331

F i n a l d r a f t of chapter prepared f o r s o c i a l r e ­search methods t e x t being e d i t e d by Fest­inger and Katz

THE UTILIZATION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

Rensis L i k e r t and Ronald L i p p i t t

The r e s u l t s of any piece of s c c i a l s c i e n t i f i c e f f o r t may have

three d i f f e r e n t kinds of usefulness. The f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

emerging from the p a r t i c u l a r piece of work may be of i n t e r e s t and value

t o other s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s "Who w i l l be asking such questions as: "How

does t h i s piece of work give us f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o i n d i v i d u a l and

c o l l e c t i v e human behavior?" "iThat nev; methods, hypotheses, and g e n e r a l i ­

zations are presented i n t h i s study?" "How can I t h i n k and perform more

i n t e l l i g e n t l y as a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t because of the new fa c t s and g e n e r a l i ­

zations coming from t h i s study?" U t i l i z a t i o n by feller:/ s c i e n t i s t s has

as i t s goal the production of a greater body of s c i e n t i f i c a l l y v a l i d

knowledge•

The f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may also be of value t o p r o f e s ­

s i o n a l workers and c i t i z e n leaders such a s : a business executive, a

teacher, a community committee chairman, a labor leader, a government

a d m i n i s t r a t o r , or a personnel t r a i n e r . These leaders have r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r p u b l i c s e r v i c e and s o c i a l a c t i o n . Their goals are the improvement

of p o l i c y making, planning, and a c t i n g i n some area of s o c i a l a c t i v i t y .

I n t u r n i n g t o s o c i a l science these lenders w i l l be asking such questions

as: "What do these f i n d i n g s mean f o r the problems o f planning and a c t ­

ing I am fac i n g ? " " W i l l anything they found help me t o do my j o b more

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i n t e l l i g e n t l y or e f f i c i e n t l y ? " "Wliat have the s c i e n t i s t s found t h a t w i l l help me r i g h t now?"

The f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may be of value also t o "the

p u b l i c , " i . e . a l l c i t i z e n s as i n d i v i d u a l s v/ho are l i v i n g i n and adapt­

i n g t o the complex and changing t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s o c i e t y . This u t i l i ­

z a t i o n has the a d u l t education goal o f helping every man towards an

understanding of the dynamics and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of huitian a c t i v i t y as

a means t o the achievement of a more r a t i o n a l and s a t i s f y i n g personal

and c o l l e c t i v e l i f e ,

I n t h i s chapter v.fe are p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n ways i n which s o c i a l

p r a c t i t i o n e r s and a l l c i t i z e n s can u t i l i z e the resources of s o c i a l

psychology t o improve personal i n s i g h t , p o l i c y making, program planning,

and i n d i v i d u a l and group a c t i o n . Other chapters of t h i s volume have

d e a l t w i t h the standards and c r i t e r i a by which s c i e n t i s t s l e a r n from

each other.

Pain and p o t e n t i a l i t y

The u t i l i z a t i o n of science w i l l occur only i f the person or group

somehow becomes ready t o lock f o r and t o use s c i e n t i f i c resources i n

the s o l v i n g of problems. Tius readiness and i n i t i a t i v e seems u s u a l l y

t o depend upon these three sources of m o t i v a t i o n : (1) problem s e n s i t i ­

v i t y ; (2) an image of p o t e n t i a l i t y ; (3) a general experimental a t t i t u d e

toward i n n o v a t i o n ,

M o t i v a t i o n f o r the use of s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s and methods o f t e n

stems simply from the present s t a t e c f a f f a i r s being u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r

someone. Perhaps the chairman of the P.T.A. program committee f i n d s t h a t

attendance a t meetings i s shearing a downward t r e n d ; the business execu­

t i v e discovers the p r o d u c t i v i t y of his p l a n t i s s t a y i n g steady or de­

c l i n i n g r a t h e r than showing improvement; the government agency i s under

a t t a c k from Congress t o j u s t i f y the way i n which i t has been spending

funds; or the s o l i c i t o r s i n the Community Chest Drive are not c o l l e c t i n g

as much money as they have done p r e v i o u s l y ; or a d i s r u p t i v e s t a t e of

tension e x i s t s between e t h n i c groups i n the community; or John Doe f e e l s

he i s not g e t t i n g ahead i n l i f e . This type of s e n s i t i v i t y t o a problem

i s frequentJ.y a reason why responsible leaders look outward f o r sources

of help t o get a deeper understanding of t h e i r problem s i t u a t i o n and t o

f i n d new ways, p r i n c i p l e s , and methods of f u n c t i o n i n g more e f f e c t i v e l y *

