulfilled:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

axah.Jt.J, h:Jtax, britrisna khabal keria niman:)i jam

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori have one sense representation

for this semantic field.

9.3.5. Words refer to feel jealous when something good happens to

someone:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

irxa, j.Jbni por:Jni, s.Jku para, s.Jku s:Jr:Jha nina mijaua mukukJi

Observation: For this semantic field Assamese offers a series of lexicon, but Tiwa

and Deori retain just one lexicon each.

9.3.6. Sounds a person makes when he is sad:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ha hutax, humuniah No No

Observation: The general convention is that all the human

languages should have the lexicon for this field. But Tiwa

and Deori both have lost them over the period oftime.

9.4. Lonely

9.4. 1. Words describing how a person feels when he is alone:

I Assamese Tiwa Deori

139

:Jb!x:Jria, nix:Jljg:J, bix:JJm:J, bixad I sajaib I s::>saya, seure jaba

Observation: Both the lexical items of Tiwa and Deori seem to have

phonetic similarity. When Assamese has a series of words for this field,

Tiwa has just one lexeme.

9.5. Cry

9.5.1. Words referring when a person cries:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

bnda, karaua, ogaba,

s:Jkupani taka, karaid::> mukumiji luruba,

due bra, ges:->rga mba,

hiya dhakura, duk nunuma

Observation: For this semantic field Deori is well represented

like Assamese. But Tiwa offers just two words in this

context.

9.5.2. Words used for weeping:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

usupa mudisri karaid::> No

Observation: In this semantic field Tiwa has one lexical

expression like Assamese, but Deori has been unable to

retain its lexicon.

9.5.3. Words describing when people cry but do not show:

I Assamese Tiwa Deori

140

b"it.Jri b"it:Jri k.Jnda. hiya b":Jga m::>n::> karava ti thisa ogaba

ant:Jre k.Jnda, hiya d:Jha, buku b":Jga

Observation: This semantic field has shown a series of lexical expressions in

Assamese, but Tiwa and Deori provide just one item each.

9.5.4. Words describing when people cry in pleasure/out of happiness:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

an:Jnd:Jr b:Jnya, an:Jnd.Jr s.Jkupani, No hatigal)na ogaba

an:Jndrasru,

Observation: Tiwa has lost the lexeme for this semantic field, but Deori has

still retained it.

4.2.4. Physical Action

The following study exemplifies the cross linguistic study of verbs of physical actions

such as stand, sit, walk etc, which could be categorized in the physical action or motion

verb domain. The main focus has been to find out the expressive morphology of these

words and the reduplicated forms of them. The domains which are included in this

category are some verbal expressions which Newman82 referred them as 'posture verbs'

which in the literal uses of verbs describe various human postures with different lexical

items. This is prominent in the distinction between the action of entering into a posture

and the state resulting from the posture. Languages do have a huge body of lexicon to

substantiate this phenomenon. Newman says "the posture states, while all aptly described

as 'at rest' have quite different roles to play in our lives. Sitting is generally associated

with comfort and is a posture we can maintain for some hours while continuing to work

with our hands, while continuing to talk etc. Standing in one position is not so

comfortable and we are not inclined to stay in that position for long, though it is a

position with advantages for seeing at a distance, exerting force against others etc. So,

sc Newman, J n1e Linguistics of' Sitting. Standing and Lying.P.l

141

despite a commonality between the at-rest positions, there are also clear differences in

their functions in our daily lives. The posture verbs encoding these states reflect these

realities; with regard to some linguistic phenomena in a language (e.g. the basic syntax

they occur with), they may appear a unified set, behaving in a parallel way, while in

other ways (e.g. figurative extension of the posture meaning) the verbs may pattern

differently."83 Following an attempt is made to put into words the expressive posture

verbs in Tiwa and Deori languages.

1. General words referring to physical actions:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xaririk kamkaj/ sals:Jbn No kamkaj

Observation: Tiwa does not have a generic word to explain the

semantic field physical action, while Deori has an Assamese

borrowing.

1.1. Stand

1.1.1 Words refer to being in a standing position:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

thiy:J howa thia tii]i tharJ tagaba

Observation: For this posture verb, Tiwa expression is

represented by auxiliary verb like the Assamese lexicon, but

Deori is represented without the auxiliary verb. The Tiwa

verb for stand thia is a borrowing ·from Assamese language.

