39860943 cathodic protection course

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Dynamic Cathodic ProtectionApplying circuit analysis to Cathodic Protection.

Let your computers stop your corrosion (click here)Link to free on line Cathodic Protection Course

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Cathodic Protection Training Course

SYLLABUS

The content of all modules is drawn from personal experience and field experimentationbacked up by years of research into the theory and application of cathodic protection in fieldconditions.Each module is supported by documentation including pictures and data from actual fieldactivities.

The cost of each module includes on-line, real time discussion period at the end of eachmodule.

We can supply the instruments needed for this course, but will require payment plusshipping costs prior to dispatch. Your organisation may already have the requiredinstruments or chose to obtain them locally.

Module 01

Introduction to cathodic protection.

Foundation of C.P. Examples of traditional data Practical appraisal the voltmeters used in CP work. Two practical bench studies, requiring a report. First field visit, requiring a report. On-line real time discussion.

Module 02 Technical history of C.P.

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Explanation of the reasons behind current trends in C.P. Financial and operational benefits of CP. Academic and scientific views of CP. Commercial aspects for and against CP. Introduction to measuring and monitoring Theory behind the 'immediate off potential'. Practical, make two reference electrodes (half-cells) Field trip with simple exercise in CP measurment requiring areport. On-line real time discussion.

Module 03 Thermodynamic theory of CP simplified. The significance of the Pourbaix diagrams. The Daniel Cell in laboratory work. The importance of the reference potential. Codes of practice.

Standard laboratory techniques The development of standard techniques in field work. Open circuit measurements. Errors and their causes. Interference. Practical bench experiments. Field trip with experiments requiring a report. On-line real time discussion.

Module 04 Equivalent circuits Physical modelling of CP measurement techniques. Practical construction of 8 measurment models. Simulation of field conditions on the bench. Field trip to confirm theoretical and model integrity requiring areport. On-line real time discussion.

Module 05 Significance of the paper presented at the Australasian Corrosion Conference of 1982

Practical bench work to confirm this paper. Field trip to confirm theoretical and benchwork integrityrequiring a report. On-line real time discussion.

Module 06 Introduction continuous potential surveys Recording voltmeters and data-loggers. Monitoring techniques which are presently used to establish

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C.P. criteria. The Prinz Cell. The Baekmann Cell, The Alexander Cell and arrangement suggested byJim Gosden of the British Standards Institute. Summary of the present status of the criteria for 'protection'. Practical bench construction of an 'isopotential cell' and anAlexander Cell. Field trip to use both types of cell requiring a report. On-line real time discussion.

Module 07 (underconstruction) Proximity of foreign structures. Interference possibilities. Basic interference testing and resolution Monitoring interference and interpretation of data.

Practical bench experiment simulating interference. Field work to set up temporary interference readings. Computer modelling of interference. Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 08 (not compiled yet) Ground resistivities. Resistivity measurements. Temperature and pressure effects. Effects on corrosion. Spread of protective currents. Effects on monitoring measurements. Groundbed siting. Practical work with Mega, soil boxes, resistivity cells etc.

Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 09 (not compiled yet) Groundbed design.

Sacrificial anodes. Impressed current anodes, materials conductors, volts drops,header cables, ring mains, insulation, jointing systems. Groundbed potential profile plotting. Closeness of anodes. Horizontal, vertical, borehole and disused-used oil-wells. Scrap metal groundbeds. Practical bench experiments relating to groundbeds. Field work with survey to locate a groundbed and plot it'sprofile.

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Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 10 (not compiled yet) Transformer rectifier design and specification. Output requirements for land and swamp applications compared. Safety in design. Safety in operation and maintenance. Practical bench work with small transformer/rectifier. Field visit to identify anf define a transformer recifier. Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 11 (not compiled yet) Polarisation and de-polarisation. CIPS surveys. CIPS with switching.

Potential Gradient surveys. Potential Gradient surveys with switching. Practical bench demonstration of polarisation. Field work to set up and monitor an example of polarisation andde-polarisation. Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 12 (not compiled yet) Long term monitoring using coupons. Installed monitoring using Isopotential cells. Installed monitoring using anodes. Installed monitoring using the Alexander Cell. Maintenance and care of instruments, tools and equipment. Old instruments and the advantages of hi-tech, solid state, digitalinstruments. Analogue and digital recording compared. Advantages over manual records and metering. Test facilities, test post locations, electrode position, plasticinsulation tube theory. Students will be required to provide a summary and examples.for on-line real-time discussion.

Module 13 (not compiled yet) Current readings, shunts, multi-meters, magnetic filed meters,current direction detection systems. Current paths and C.P. circuits. Measurable and immeasurable electrolytic paths. Current density. Current requirements for protection. Design, theoretical vs practical.

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Demonstration on models and practice setting up and testing. Field work to measure cathodic protection current. Report and on-line real-time discussion.

Module 14 (not compiled yet) Tank farms and storage facilities. Refineries and congested areas. Pipes under concrete. Isolation joints. Pipeline manifolds. Internal cathodic protection. Ribbon anodes and line anodes. Practical bench experiments. Field visit with test measurements and report. On-line real-time discussion.

Module 15 (not compiled yet)

Computerisation of CP The Dynamic Project History of CP computer analysis. Some software tools for analysis.

Module 16 (not compiled yet) Coatings and surface treatment. Cathodic disbondment. Hydrogen embrittlement and overprotection. Anaerobic bacterial corrosion. Leak investigation. Corrosion damage reporting, imaging and castings. Practical bench work. Field visit with report, on-line real time discussion.

Module 17 (not compiled yet) Ground potential fluctuations. Teluric effects, sunspots and earth magnetic turbulance.

Other identifiable metering disturbances Field procedures (interpretation of 21 procedures on the website) Practical bench simulation of procedures and disturbances. Field practice of each procedure with report. On-line real time discussion.

Module 18 (not compiled yet) Offshore cathodic protection.

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Sacrificial anodes offshore. Impressed current systems offshore. Isolation joints, flexible hose connections and safety. Monitoring of offshore pipelines. Monitoring of offshore platforms and structures. Practical bench modelling of offshore pipeline CP Report and on-line real time discussion.

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Introduction to this course

This course is for everyone involved with the application of cathodicprotection.

Cathodic Protection has always been divided between the science ofelectro-chemistry and the application of cathodic protection technology inthe field.

Since the 1980's cathodic protection data has been stored on computers

but the gap between the electro-chemists and the most basic field practiceshas made it difficult to achieve computer analysis.

This course includes practical work that is designed to enable the studentto understand applied cathodic protection from the very basic principles.

It is important that each student understands each module as a basis onwhich they can move forward to the next.

At the end of the course each student will be required to present a paperfor publication on the CPN website. The merits of each paper will beassessed by the membership of the CPN.