The image of p o t e n t i a l i t y i s another very important source of

i n i t i a t i v e . Perhaps from t h e i r own i m a g i n a t i o n , or from observations of

s i t u a t i o n s elsewhere, c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s have g o t t e n an idea of how

things might be much more s a t i s f y i n g than they are now i f they were d i f ­

f e r e n t i n c e r t a i n respects. Perhaps as a r e s u l t of t a l k i n g w i t h some

other o f f i c e r s the P.T.A. pres i d e n t has become convinced t h a t she

should not be s a t i s f i e d w i t h $0% attendance a t meetings. Perhaps cer­

t a i n clues have convinced the government a d m i n i s t r a t o r t h a t there i s a

great deal of wasted e f f o r t i n what i s g e n e r a l l y regarded as an imp o r t ­

ant and e f f e c t i v e program. Perhaps f o r some reason the chairman of a

community c o u n c i l has go t t e n the idea t h a t a l l the competition t h a t goes

on between representatives of the various community groups who s i t on

hi s committee i s not a necessary s t a t e of a f f a i r s . Perhaps the manager

of a t e x t i l e p l a n t has read the r e p o r t s of the experiments by Bavelas,

Coch, and French, and i s wondering whether i t i s possible t h a t the pro-

d u c t i v i t y of hjs p l a n t , which i s regarded as q u i t e good by i n d u s t r y

standards, could r e a l l y shoot up i n the same way. I n each case t h i s

image or t e n t a t i v e question about p o t e n t i a l i t y s t i m u l a t e s need f o r

f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

Some leaders and organizations have e x p l i c i t l y accepted the standard

t h a t a continuous e f f o r t t o "keep up w i t h new d i s c o v e r i e s " and t o " t r y

out new ideas" i s a continuous imperative. For such persons and groups

the u t i l i z a t i o n of science has become an important goal. This s t a t e

of a f f a i r s i s , of course, not y e t common - i n regard t o the s o c i a l

sciences - but a growing number of i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i z a tions are

e x p l i c i t l y e s t a b l i s h i n g such goals.

Even when there i s m o t i v a t i o n t o burn t o science f o r help, t h i s i s

j u s t the beginning. Complex problems of research i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and

a p p l i c a t i o n must also be solved. V;e w i l l examine these problems i n

two types of s i t u a t i o n s : ( l ) where there i s a desire t o apply s c i e n t i ­

f i c knowledge discovered elsewhere t o the s o l u t i o n of a present problem;

and (2) where there i s a desire t o apply research procedures d i r e c t l y

t o help solve the present problem. V;e are making t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n

because i t seems important f o r the a n a l y s i s of the process of science

u t i l i s a t i o n . I n the f i r s t case there are questions as t o whether and t o

what e x t e n t the research done elsewhere applies t o the p a r t i c u l a r d e c i s ­

ions and actions i n question. Also there are questions of how the r e ­

search from elsewhere gets ccmnunicated t o the r e l e v a n t actors i n such a

way t h a t i t s p r a c t i c a l value can be r e a l i s t i c a l l y assessed and acted on*

I n the second case we have the problems of whether the reaearch i s focused

on major dimensions of the problem r a t h e r than on symptoms; whether the

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d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s have been accepted and understood by persons

who i t i s hoped w i l l u t i l i z e them; and whether the research f i n d i n g s

generalize t o other problems and s i t u a t i o n s . We w i l ] examine some o f

these problems o f applying research and then review a number of i l l u s ­

t r a t i v e cases of s o c i a l science u t i l i z a t i o n .