83 Newman, J The Linguistics of Sitting. Standing and Lying.P.l

142

1.1.2 Words refer to standing up from a sitting or lying position:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

utha, bh.Jri p.Jta, thiy:J diya, thiy:J hmva, sigala sargab£, tagab£

b:Jhar p:Jra utha, ga d:JI)a

Observation: Tiwa and Deori both offer limited number of lexical expressions

unlike Assamese in this context.

1.1.3 Words referring how people stand:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

pon howa, bhalke thiy:J howa, kumunke thia hJI) pulul)asa tagab£

bekake thiy:J howa, beyake rowa

Observation: For this semantic field the adjectival plays an important role

to define the posture verb. Tiwa and Deori have shown just two

expressions for this field.

1.1.4 Words refer to standing near something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kax:Jt rowa, JSJrJb thia hJI) JSJrJt tagaba

ekebge rmva,

os.Jr:Jt thiy:J hmva

Observation: Tiwa and Deori show the same structure for

this field like Assamese. But both the languages have

borrowed the deictic words from Assamese language.

1.1.5 Words referring how one order someone to stand:

143

Assamese Tiwa Deori

thiy;; howa/h;;uk thia h:)IJ n:) tagabc:

Observation: To express this semantic field, the verb

indicates the degree of respect/command/request etc and gets

associated with the verb. Tiwa and Deori also represent this

field with the help of auxiliary verb.

1.2. Sit

1.2.1. Words referring to being in a sitting position:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b;;/zi th;;ka, tika pelowa, kh:)j:)IJe thaua duduiJna dunuma,

ax:Jn Iowa bJhJ dudube

Observation: For this semantic expression, Tiwa is represented by

just one lexeme, while in Deori it has a second lexical expression

with Assamese borrowing.

1.2.2. Words describing how a person is sitting:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

auji b;;ha, auji kh:)j:)IJ, apasu b:)igaiJna dudube,

the1pt the1J tuli b;;/w, lathUI)ti kh:)j:)IJ, aujiiJna dudube,

ep11;;/iake b;;ha, khiiJgrake kh:)j:)IJ ekJtiya sa dudube

pan h;;i b;;ha,

bekabi b;;ha,

kas;; bandh bgai b;;ha,

b";;ri uthai b;;ha,

144

bhalke b.Jha

ek.Jtiya h.Ji b:;ha

Observation: This semantic field provides a series of expressions in

almost all the languages. Assamese has a set of lexicon, while Tiwa

and Deori offer three expressions each. Out of them Tiwa has

borrowed one and Deori has two lexical expressions from Assamese.

1.2.3. Words refer to sitting down from a standing position:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b:;hi p.Jra, ax.Jn Iowa, t"iy:; h.Ji kh:)j:)IJgaiJ dudube

thakibo novvara howa

Observation: Along with the denotative expression Assamese also has

connotative expression (the last one) which means unable to stay on

standing. But Tiwa and Deori have just two simple expressions for this

semantic field.

1.2.4. Words referring to sitting up from a lying position:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ut"i b.Jha thuuanephara kh:)jUIJga sargaiJna dudube

Observation: This semantic field has very limited number of

lexemes in all three languages.

1.2.5. Words describing how a person sits down:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

lahebi b.Jha, salaiJ khujuiJ, meh mesa dudube,

arambi b.Jha, ph:)tke khujuiJ gaiJde igabasa dudube,

145

l;;pke b;;ha, p;:,tsare dudube

ph;;tke b;;ha,

hali b;;ha,

ebtia h;;i b;;ha,

eph;;lia h;;i b;;ha

Observation: Unlike Assamese language, Tiwa and Deori have

provided a few numbers of lexical expressions for this field.

1.2.6. Words refer to causing someone to sit:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b;;hib;; bga khujuiJa naiJa huiJga dudujiri saDm

Observation: This semantic field is also well represented in all

three languages.

1.2.7. Words refer to sitting on something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kih;;bar up;;r;;t b;;ha nuxine sau khujuiJga dama mujab pis;:,h dudube

Observation: For this semantic field, the generic word for something is

used as locative word in all three languages.

1.2.8. Words refer to the place where you sit:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b;;ha thai, ax;;n, jaga khujuiJa jaga duduba tai

Observation: Tiwa and Deori both have borrowed the lexeme

for place from Assamese.