Experienced corrosion engineers and scientists will be able to check thevalidity of each step and are encouraged to express their opinions.

Module 1

An introduction to cathodic

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protection

What is cathodic protection?

Cathodic protection is an electrical way of stoppingcorrosion.

It is crucial that a Cathodic Protection engineercan visualise 'electrical pressures'.

This is a typical illustration of a corrosion cell with thearrows showing the direction of the current.This current is driven by the 'pressure' (EMF) of thecorrosion reaction on the surface of the metal.


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This pressure drives electrical current through theelectrolyte to a point with a lower electrical pressure.

We should imagine the 'electrical pressures' as we usethe instruments to measure electrical values.

This meter is showing that there is a voltage of 0.530




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between it's negative and positive poles.

An electrical pressure is known as a 'potential' - not beconfused with a voltage. A voltage is the difference inpotential between two points, measured in volts.

The relationship between voltage, current (measured

by ammeters) and resistance (measured in ohms) isdefined by Ohm's Law.

When measuring voltages any potential can beregarded as zero for the purpose of graphic displayand calculations.

This potential can then be compared to anotherpotential using a voltmeter so that the potential




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difference can be expressed in volts. The graph aboveonly shows the difference between the two potentialsat each point of measurement. There is no reason tosuppose that any two voltages are related. This fact isdealt with in depth during this course, includingpractical experiments.

The above experiment will confirm that the graph baseline is a 'floating zero'.

Corrosion produces 'electro-motive-force', whichdrives current into the electrolyte, causing the




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potential of the electrolyte to increase and thecorrosion current to radiate out into the surroundingelectrolyte.

Corrosion is a chemical reaction that dischargeselectricity from an anode to a cathode through theelectrolyte. Metal is changed into rust at the anode and

the metal at the cathode remains undamaged.

The current generated at a coating defect takes theleast line of resistance to return to the pipeline metal

The point where current enters the metal is known asthe cathode. No corrosion reaction is possible at thissite as the potential of the electrolyte is greater thanthat of the metal at this immediate interface.

The reaction can continue until equilibrium is reached

between the chemicals and the electrical energy. Thechemicals have 'eaten away' all the metal and have runout of 'food'. No current is produced and so the wholecoating fault is 'at rest'. Corrosion product builds up onthe metal blocking the path of the current.




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Batteries work on this principle. When batteries reachequilibrium we have to re- charge or discard them.




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The public are not generally aware that our gas and oilcomes to us through pipes that are inclined to rust butare protected by 'Cathodic Protection'.




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Pipelines are 'out of sight and out of mind' so littleattention is given to the fact that metal dissolves insome solutions and gives off electricity.

It is left to the corrosion engineers to worry about suchthings until a pipeline fails, causing loss of life,environmental damage and massive financialconsequences.

Consultants are then asked why the pipeline failed andthe debate about the criterion for cathodic protectionreceives attention for a little while.

Ship and boat owners are constantly aware of thedamage caused by corrosion and consequently metal




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boats are protected by cathodic protection. They havelumps of metal attached to hulls for this purpose.These lumps of metal disolve in the water and give offelectricity which prevents the hull from corroding.

Sir Humphrey Davy first introduced this system byattaching 'pig iron' to the copper clad hulls of ships.

There is a considerable amount of information andcomputer modelling advertised on the internet in thisrespect. A search will reveal a number of specialisedcompanies offering services and the CPN is notcompeting in this market.

We are concerned with the analysis of data gatheredrelating to the cathodic protection of buried andsubmerged, coated, steel pipelines that carry most ofthe worlds energy supplies from source to the

consumer.

This is a very specialised study that must begin with atthe interface between the pipeline metal and theelectrolyte in which it is submerged or buried.

This old photograph was taken during the constructionof the network of gas pipelines that have been buried




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in the UK for over 30 years. This particular stretchwas coated with coal tar enamel and was handled byheavy construction machines. The coating was oftendamaged and repaired before back-fill.It is clear that coating faults were sometimes missed.

The pipe metal at these coating faults is in contact

with the ground (the 'electrolyte') , which gets 'chargedup' with electricity. The electrical potential' of this bitof ground is increased to a higher electrical 'pressure'than the metal surrounding ground and so theelectricity 'radiates' into the earth.

The metal that is disolving is the 'anode' from whichthe electrical current passes into the electrolyte.

The other metal is the 'cathode' into which the currentpasses from the 'charged up' eletrolyte, because theelectrical pressure must be balanced out. (everythingtries to equalise it's electrical potential with everythingaround it).

The disolving metal is sacrificed to prevent the subject

metal from corrosion, and this fact is harnessed byproviding a less noble metal in the corrosion circuit...a system known as 'sacrificial cathodic protection'.

There are limits to which sacifical cathodic protectioncan be used but the same principle can be used bycausing a manufactured electrical pressure which is'impressed' into the electrolyte. The electricity is then'drained' out of the subject metal....... boat hull orpipeline.... and this interfers with the natural tendency




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of the metal to disolve....or rust!

Students should try to form a mental image ofelectrical potential (pressure) and the resulting flow of'charges'. Do not get confused by the flow of electronsas we cannot see this on our meters. It might beimportant to the academics but it is irrelevant to field

engineers

Impressed current cathodic protection

Alternating Current Electricity is generated by a sortof pumping action which causes it to flow backwardsand forwards in 'waves', but this is no use for ourpurposes so we have to get it going in one direction

through a circuit known as a 'rectifier'. At the sametime we can control the amount of current bytransforming it, so the apparatus is know as atransformer-rectifier.




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A transformer-rectifier can be regarded as an electricalpump which is sucking the electricity out of thepipeline (etc) and pumping it into the ground (or sea ...or swamp... or wherever else you want to pump it).

The effect of this is amazing. It stops rust! And it'scheap!

But there are some snags.

Because it's so good, it gets installed .... thenignored...... well most people don't even know itexists... and because it's cheap some people don't thinkit's important.




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THE BASIC CONCEPT OFPIPELINE CATHODIC

PROTECTION

As stated before, everything has a 'potential', whichhas an effect on it's relationship with it's environment.Corrosion is effected by this relationship, as it is anelectro-chemical reaction.

The basic concept of cathodic protection is that theelectrical potential of the subject metal is reducedbelow its corrosion potential, and that it will then beincapable of going into solution, or corroding. Thereasons for this are given in thermo-dynamic theory

but these will not be discussed at this stage.

The corrosion reaction and cathodic protectionmechanism has been defined by many scientists and

has become established beyond dispute. Many booksand papers have been published, giving details of thescientific background of corrosion and corrosioncontrol, as a result of many years of research byrespected and sincere specialists. It is not intended todispute any of this work or the conclusions drawn.

