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Motivation in Theory: What Makes Employees Try

Harder

Copyright © 2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/IrwinOrganizational Behavior, Core Concepts

4Organizational Behavior

core concepts

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Learning Objectives

• Describe how individuals may be motivated by their needs

• Discuss how individuals may be motivated by their perceptions of equity and justice

• Summarize how people’s motivation can be influenced by their attitudes toward outcomes and their belief they can influence outcomes

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Learning Objectives

• Explain how goal setting motivates individuals

• Review ways to design jobs so as to influence employee motivation

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Motivation in Theory

• Motivation – psychological processes that arouse and

direct goal-directed behavior

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Motivation in Theory

• Content theories – identify internal factors such as instincts,

needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics that energize employee motivation

• Process theories – explain the process by which internal factors

and cognitions influence a person’s motivation

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Content Theories of Motivation

• Needs– Physiological or psychological

deficiencies that arouse behavior.

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• Motivation is a function of five basic needs – physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization

• Arranged in a preponent hierarchy

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Figure 4-1

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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• Once a need is satisfied it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy

• Managerial implication – a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Existence needs – desire to have physiological and materialistic

well-being

• Relatedness needs – desire to have meaningful relationships with

significant others

• Growth needs – desire to grow as a human and use one’s

abilities to their fullest

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Question?

What need is the desire to accomplish something difficult?

A. Affiliation

B. Achievement

C. Power

D. Glory

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McClelland’s Need Theory

• Need for achievement– Desire to accomplish something difficult.

• Need for affiliation– Desire to spend time in social relationships

and activities.

• Need for power– Desire to Influence, coach, teach, or

encourage others to achieve.

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McClelland’s Need Theory

Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics:

1. Preference for working on tasks of moderate difficulty

2. Preference for situations in which performance is due to their efforts

3. Desire more feedback on their successes and failures

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McClelland’s Need Theory: Managerial Implications• Organizations should consider the

benefits of providing achievement training for employees

• Achievement, affiliation, and power needs can be considered during the selection process, for better placement

• Managers should create challenging task assignments or goals

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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model• Motivators

– job characteristics associated with job satisfaction

• Hygiene factors – job characteristics associated with job

dissatisfaction

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Equity Theory

• Equity theory– Holds that

motivation is a function of fairness in social exchanges

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Negative and Positive Inequity

• Negative inequity – Comparison in which another person

receives greater outcomes for similar inputs.

• Positive inequity – Comparison in which another person

receives lesser outcomes for similar inputs.

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Negative and Positive Inequity

Figure 4-2

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Dynamics of Perceived Inequity

• Equity sensitivity – An individual’s tolerance for negative and

positive equity

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Dynamics of Perceived Inequity

• Benevolents have a higher tolerance for negative inequity.

• Sensitives adhere to a strict norm of reciprocity and are quickly motivated to resolve both negative and positive inequity

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Dynamics of Perceived Inequity

• Entitleds have no tolerance for negative inequity– expect to obtain greater output/input ratios

than comparison others and become upset when this is not the case.

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Organizational Justice

• Distributive justice – The perceived fairness of how resources

and rewards are distributed.

• Procedural justice – The perceived fairness of the process and

procedures used to make allocation decisions.

• Interactional justice – Extent to which people feel fairly treated

when procedures are implemented.

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Practical Lessons from Equity Theory• Equity theory provides managers with yet

another explanation of how beliefs and attitudes affect job performance.

• Research emphasizes the need for managers to pay attention to employees’ perceptions of what is fair and equitable.

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Practical Lessons from Equity Theory• Managers benefit by allowing employees

to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes.

• Employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare.

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Practical Lessons from Equity Theory• Employees are more likely to accept and

support organizational change when they believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes.

• Managers can promote cooperation and teamwork among group members by treating them equitably.

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Practical Lessons from Equity Theory• Treating employees inequitably can lead

to litigation and costly court settlements.

• Employees’ perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers

• Managers should pay attention to the organization’s climate for justice

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Expectancy Theory of Motivation

• Expectancy theory – Holds that people are motivated to behave in

ways that produce valued outcomes.

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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

• Motivation boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation.

• Expectancy – Belief that effort leads to a specific level of

performance.

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Question?

In Vroom’s expectancy theory what is the value of a reward?

A. Instrumentality

B. Valence

C. Outcome

D. Input

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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

• Instrumentality – A performance outcome perception

• Valence – The value of a reward or outcome

• Outcomes – refer to different consequences that are

contingent on performance

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Motivation Through Goal Setting

• Goal – what an individual is trying to accomplish

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How Goal Setting Works

• Goals direct attention

• Goals regulate effort

• Goals increase persistence

• Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans

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Applications of Goal-Setting Research1. Difficult goals lead to higher

performance

2. Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance for simple rather complex tasks

• Goal specificity – quantifiability of a goal

3. Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals

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Insights from Goal-Setting Research4. Participative goals, assigned goals, and

self-set goals are equally effective

5. Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes

• Goal commitment – extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal

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Motivating Employees Through Job Design• Job Design

– changing the content and/or process of a specific job to increase job satisfaction and performance

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Mechanistic Approach

Scientific Management

1. Use time and motion studies to develop standard methods for performing jobs.

2. Carefully select employees with the appropriate abilities.

3. Train workers to use the standard methods and procedures.

4. Support workers and reduce interruptions.

5. Provide incentives to reinforce performance

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Motivational Approaches

• Job enlargement – putting more variety into a job– Horizontal loading

• Job rotation – moving employees from one specialized job

to another– Increased worker flexibility and easier

scheduling

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Motivational Approaches: Job Enrichment• Job enrichment

– building achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement into a job

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The Job Characteristics Model

Figure 4-3

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The Job Characteristics Model

• Intrinsic motivation – motivation caused by positive internal

feelings

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Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches• Based on research from biomechanics,

work physiology, and ergonomics

• Focuses on designing the work environment to reduce employees’ physical strain, fatigue , and health complaints