146

1.2.9. Words saying to someone when one wants someone to sit down:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

b:Jha, b:Jh:Jk, ax.Jn lowa, khujuiJ b;:,la dudumi nisabem,

ax:Jn gr:Jh:Jn k:Jra huna nisa dudun;:,i nisabem

Observation: For this semantic field, the auxiliary verbs associated with the

lexemes in Assamese get agreement according to the request, respect and

command according to the age /respect of the intended person. Tiwa and

Deori also show agreement in some of these kinds of expressions.

1.3. \Valk

1.3.1. General words refer to walking:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

k"oj brha lamlima, khuj karua sagu keba

Observation: Although Tiwa and Deori both have lexemes for

this semantic field, Tiwa has borrowed the second lexical

expression from Assamese.

1.3.2. Words refer to travelling some place on foot:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

p.Jdyatra, k 17ojkarhi p\tra No kejia

Observation: Tiwa lacks lexemes for this semantic field, while

Deori comes up with one lexeme.

1.3.3. Words refer to walking quickly:

147

Assamese Tiwa Deori

begai ja, begdi jowa, bre bre li ua, abugaiJna keruba

douri douri jowa selaiJ lamlim

Observation: Assamese and Tiwa both have the evidences of

expressive morphology for this field along with other lexicon

while Deori has a single expression.

1.3.4. Words refer to walking slowly:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

lahe lahe khojbrha, tep tep lamlima, meh mesa keruba

dhire dhire jowa tep tep liva

Observation: All the three languages have provided

reduplicated expressive morphology to explain this field.

1 .3.5. Words refer to walking carefully:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

xab;;dhane Poj diya, kumun kheli susa keruba,

sai sai jowa, bhalke khoj diba, Jbl) JtJI)na keruba

age pise sai jaba

Observation: Like Assamese, Deori has also retained the expressive

morphology for this semantic field, but Tiwa is unable to retain them.

1 .3.6. Words refer to walking quietly or secretly:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

susuk samak bi jowa, mJne mJne li ti thisa khiruba,

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m.Jne m:Jne JOWa, sJsegu sJseiJna keruba

lukai lukai jowa,

Observation: For this semantic field Tiwa and Deori have shown

only expressive morphology like various expressions in Assamese.

But Tiwa has just one expression in its body of lexicon.

1.3.7. Words refer to walking loudly:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

.. dhJm dhJmai li begsa keruba g:Jp g.Jpaz JOWa,

d":Jm d":Jmai jowa

Observation: Tiwa has shown similar structure to represent

this field. And the lexemes have been borrowed from

Assamese. But Deori is not giving expressive morphology

like Assamese and Tiwa.

I.H. Words refer to walking like a soldier:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

gup gupai k"oj brha dhJm dhJmai li grup grup/gup gupsa kebe

d".Jm d":Jmai jowa

Observation: Like the previous field, here also Tiwa is using the

borrowing structure. Deori has also borrowed the expressive

morphology from Assamese.

1.3.9. Words refer to stepping on something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

g:Js:Jki diya, b":Jri diya, gas1 gara akaji duruba

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eoj diya I Observation: For this semantic field Tiwa and Deori both have

one lexical expression each.

1.3.10. Words refer to a single step:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ek"oj, ek k"oj khJpsa amasa, amakin

Observation: This field is well represented in both Tiwa and

Deori like Assamese language.

1.3.11. Words refer to the length of your step:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

ek"ujia, eb 17:Jri khJpsai amasa

Observation: This semantic field is almost similar to the

previous field. Both Tiwa and Deori have retained single

lexeme to express this field.

1.3.12. Words refer to measuring the length of something by counting your

steps:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

eb 17:Jri, dub":Jri khJpsa dikhJP li amasa

Observation: For this field, Tiwa has retained the lexicon

carefully, while Deori shows just one lexeme.

1.3.13. Words refer to someone who walks:

150

Assamese Tiwa Deori

p:Jthik, p.Jthsari, p:Jdatik lamauliua keijia

Observation: Unlike Tiwa and Demi, Assamese has offered

more than one lexeme for this field, while these two have

retained just one lexeme each.