Battery technology can be




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compared to corrosion controltechnology

The principles of corrosion reactions are used in thedesign and construction of expendable and re-chargeable batteries and accumulators, which play

such a major part in modern life. A battery is designedto allow a chemical reaction to cause an electricalcurrent to pass through a desired path, giving energyto the appliance. The battery has a very carefullycomposed electrolyte which has qualities to ensure apredictable reaction with the other components of thebattery.

Corrosion within a battery can be controlled byexternal electrical techniques which are in commonuse. Some batteries have a reversible reaction whichenables them to be recharged by adjusting theelectrical 'pressure' at the terminals. Many appliancesare nowadays controlled by computers to balance thereaction equilibrium to suit their own power demands.




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All this is possible because the battery is a

manufactured unit, designed for the purpose ofreceiving and supplying electrical current.

CATHODIC PROTECTION ISDIFFERENT

Unfortunately, cathodic protection is not a unitcomposed of simple elements in the way that batteriesare, because the electrolyte is the ground itself. This isan uncontrollable feature with an almost infinite

variety of qualities.




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The picture above is an equivalent circuit diagram ofthe cathodic protection systems that were preventingcorrosion over an area of tens of thousands of squaremiles of pipelines serving a major oil and gasproduction company.




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The chemical composition and electrical conductivityof the ground can span a vast range and can includeenvironments such as sea water, deserts, freshwaterswamps, arable (fertilised) land, etc. etc. Climaticeffects cause variations in the temperature, and depthof cover causes pressure variations which effect thereaction, adding yet more indeterminable factors in thereaction.




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Cathodic protection of such subjects as gatheringstations (shown above) and storage tank bases isrelatively simple but as the size of the structureincreases, it extends through electrolytes of differentnature and the reaction at each interface varies.Offshore oil rigs, for example have differenttemperatures and pressures at the sea bed to those atthe surface, and studies of these conditions haveshown that they have substantial influences oncorrosion.

UNDEFINABLE ELEMENTS

Pipelines are more complex, and can be regarded asmany interface reactions connected together, inparallel.




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The metal element, of the reaction, can be welldefined, as this is specified to a high degree by thedesigners. The coating material is carefully designedbut it is generally accepted that no coating can beperfect, and the faults (or 'Holidays') introduce the firstindefinable element to the system.

During the construction of a pipeline, all possiblemeasures are taken to detect and repair coating faults,so it follows that the location and size of thoseremaining are unknown and not definable. It ispossible to calculate the theoretical resistance of aperfectly coated pipeline, given the specification of thecoating and dimensions of the pipeline, but it is notpossible to calculate the resistance of the coating of anactual pipeline.

The electrical current measurements, taken duringroutine cathodic protection monitoring, show thatthere is little resistance in the total coating of apipeline and this can be explained by the difficulty inquality control during coating operations andpreventing damage during the construction period.

Perfect coating would prevent any output from the CPsystem but undetected coating faults provide paths forcathodic protection current. We, therefore, know that




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there are many unspecified metal-to-electrolyteinterfaces present on an average pipeline.

The electrical resistance of the pipeline metal itselfcan be calculated, and is found to be very low. Theeffect that the pipeline resistance has on the complexcurrent paths and variation in potentials, is found to be

so small that it can almost be ignored.

FURTHER COMPLEXITY

Each coating fault is a metal-to-electrolyte interfacewhich is capable of a different reaction, electro-motive-force (EMF) which cannot be measured as it isin parallel with all other EMFs on the same section ofpipeline.

The magnitude of the current from each of these isdependent on the earth resistance immediatelyadjacent to the interface, and the current direction isthe result of the combined effects of all the resistancesand electrical pressures caused by all the other EMF's.

Although it is simple to understand each corrosion celland the mechanism of corrosion itself, the reality ofapplying the science, to the field, becomes immenselycomplex.

This becomes more obvious when the circuit has beensubject to computer modeling as discussed later.

To be effective, cathodic protection must reduce themetal at each single interface, to below it's corrosionpotential. This is not too difficult to achieve, as eachinterface is part of the same structure, which has avery low electrical resistance. The difficulty isknowing when all the interfaces have been reduced tobelow their corrosion potential in relation to theelectrolyte in their reaction vicinity.




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OVER PROTECTION

There are several other problems, however, as toomuch current passing onto a steel surface can causeembrittlement, which under certain circumstances canbe as detrimental as corrosion itself. This is manifest

in such applications as the protection of the externalsurfaces of drill pipe casings, where a considerableamount of cathodic protection current is used.

Another fear of 'over-protection' is that of cathodicdisbondment of the coating. This happens when thecoating manufacturers specifications are exceeded.Cathodic protection current passing onto the metalcauses the release of hydrogen which disbonds thecoating. In reality this is rarely a problem.

The current will only pass onto the metal at a coating

fault, and the density of the current will depend on thesize of the coating fault and the current locallyavailable. As the current blows the coating from themetal, the volts drop at the interface will decrease, andequilibrium will be reached with a very small increasein additional disbondment.

If there is no coating fault, then no cathodicdisbondment will occur, as recognised in the BritishStandard Code of Practice for testing the coatingmanufacturers specification. This requires a specific

size of coating fault on a steel coupon, to be subjectedto an increasing voltage over a specified period. Thetest cannot be carried out on a coupon with perfectcoating as the disbondment is observed under thecoating at the edge of the fault.

These matters will be covered in detail later in thecourse

THEORY V PRACTICE

We simply want to stop corrosion but we need toknow when we have succeeded. Cathodic protection isimmensely successful, and cost effective, but everyleak is a demonstration that we have not applied itcorrectly.

Link to page on Cathodic Protection Measurements




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Before going any further it is necessary to imagineelectricity and this has been likened to water pressure,with containers connected by pipes to allow current toflow.

However, it can be seen that the levels would equaliseas soon as enough water had run from one container to

the other. No current would then flow.

If water was added to the higher container at the samerate that it is passing through the connecting tube, thenthe current will continue.




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This is similar to a dry cell battery which is, infact acorrosion cell. The current will flow through aconductor when the two poles are connected in thesame way that water flows through the connectingtube at the bottom of the two containers.When the reaction energy has run out, the battery isdead and the potential levels are the same at each pole.




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A corroding nail is similar in that the corrosion currentflows from the anode of the nail, into the damp clothand then goes back through the cloth to the cathode ofthe nail.

The corrosion reaction on the nail can be forced in avariety of ways to be defined in this course.

refering back to the water analogy, it is important tounderstand that the pressure is caused by the height ofthe water in each container and not the weight. Thewater will fill any connecting tube and then thepressure downwards will be greater in the vesselwhich has the highest level. The reason for this is

obviously due to the imbalance between the pressuresin the two containers and electrical potentials have thesame tendency when connected by conductors.

This is fine when visualising a simple circuit such as asingle corrosion cell or a dry cell battery connectedthrough a light bulb, but in a cathodic protectioncircuit, or when corrosion takes place on a pipeline wehave no means of measuring each separate cell in thisway.




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If we examine the technique that is used in thelaboratory then it becomes clear that provision hasbeen made to eliminate outside influences in this 'opencircuit measurement'.

This is not possible in cathodic protection field work,and yet laboratory derived theories are applied toreadings obtained in the field.

The situation on pipelines is that there are manycorrosion cells, all connected to the same metal and




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yet each having it's own corrosion reaction. This canbe imagined like this.

It can be seen that it is impossible to measure thepressure differences in each cell by making a singleconnection to the common reservoir at the bottom.

However it would be possible to stop the flow ofwater in each of the cells by continuously making thewater level equal in each pair of containers.




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However, it can be seen that the pressure measurementin such a system would need to be between the lowestwater level and the highest water level in the wholesystem.




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This is achieved in cathodic protection by flooding allthe containers as shown in green. The current thenstops flowing between each pair. Because of thenature of electricity this requires that current is drainedfrom the pipeline and pumped into the ground insufficient quantity to 'fill all the containers' or

overcome the corrosion reaction potential (EMF).

link to page showing water containers to demonstrateelectrical potentials and in relation to pipeline cathodicprotection

The difficulty in making this voltage measurement isshown in the demonstration with water holders buriedin sand.




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We can measure the level of the water against thelevel of the sand.

We cannot see the bottom of the containers but in thiscase some are connected to others by a glass tubethrough which the water can pass.

Water can pass between some of the visible containersto others in the same way as corrosion current.

We can never know if the corrosion current has beenstopped when (whole system is in equilibrium) as we

have no reference to zero potential. It is out of sightand reach!

In the same way, we cannot know the EMF (waterlevel) of each corrosion cell. We can only measure thevoltage between the potential of the ground and thepotential of ALL OF THE METAL. That is theequivalent of the level of all of the water in thecontainers. We do not know how deep each containersis and we do not know which are connected.




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The established method of measuring the effectivenessof cathodic protection is by recording the voltagebetween two variables. This cannot determine ifcorrosion has stopped.

Open circuit measurements

The term 'open cuircuit measurements' wasacknowledged by Dr Peabody of NACE whenrecognising the problem that was termed 'the IR dropin the soil'

Natural corrosion cells are much different from thoseset up in a laboratory, as they can be physically minuteor large. Large corrosion cells can contain micro-cellswithin the same area where anodic areas completelysurround cathodes or vice-versa. When studying suchcells, we are not able to separate the component parts,and the measurements have come to be known as'open circuit measurements'.

This type of measurement involves connections to the




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electrolyte as well as the metal and this requires theuse of an electrode. There is a danger that this willintroduce another EMF into the circuit, by the reactionbetween the electrode and the electrolyte. Wetherefore use an electrode in a solution of its ownsalts, which has a known reaction EMF. We can thenmake a connection between the electrolyte in the cell

and the earth electrolyte, in the hopes that there will beno electrical disturbance to the measuring circuit.

In the laboratory, this disturbance is prevented by the

use of a glass capillary filled with inert gel, which isused as a conductor from the reaction interface to thereference electrode. The reference electrode is a metalin a saturated solution of its own salts, as this has aknown reaction potential. Reference electrodes arerelated to each other by known voltages and are usedas international standards.




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Without this consistency it would be impossible toevaluate the reaction, develop theories or designcathodic protection systems etc.

Unfortunately, it became the practice to applylaboratory principles in cathodic protection field work.

This subject can now be studied in greater detail bycomputer modeling which makes it clear that the fixedpotential is normally that of the pipeline metal, and thevariation in the measured voltage is due to thedifferent potentials elsewhere in the measuring circuit.




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Imagine that we require to know the voltage of twodry cell batteries which are arranged in parallel. Thatis to say that each is in connection with a commonconductor to the positive pole and another commonconductor (the ground)to their negative poles.

Both conductors would carry equilibrium currentaccording to the reaction within each battery and thevoltage between the two conductors could bemeasured by connecting a meter between the two.

Unless the two cells are separated, it is impossible toevaluate the voltage of each battery. Even this is not ascomplex as the expectancies of cathodic protectionmonitors.

If we take two batteries and half bury them in anelectrolyte with their positive poles exposed andconnected, we have two corrosion cells in closercondition to those found on a pipeline.




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A circuit drawing of this arrangement will show thatcurrent will pass through the ground to equalise thepressures caused by the interface reactions within eachbattery.

We must now try to evaluate the reaction within eachbattery using a high resistance voltmeter and an

electrode. We cannot break the circuit or separate thebatteries but connections can be made to the metal orthe electrolyte or both. It will be seen that we are onlycapable of measuring voltages across various spans ofthe circuit, and cannot establish a reference within thatcircuit. The laboratory techniques cannot be applied tothese conditions as there are too many variables whichare impossible to evaluate.

If we increase the number of half buried batteriesconnected together, we improve the similarity to a

pipeline, but in order to be more realistic, we mustinclude some which have their positive poles buried.This has been shown earlier in this page.

The complexity of the situation is now apparent andwhat seemed to be a simple measurement, now seemsalmost impossible.

A circuit diagram of the complex arrangement willshow that a different voltage will be measured withevery new position of the electrode, and this is bornout in cathodic protection field practice. It isespecially obvious on pipelines which are notconnected to cathodic protection systems and which

have poor coating.

The different voltages are due to the variety ofpotentials at each pole of the voltmeter. These can becaused in many ways, as described later, but it isimportant to realise that they are all components of thevoltage shown on the meter. It is possible to eliminatethem in the laboratory but not in the field, thereforethey must be evaluated and considered in the analysisof survey results.




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The problem is even more complex when cathodicprotection is introduced as this is an additional voltagewhich is superimposed over all the others. Beingdesigned to drain charges from the whole of the

pipeline, it has an effect on the equilibrium of all theother electrical influences. However, the dynamiceffects of an impressed current system can be removedby taking voltage measurements immediately after thesystem has been switched off.




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This cannot be achieved where sacrificial anodes areused, unless they have a special facility designed forthis purpose at construction stage.

The voltages obtained between the pipeline metal and

a randomly placed electrode have a certain amount ofvalue when compared to others obtained fromconnections to the same pipeline. This is because ofthe very low electrical resistance in this part of thecorrosion and cathodic protection circuits.

link to page about electrical potentials and in relationto pipeline cathodic protection

Students are now required to read Procedure 1a

Students are required to understand the instrumentsthey will be using.