!.3.14. Words refer to a mark on the ground left by a person's foot:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

khoj, khoj:Jr sab, khoj:Jr sin khJS ama dudaruba

Observation: Tiwa has a phonetically similar word with Assamese

lexicon for this field, while Deori has one lexical expression for

this field.

1.3.15. Words refer to the sound of someone walking:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

khoj:Jr x:Jbd:J lathuiJe xJbdJ amab xJbdJ

Observation: Both Tiwa and Deori have borrowed the word

to represent sound from Assamese.

1.3.16. Words refer to walking through water:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

j:Jp.J1) j:Jp:J1) bi, No No

g.Jj:J1) g.Jj:J1) bi

Observation: This semantic field has lost all the lexicon in

Tiwa and Deori languages.

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1.3.17. Words refer to a time \Yhen people walk for fun:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

k"oj karhib:J jowa, k::>drai luua kejeruba

t:Jh:Jl dib:J jowa,

p"uri :Jha

Observation: Tiwa and Deori are represented by just one

lexeme each in opposition to a series of lexicon in Assamese

language.

4.2.5. Location

Although, this domain deals with primarily the lexemes available for location, the thrust

area would be the deictical lexemes. Deixis plays a pivotal role in the communication

system in understanding the topic in a better way. Generally speaking deixis is concerned

with the relationship between language and context as reflected in the structure of the

language itself (Levinson: 1983:54). All languages have set of deixis for better

contextual communication. Deixis can be of various types such as location, space,

reference, temporal, personal, social, discourse and emphatic deixis etc. Tiwa and Deori

also provide us a number of deixis, but lexemes for this domain are declining very fast

and getting replaced by Assamese deictic words. Here, only location deictic markers are

taken into consideration. Let us consider them in the following.

1. Location

1.1 Words refer to the location of something:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

st"an, ast"an, jaga, t"ai jaga. thai tai

Observation: All the lexemes for this semantic field Tiwa and

Deori both of them have borrowed from Assamese language.

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1.2. Here

1.2.1. Words refer to a place near the speaker:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

iyat, eikhinit, iyatei xeub, xeu hebh::>, helakini, bh::>

Observation: For this domain both Tiwa and Deori are well

represented.

1.2.2. Words refer to a place near the listener:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

tat, iyat, eikhinit peiSU b::>h::>

Observation: Tiwa and Deori each have one- deictic lexeme

to represent this semantic field.

1.2.3. Words refer to a place that is not near the speaker or the listener:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

tat, xou tat, beleg:;t, br:;bat pasuba bur::>mah::>, xou b::>h::>, ba b::>h::>

Observation: Although Deori looks well represented in this domain, it has still

lexical borrowing (the second one) from Assamese. Tiwa shows just one lexeme

for this field.

1.3. In front of

1.3.1. Words indicate that something is in front of something else:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

x.Jnmue:Jt khub dugujuhu

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Observation: Like Assamese, Tiwa and Deori are also

represented by a single lexeme for this semantic field.

1.3.2. Words indicate that two people are in front of each other:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

x:.mmukha x;;nmukhi mukha mukhi . ' mukhamukhi mukhamukhi

Observation: Expressive morphology is used to express this semantic field

in all three languages. Deori and Tiwa have borrowed all the expressions

from Assamese.

1.4. Behind

1.4.1. Words indicate that something is in back of something else:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

pis;;t, pisphale khelaiJ jiiJ, khelaiJ;) simi phale, simih;)

Observation: The deixis to explain this semantic field are not

borrowings in Tiwa and Deori. But in Deori, the word ph ale is

borrowing from Assamese.

1.5. Beside

Words indicate that something is beside something else:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

kax;;t, bg;;t, ekebge, ;)S;)r;)b, aiJelag;), lag;), xaduh;), ekebgh;)re,

x;;ite, pis;;tei, xophale, maijauajil), laskijiiJ datit

baophale, datil, xobasipi ;)japi ;)Sipi,

h;)ina

!54

Observation: This semantic field is well represented both in Tiwa and

Deori like Assamese. The only observation would be that both languages

have borrowed words such as :JS:Jr:Jb, lag.? in Tiwa and

ekebl:Jre, datil in Deori from Assamese.

1.6. Between

Words indicate that something is between two other things:

Assamese Tiwa Deori

maj:Jt, kendr:Jt, m:Jd1'y:Jt maje S:)Sih:)

Observation: For this semantic field also Tiwa uses the

Assamese lexicon and Deori still retains its lexeme.