Students are required to carry out experiments andsubmit a report.

Link to some old report forms dating back to before




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the original CIPS survey

Go to field trip




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Introduction to the second module

Students will by now realise that this course is very practical and based onthe experience of Roger Alexander over a 30 year period.

In order that Cathodic Protection knowledge is transferred to many, it isnow up to all students to share their knowledge through the CathodicProtection Network.

The first section of this module is the history of cathodic protection as

experienced by Roger Alexander.

Student are now required to add their own experience of this history inresponse

This will be circulated to all students as they continue with the course andit is therefore essential that we do not allow any CPN information out ofthe network or it will diminish the commercial value of being a member ofCPN.

From this module onwards each student will be accumulating increasingability to stop corrosion and earning capability. Each student will be

required to review the reports of the students taking the preceding module.

CPN is often asked for Cathodic Protection engineers but will notrecommend anyone on other qualification than completing this coursesuccessfully.

This module includes information about the business side of cathodicprotection and corrosion control because this has had a greater effect on

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corrosion than the technical and scientific progress that makes controlpossible.

Module 2

Technical history of Cathodic Protection

Explanation of the reasons behind current

trends in C.P.

Financial and operational benefits of CP.

Academic and scientific views of CP.

Introduction to measuring and monitoring

Theory behind the 'immediate off potential'

Practical, make two reference electrodes (half-cells)

Field trip with simple exercise in CPmeasurment requiring a report.

On-line real time discussion using MSN IM orSkype

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History of development ofthe Cathodic Protection Network

Pipelines are mainly made of steel and coated with material that protects themfrom chemical reaction with their backfill. This coating must be electricallyresistant and is inspected immediately before the pipeline is buried orsubmerged.

Steel pipes leave the factory in lengths of about 40 feet which are weldedtogether into continuous lengths before lowering into the ditch. Each length hasbeen factory coated but the gaps left for welding are coated in the field.

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The coating inspection is known as 'holiday detection' from the old expressionof paint inspectors that the painter had taken a holiday when leaving a barepatch. The primary inspection is visual plus a continuous spring ring iswrapped round the pipe and rolled along using an insulated handle whichconnects the spring to a very high voltage coil.The voltage is set so that an arc occurs at a coating defect and rings a bell in thedetector box. The inspector marks the fault which is repaired and re-checked.

The detection and repair of coating faults delays the work of pipe laying whichinvolves using heavy plant and equipment in difficult circumstances, all ofwhich make it very easy to damage the coating further.


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It is not surprising that coating faults are not uncommon.

The back-fill operation is inspected but often includes metalic and hard objectsthat can effect the cathodic protection measurements and physical condition ofthe pipeline when covered.

Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection test leads are connected to the pipeline metal at intervalsvarying from half kilometer to one mile, depending on the country andoperators specification. Additional test points are provided at locations wherethe pipeline passes beneath roads, railways, canals and rivers.

The test leads are very well insulated because they are copper and would tend




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to form a 'bi-metalic coupling' reaction causing accelerated corrosion to thesteel pipe.

The test leads are bought to the surface through a pipe or concrete post set inthe ground. The ends are normally attached to brass nuts and bolts whichprotrude giving access for electrical connection to instruments.

Vandals often damage these test posts so it is sometimes necessary to simplyuse a steel post and set the lead in concrete or epoxy compound to the top of thepost.

Cathodic protection Inspectors were required to connect the test lead to thenegative terminal of a voltmeter, connect the positive terminal to an electrodedescribed as a 'half-cell' which was placed on the ground directly above thepipeline.




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It was thought that the half-cell was a reference potential against which it waspossible to measure the voltage which would give an indication of the corrosionstatus of the pipeline metal.




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Field workers found that moving the half-cell would produce a significantly

different result and when they reported this the data was altered to suit theexpectations of the clients consultant engineers.

From the 1950's to the 1970's, the source of scientific excellence andengineering guidance was a publication known as 'Peabodies' published by theNational Association Of Corrosion Engineers.




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Scientists believed that the works of Pourbaix substantiated the use of astandard voltage -0.850v when measured between the pipeline metal and acopper/copper sulphate electrode as the criterion for achievement of cathodicprotection.

Although cathodic protection had been a very cost effective success therecontinued to be disastrous corrosion related pipeline failures world wide and inthe mid 1970's the method of making the field measurements was closelyexamined.

In 1974 I was appointed to the position of Corrosion Engineer for the Eastern

Division of Shell-BP Development Corporation of Nigeria.




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It was very clear that corrosion control was not effective as leaks wereincreasing alarmingly.

I was allowed to utilise some of my unique survey procedures to build anoverview of the corrosion status of the region.

I specified the 'two half-cell' survey to a contractor Mark Derefaka in early1975 at Bomu Manifold which had been bombed during the Biafran war.




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Another manifold had been quickly built over the old one, to get the oilflowing, but there were no drawings of the old buried pipework as they hadbeen lost in the destruction of some of the head office buildings.

This contract proved the value of mapping the potential profile of the ground

and showed the exact position of all the old pipework prior to exacavation.




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By regarding the whole network of pipelines as a massive electronic circuit, Iwas able to draw an equivalent circuit with impressed current systems andsacrificial anodes.




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Pocket calculators had just become available so I was able work out the likelylocations of corrosion using electrical laws and reconciling each part of thesystem.

My survey teams would enter their readings on wall graphs using map pinslinked with cotton.




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Direct Current readings were shown on cardboard strips on a wall mountedschematic of the pipeline layout of the whole region.




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The picture above shows a very small section of the layout.

By comparing data from the files with present field data I was able to predict,with a fair degree of accuracy, the likely locations of corrosion failure in theimmediate future.

On one occasion Steve Mayaki returned from an investigative survey havingfound that a predicted location had actually started to leak. This wasimmediately remedied with a leak clamp having lost only a few gallons of oiland virtually no environmental damage.

I was able to bring the whole corrosion crisis under control in a couple of yearsand reduce the incidence of external corrosion leaks to zero in four years.

This extensive period of investigation and prevention of corrosion confirmedthat there is no way that the 'half-cell' can be used to establish a reference

potential but that it is very useful as a probe to contact the electrolyte in whichthe pipeline or structure is burried or submerged.

If a bare metal contact is made then that metal reacts to the salts disolved in theelectrolyte, thus adding yet another EMF to the measuring circuit.

In 1978 I realised that the only way forward was to try to devise a method ofmeasuring the actual corrosion current and the effect of cathodic protection onthe corrosion reaction itself.




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I used an assortment of metal coupons and sensitive meters but the problemwas that the current must be measured without disturbing the reaction. The

effect of the cathodic protection must be measured without disturbing thepassage of that current onto either the anodic or cathodic interface.

The only way to do this is to create a real corrosion cell in such a way that thecorrosion current can be observed in any state of equilibrium.

Return to the UK

During a period of independant research and development in the UK I designedthe Alexander Cell into a working unit.




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I had a solicitor witness the document above to substantiate that I had indeedinvented and constructed the device myself at that time.

I then spent four years as a cathodic protection technician working first forAtkins Inspection and later with Global Cathodic Protection on contract to

North Thames Gas.

Before I took the position I was interviewed by Mike Foskett, Chief CorrosionEngineer for North Thames Gas who was based at Staines. We discussed myexperience in Nigeria and he agreed that I could conduct field trials of theAlexander Cell (in my own time) at North Thames Gas pipeline locations.

The project was to conduct a condition audit of many thousands of miles ofhigh pressure gas pipelines delivering North Sea Gas to the north London area.

A mainframe computer had just been installed in Staines Head Office of NorthThames Gas and the project was guided by Bob Greenwood of the Gas CouncilERS.

The procedure being developed was known as OLI1 (Over Line Inspection)and was developed in stages to OLI4 which is now known internationally as

CIPS (Close Interval Potential Survey)




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The reason for its development was the corrosion failures of pipelines that hadbeen operated in compliance with the British Standards Institute Code OfPractice (CP1021) on which the pipeline licencing in the UK was based.

I joined one of four teams of technicians who were making notes of each

voltage as the cathodic protection current was switched off and on at thenearest transformer rectifier.

Mike Fosket told me that they used the computer to plot the voltages in bothstates and that they had started by plotting the difference until they realised thatthis plot did not show the coating faults as they had hoped.




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The theory had been that they could use the difference between the on and offreadings to work out if the corrosion had been stopped.

In fact, they had found the principles that I had used several years before ofplotting the ground potential profile.

I described the 'two half-cell' procedure that I used extensively in Nigeria and itwas adopted as and additional check to locate the exact position of coatingfaults before excavation.

I was then required to carry out the final overline procedures, including theAlexander Cell, to produce a written report for each location before excavation.

The use of OLI4 procedures alone produced 7% accuracy and the completeAlexander Technology procedures produced 97% accuracy. The sampling was100 excavations that I attended personally.

My success was such that Bob Greenwood visited site and saw the my




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procedures in action. He later authorised the purchase of an Alexander Cell,which prompted the Corrosion Engineer from South East Gas to buy one.

Mike Fosket asked me if I would like to write a paper about my view ofcathodic protection which was radically different from mainsteam science atthe time.

The paper was sent for technical editing to Dr Vic Ashworth of AshtonUniversity, who rejected it completely with the comments that it did not fallwithin the concepts of known science.

Because of the success of my work in the field, Mike Foskette arranged for meto make a presentation to the London branch of the Institute of CorrosionScience and Technology.link to copy of the notes of that presentation

This was attended by over 100 qualified , practicing corrosion engineers 64 ofwhom signed the register.




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The presentation included demonstration models and videos of field work tosupport the content of the talk.

The Chairman of the BSI Committee for CP1021 attended and addressed themeeting after the presentation. He said that he supported everything he had

heard and as a result was withdrawing the BSI Code of Practice 1021 forreview.




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John Tiratsoo published my paper in his journal Corrosion Prevention andControl and was then asked by readers to publish it in Pipes and PipelinesInternational, a journal that had 10 times the circulation.

I received positive response from all over the world and requests for the

Alexander Cell.

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Module 2

Explanation of the reasons behind currenttrends in C.P. Technology.

Cathodic protection theory dictates that the metal must be reduced to belowits corrosion potential IN RELATION TO A STANDARD REFERENCE

POTENTIAL.

Top corrosion scientists regard the copper/copper sulphate electrode as a'reference' electrode, capable of rendering a potential to which all C.P. workcan be related.

Standard reference electrodes have a recognised and known potential whichcan be used as an electrical datum point against which to measure otherpotentials.

Complete cathodic protection is totally achievable but the problem is to

measure the effectiveness of cathodic protection when applied in the field.

The illustration below shows the traditionalmethod of making the voltage measurement that

has been the basis of all cathodic protectiondesign and monitoring since the 1950's

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Typical test posts at a road crossing in the UK


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As a general guide the value of -.850v in relation to a copper/copper-sulphateelectrode was chosen as a criterion for the achievement of cathodic protection.It was felt that this was substantiated by the Pourbaix diagrams and since thenall attempts at monitoring the effectiveness of cathodic protection been basedon this value and the use of this electrode.

Cathodic protection has been very cost effective and successful andconsequently has become required as a maintenace technique for pipelinesworld wide.

Being so cost effective has resulted in it being very lucrative for those offeringit as a service.

It is very simple to install and commission and the equipment and parts arereadily available from many sources.




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Almost anyone with a rudimentary understanding can design a system that willreduce corrosion by about 90% and so we have a situation now that there aremany 'cathodic protection experts' in positions of authority, world wide whocannot explain why pipelines fail due to corrosion that should be prevented.




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Our instruments are capable of measuring VOLTAGES which are thedifferences between two potentials. Cathodic protection salesmen refer tomeasurements as POTENTIALS...... they are NOT. They are potentialdifferences..... VOLTAGES.

The potential at either pole of the meter can be regarded as zero and the otherpole will be either charged higher or lower. The meter will show positive ornegative values according to the polarity of the connecting conductors but thevalue displayed will be a voltage. Even when displayed on a 'scope' type ofinstrument.

It is this misunderstanding that has caused the delay in the fruition of cathodicprotection as a science and engineering technology.Top scientists are anxious to sustain their present concept as this affects theirvery livelihood.

Their 'consultancy advice' has been taken by organisations such as NACE andvarious pipeline standards authorities world wide.

It is very difficult for them to explain that the standards and criterion that theyrecommend cannot be applied in the field of pipeline cathodic protection.

They have sold this criterion as an axiom on which they can base scientificcalculations for the purposes of design of cathodic protection systems.

The effect of 'business competition' on cathodicprotection.

In a world where money rules, it should be recognised that all those who havethe job of preventing corrosion to pipelines have the priority objective tosustain their position and to earn as much personal money as they can.

The pursuit of personal money has overridden the desire to stop corrosion andthis has been a greater impact than any other cause on the useful life ofpipelines, world wide.

This is the most important fact in each corrosion engineers life.

There are two questions that are regularly directed at CPN.

"If CPN technolgy is so good then why is it not adopted world wide?"

The answer is that the market place economy makes it impossible to implicatechanges that do not have financial benefit to those who hold the money.Considerable investment had already been made into




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The other re-occuring question is 'Where is CPN technology installed so thatwe can see it's success?'