4.3. Conclusion

The importance of home and religion domains for language maintenance is undoubtedly

immense. All these semantic fields are actually extensively used in the day to day

activities of human life. In the face of excessive linguistic convergence, it becomes

difficult to retain the languages unaffected for Tiwa and Deori. In the process of

convergence languages go for huge amount of borrowing, which finally lead towards

'negative borrowing'. As Brenzinger comments, "Negative borrowing has nothing to do

with reductional loss of essential, it just follows the practice of the model language in

dropping linguistic elements that the model language does not have. This is not confined

to categories, for it can happen in other areas of the language system too."84 When

speakers are less fluent or don't use their mother tongue for a long time, this

phenomenon triggers off. From theoretical perspective negative borrowing immediately

doesn't lead to dysfunctional state of the language. But, in the long run, it will take the

8~ Brenzinger, M. Language Death:factual and theoretical explorations with 5pecial reference to East Africa. P.65

155

languages towards endangered situation. Speakers will start shifting towards the

dominant or model language. Excessive use of Assamese words in Tiwa and Deori is

now leading these two languages to lose many functional categories of lexicon.

The entire analysis of the semantic domains and fields has immensely substantiated the

claim that there is a huge replacement of lexical items in Tiwa and Deori by Assamese

lexicon in the form of borrowings. The following diagram will further give a clear

picture of domain/field replacement of Tiwa and Deori lexicon by their Assamese

counterpart.

140 130

120

100

80

60 52

40

20

0

Total tested fie Ids Tiwa Deori

in Assame~

Assamese 130 fields tested. The

percentage is assumed

100%

Tiwa 28% borrowing

Deori 40% borrowing

Figure 1: Level of Semantic Field Borrowings

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The above diagram clearly indicates that both the languages have been subject to

continuous borrowings from Assamese language in their vital semantic domains. Out of

130 sample fields which are considered for semantic domains, Tiwa has borrowed from

Assamese in 37 fields and Deori did the same for 52 incidences. The percentage of

lexical borrowing is higher in Deori comparing to Tiwa. It reveals two dimensions: A)

Deori is fast replacing its lexicon by Assamese counterparts. B) But at the same time,

comparatively, Tiwa speakers are slightly hesitant to replace their lexicon by Assamese

counterparts rather they are letting their lexemes lose off. This way Tiwa is fast losing its

lexicon and taking this language towards the endangered situation.

100

90

80

70

60

so 40

30

20

10

0

Total fields tested I Asscrnese (in %)

Tiwa (in%) Deori (in%)

Figure 2: Level of lexical Loss in various Semantic Field

Figure 2 also indicates the same picture like the language borrowing (Figure I). In this

scenario, out of 130 samples, in 12% semantic fields, Tiwa language failed to

retrieve/retain their lexicon and similarly 8% Deori lexicon could not be retrieved. This

157

implies that the speakers of these two languages have lost this huge amount of lexicon

from their languages. This percentage also spells out the concern that after examining a

limited number of semantic fields we have got this present scenario, had it been the

entire semantic fields tested, probably we would have obtained a more alarming

indication for both the languages with regard to lexeme loss. Since the loss pertains to

the areas of basic lexicon, thereby they can be called essential semantic domains of the

languages. If this trend continues it can rightly lead these languages towards the death

knell in the near future.

Although many semantic fields in Tiwa and Deori have lexical representations, but in

most of the fields, in comparison to Assamese language, the informants came up with

just one or sometimes two lexemes while Assamese shows a series of lexicon for the

same. This phenomenon of restriction or depletion of semantic domains has serious

repercussion on the vitality of the language. Only the functional lexemes of some

domains could be retrieved. The depletion or the restriction of the domains could be

checked through continuous exercise of literature, using those lexicon more and more in

Public and formal domains as well as other domains.

Out of all these five semantic domains, the domain 'Stages of life' has shown maximum

number of lexical borrowing in both Tiwa and Deori. The conspicuous fact is that Deori

shows the tendency to borrow maximum number of adjectival modifiers in the phrasal

expressions than Tiwa. With regard to minimum number of borrowing or in other words

maximum number of lexical retention is shown by the 'location' deictic domain in both

the languages. But Tiwa shows maximum number of lexicon loss in comparison to

Deori.

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