The answer is nowhere! The question is simply an attempt to gatherinformation without paying for it. If the pipeline industry could see a workingexample of a new technology they would simply coppy it. The most recent

people to ask this question of the CPN were the Iranians.

The energy industry is multi-national and the pipeline industry has a pool ofexperts who work wherever they can get paid. When any technology issuccessful it will be copied and in the 'competitive market' work will be givento the company submitting the lowest tender.A presentation of CPN technology was given to the Iranians who are nowlooking for 'another source' as they do not want to pay Cathodic ProtectionNetwork International Ltd. This ignors the fact that their pipelines arecorroding because they are using technology from those 'other sources' and itsimply does not work.

I can be seen that the commercial situation throughout the world has resulted inthe scientific establishment controlling the only advances in technology andresisting changes that will damage their established work.

This is not greed, selfishness or meglomania but a natural result of moneybeing the basis of society. Everyone needs money to survive and the work ethicdictates that those who do not work are not even deserving of survival. 'Work'has come to mean 'employed' and that infers that each individual must performsome defined task. Those that are defining the task are performing work thatgives them power and money. In the case of cathodic protection the top linedefinition is the work of scientists.

It was a proposal by Sir Humphry Davy that resulted in the definition of thework to be done to stop corrosion to the copper cladding of wooden war ships.This successful application of the scientific principles resulted in the proposalthat this science could be applied to steel pipelines that were corroding in avery short time.

This type of cathodic protection was defined by scientists and applied byengineers very successfully resulting in those scientists and engineers beingemployed to stop corrosion on other pipelines.

Other scientists studying corrosion found that coatings separated the electrolytefrom the metal and stopped the reaction. Various wax and oil based coatingswere reinforced with cloth and wrapped round the pipelines. These wereconductive (Denso tape is an example) and the protective current from the CPsystems could pass onto the pipeline metal without achieving its purpose.

Electrically resistant bitumen coating was then used successfully but this wasfound to be bio-degradable and lost it's effect after a few years.

Coal tar enamel was found to be very effective and durable especially when




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combined with glass fibre re-inforcement. All these steps resulted in specialisedconsultants becoming more significant in the fields of corrosion control,coating manufacture and application.

Companies were formed for the manufacture of these coatings under thescientific guidance of the specialists who were paid to research better products.

It was found that some products were so electrically resistant that they could beapplied very thinly. Some had sufficient tensile strength and impact resistancethat they could be applied without re-inforcement.

Present day coatings are very efficient but none can be applied without faultsbecause of the nature of pipeline construction.

It is because of these coating faults that cathodic protection is required by lawin most countries of the world.

Cathodic protection is only needed at these coating faults but their location is

not known.

Industry has developed a variety of methods to detect the location of coatingfaults and these will be studied later in this course.

Pipelines continue to fail through external corrosion and there is a need tomonitor the effectiveness of cathodic protection. However most big pipelineoperating companies only take those measures that are required by lawgoverning the issue of their pipeline operating licences.

There is no commercial incentive to try to enhance the effectiveness of theircathodic protection systems as the failures are covered by insurance.

The insurance companies can easily raise their premiums and the value of oiland gas are such that the enormous profits can assimilate the cost of repair andreplacement of the damaged pipelines.

The majority of rich people world wide are best served by the present status ofcorrosion control and cathodic protection and that is why CPN technology hasnot been adopted world wide.

The Emperors new suit

There is a famous story of the Emperors new 'invisible' suit and the little boywho sees him nude because he has not been told of the 'magic suit'.

This story is common to many countries and the principle must be knownworld wide.

Tricksters had convinced the whole nation of this suit and the little boy wass




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the only person who had not received the message. His simple logic and theevidence of his eyes showed him that the suit did not exist. His exclamations tothis effect werwe well received in the story but in real life the little boyscomments would not be popular. He was a 'whistle blower' who upset the'establishment'.

The fable seems to end there, but in real life there remains the problem of the

Empeorors pride and 'entrepreneurs' money.

The purpose of this chapter is to allow the student to realise thatcommercial pressures have a bigger effect on pipeline corrosion than thenatural effects of the corrosion reaction.

The technology contained in this course will not please many in the cathodicprotection industry as it challenges the very foundation of much of their work.

NACE and the rest of the cathodic protection industry have based all theirefforts on the fact that the copper/copper-sulphate or silver/silver-chlorideelectrodes renders a reference potential on which it is possible to base cathodicprotection design and monitoring.

That is the 'invisible suit' that they sold to pipeline operators who wanted acriterion so that they would know when cathodic protection was effective andhad indeed stopped corrosion.

Sir Humphrey Davy had proved that cathodic protection actually worked whenapplied to copper cladding on ships and pipeline operators found that leak

frequencies dropped off dramatically when cathodic protection was applied topipelines but no one could say when the application was complete and to whatextent it had been achieved.

When it was recognised that there were errors in the measurements these were,at first, blamed on inaccurate instrumentation and poor field work.

With the availability of digital instruments and some laboratory studies it waspossible to identify that there were real errors in field measurements that arenot present in laboratory techniques. These errors were all described as 'the IRdrop in the soil'.

It is significant that the 'experts' did not use the simple world 'voltage'. Thiswould have made it simple for any electrician to see the error and recognise theway the mistake had come about. It would clarify the route to a simple solutionsuch as the Alexander Cell. However, this would not sell the 'invisible suit'. Itwas necessary to cloud the issue with new terminology.

Scientists thought that they could eliminate the errors by taking the requiredvoltage with the cathodic protection current switched off. It seemed that theerror was caused by the measuring circuit alone and that by removing the




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current that was causing the voltage error, the measurement would beequivalent to the actual reading at the interface, as required by Pourbaix.

The very first lagre scale attempt to utilise the 'off potential' theory was carriedout by North Thames Gas in the UK.

It was then realised that most pipelines were affected by more than one

transformer rectifier and that the current had not actually been switched off buthad been reduced by an unquantifiable amount.

Attempts were then made to sychronise the switching of all the transformerrectifiers that affected each length of pipeline. This was difficult in the 1980'sas the technology was not available.

Instrument manufacturers and cathodic protection providers came out withmore and more sophisticated sychronised switching systems in an attempt toachieve the required 'immediate off' potential.

In 2001 Roger Alexander (the little boy who saw the Emperor was nude) wasrequested by NASA to submit a report for consideration by the AmericanStandards Authority relating to the Immediate Off Potential Survey.

Click here to see the paper sent to NASA




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Cathodic protection is required by law in most countries as a condition for apipeline operating licence. However, there is no internationally agreed criterionfor the achievement of complete protection.

Pipeline operators are required to report leaks but it is very difficult to compile

information about this.

The use of the CIPS survey is an attempt to apply the Pourbaix theory based onthe voltage between the metal potential and the electrolyte potential but theDCVG survey shows that the same electrode renders a different value in eachlocation. This makes it possible to accurately identify the position of coatingfaults using the difference in ground potentials touched by copper/copper-sulphate electrodes but proves that the CIPS survey CANNOT determin thecorrosion status of the pipeline metal.

Faced with this problem, the cathodic protection industry has no scientific point

of excellence that can answer the simplest questions levied by the mostfundamental electrical and electronic engineers.

CIPS and DCVG are being used world-wide despite the limitations of DCVGand the complete failure of CIPS to determine the corrosion status.

Mainstream scientists still insist on trying to use the Cu/CuSO4 electrode as areference potential and consequently the CPN is the only organisation that canoffer the computerisation of pipeline cathodic protection,

The adoption of CPN technology in Iran is currently being delayed by financial

and business considerations but it is significant that this technology would savethe country money that is being spent on unsuccessful methods of applyingcathodic protection. Less money spent on CPN technology would stop most ofthe corrosion that is causing massive financial losses and ecological damage.

This is the same situation that pertains in the rest of the world but Iran has atleast had the sense to examine cathodic protection and look for better ways ofapplying it.

No doubt the people of Iran will apply the same sense when looking at thefinancial situation surrounding their massive corrosion related losses.

Money and esteem

Those who are not good at making money are seen as failures and their work isnot respected.

It is similar in principle to qualifications... if a person has no qualifications, he




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cannot know about the subject under discussion. It then follows that a personsword is a valuable as his apparent wealth. The notion is that if a person is notrich, he/she is not intelligent or wise.The logic is that everyone knows that money = success and if you have nomoney you are a failure.

What has this got to do with corrosion control and cathodic protection in

particular?

All of the above have directly affected the present status of corrosion controland cathodic protection. Pipelines continue to fail and are repaired or replacedat enormous expense and loss of money, energy and sometimes life.

If one of these failures reaches the general public there is an investigation andenquiry that takes enough time for the public to lose interest. In the event of theincident becoming politically important, many lawyers and polititians make alot of money. The first reaction of the investigators is to ascertain the cause ofthe failure. These investigators normally are people involved with the

maintenance of safety standards and are keen to find taht the cause is not withthemselves or their immediate friends and associates.

The most convenient cause is local activity at a low social level. In the case of adeveloping nation this is usually found to be people trying to steal the productor clumsy behaviour of a mechanical device such as a digger or tractor.

It is very rarely blamed on corrosion as this is preventable by people inpositions of power and wealth, but if that is the conclusion of the inquiry thenthe consultants have a ready excuse in that they claim that there are mattersbeyond the control of science and that they can never guarantee total success ofcathodic protection.

The British Standards Institute Code of Practice CP1021 was withdrawn by JimGosden when it was proved in public that the recommendations could not bepracticed. It has been replaced by a very loose document that carefully avoidsany specific procedure.

The National Association of Corrosion Engineers based in the USA (NACE)has gained world wide authority over the years as no other national orinternational body has come forward with a workable criterion for cathodicprotection. They publish a standard for cathodic protection of pipelines that isavailable on the internet at a cost of $83. I am the founder and owner of CPN

and cannot afford this as no businessman or entrepreneur is prepared to pay anymoney to me. NACE will not answer any correspondence from CPN and it isproving impossible to arrange an official meeting with UK authorities.

It would seem that financial and commercial considerations are more importantthan stopping corrosion.

CPN is not a commercial success but CPN technology has prevented and haltedcorrosion in every challenge that has been faced during the past 30 years.




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The Alexander Cell is still the only clear methodof indicating the effectiveness of cathodicprotection and yet nobody is using it for purelycommercial and business reasons.

I am at present considering giving away the homemade Alexander Cells that I have in my posessionso that they will prove that CPN technology reallyworks in the field.

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Module 2Financial and operational benefits of CP.

We must examine the finances of cathodic protection as a number offacts

Pipelines are a method of transportation and storage in competition with trucks,trains and tank farms.

They are therefore a threat to the livelihoods of those who sell their skills in

these competitive industries.

Pipelines themselves require little maintenance and are only replaced on acontingency basis.

Good maintenance is not in the interest of the pipeline construction industry.The pipeline construction industry has a vested interest in pipelines needingreplacement.

Corrosion is a major contingency issue in the maintenance of pipelines and isprevented by coatings to separate the metal from the environment.

The coating industry has a vested interest in pipelines failing so that they cansell more advanced coating systems that they can claim will reduce the cost ofpipeline replacement.

Cathodic protection enhances the purpose of coatings and is therefore incompetition with the transport industry, the pipeline construction industry andthe pipeline coating industry. These three industries have a financial hold onthe energy industry.

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They also have a significant presence at the top financial levels in world energybased societies. Cathodic Protection is so cost effective that it directly threatensthe livelihood of a small section of the very rich.

Insurance

As the energy industry gains importance in any social structure, contingencies

become an issue of high finance and political power.

When energy is dominant there is enough money to insure against corrosionleaks and insurance companies simply put their premiums at a level where theycan make a healthy profit. During these periods they are not interested inCathodic Protection as the frequency of leaks is not an issue in their balancebooks.

However, when the financial clout of energy is low the industry looks atfinancial efficiency and it is found better to cut out the insurance companiesand take on the contingency risks in house.

All of the above affect decisions at the top level of finance and governmentpolicy in relation to Cathodic Protection.

Political advantages of corrosion leaks

Action groups and political activists seize on danger to life and environmentalhazard of every pipeline failure that hits the headlines. Every successful methodof corrosion control weakens their case against energy producing companies bydepriving them of the events that lead to publicity for their cause.

Cathodic protection is therefore a powerful tool against local unrest andterrorism. It removes a substantial amount of agravation from localcommunities and if organised correctly can actually involve them in simple lowcost activities that benefit industry.

CPN technology is based on simple procedures that can be learned at locallevel for the locally based activities. This is not only the most cost effectiveway to organise Cathodic Protection but has immense local social benefits.

This would seem to be a benefit to all but in fact it is not. If local workers holdthe technical ability to save millions of dollars then they hold the power overthat money and demand a disproportionate reward for their services.

If the local Chiefs sieze this amount of power then they elevate themselves tothe realms of those who control the energy rescources of the world. They thenbecome interested in money and world power so that they can live to thestandard the see their contemperaries enjoying.

This is not wrong, but it leads to a situation where scientific and technical factsare ignored and financial considerations are dominant.

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Unfortunately finance cannot stop corrosion and science can. Scientists havedeveloped a system of working together to enhance the understanding ofscience and broaden their knowledge.

Professional Bodies

Specialists have grouped together in Universities and professional bodies forthe purpose of exchanging knowledge.

As each specia

39860943 cathodic protection course

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