USING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE AND THEORY DERIVED

FROM RISLARCII ELSEWHERE

As a person or o r g a n i z a t i o n t u r n s t o the s c i e n t i f i c s t o c k p i l e f o r

help on a p a r t i c u l a r problem he i s faced w i t h a number of important

questions about the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of research done i n other s e t t i n g s .

To what extent and i n what ways i s h i s s i t u a t i o n comparable t o those i n

which the research was done? Does a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e

hold f o r h i s s i t u a t i o n also? I s the way of approaching the problem a l l

he can l e a r n from the previous work, r a t h e r than anything concerning the

substantive content of the f i n d i n g s and gen e r a l i z a t i o n s ?

Unfortunately, many persons do not r e v i s e these questions i n look­

ing f o r help from s c i e n t i f i c resources, so they r e j e c t most s c i e n t i f i c

work and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s because of c e r t a i n manifest d i f f e r e n c e s be­

tween the s i t u a t i o n s or populations on which the research was conducted

and t h e i r own. Or they may u n c r i t i c a l l y accept a l l the f i n d i n g s and i n ­

s i g h t s as re l e v a n t i n t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n and proceed unsuccessfully on

t h i s u n r e a l i s t i c assumption.

There i s another very s i g n i f i c a n t question wliich must be asked e

How can s c i e n t i f i c knowledge about "what causes what" provide guidance

i n doing concrete t h i n k i n g about "what w i l l happen i f . " Formulating

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plans f o r a c t i o n on a s c i e n t i f i c base o f t e n c a l l s f o r more and d i f f e r e n t s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n than the i n f o r m a t i o n needed t o understand why-things are the way they are. The sections which f o l l o w attempt t o review some o f the ways o f t h i n k i n g about these questions of a p p l i c a ­b i l i t y of s c i e x i t i f i c resources, and some of the ways i n which a p p l i c a t i o n can be f a c i l i t a t e d .

Enough theory

As the p o t e n t i a l user reviews a piece of research done elsewhere,

he may or may not discover t h a t the s c i e n t i s t has done enough genera­

l i s i n g from or t h e o r i z i n g about his f i n d i n g s t o provide h e l p f u l clues.

I t may sound somewhat para d o x i c a l t o s t a t e t h a t one of the ways i n which

s c i e n t i s t s can give t h e i r f i n d i n g s concrete s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s

i s t o do adequate t h e o r i z i n g about the f i n d i n g s . But t h i s i s the case«

The s p e l l i n g out of a b s t r a c t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s which emerge from the study

o f a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n provides one of the most h e l p f u l means of r e l a t ­

i n g these i n s i g h t s t o the a n a l y s i s o f other s i t u a t i o n s . The r e p o r t s by

Ca r t w r i g h t ( ) on mass persuasion and Coch and French ( ) on resistance

t o change are good examples of t h i s . Cartv/right's paper s t a r t s from

the r e s u l t s of the studies of the s e l l i n g of war bonds during World

War I I and the Coch and French paper s t a r t s from a study of the human

f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l changeover i n a t e x t i l e p l a n t . I n

both cases, however, the authors moved to a l e v e l of t h e o r i z i n g about

the phenomena they have s t u d i e d which makes i t possible f o r a wide range

of p r a c t i t i o n e r s t o see how the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s apply t o the analysis of

t h e i r problems. This i s possible because the concepts used t o organize

and i n t e r p r e t the data are concepts which are e a s i l y seen as r e l e v a n t

and important i n a wide v a r i e t y of s i t u a t i o n s .

Studies of w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d phenomena and populations

Studies such as those of the a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y , or of

a u t o c r a t i c and other kinds of lea d e r s h i p , or of resistance t o techno­

l o g i c a l change, or of i n t e r - p o r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s between supervisors and

workers have focused on aspects of behavior and s o c i a l process which are

important fe a t u r e s of a wide v a r i e t y of s o c i a l problems i n iiwny types of

s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . T h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s based on research dealing

w i t h widespread phenomena are l i k e l y t o have relevance f o r a vd.de

v a r i e t y of p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . S o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l studies which

are focused on phenomena which occur ' I n f r e q u e n t l y i n operating problems

and s i t u a t i o n s are apt t o y i e l d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s of less widespread a p p l i ­

c a b i l i t y . This does not mean tha!: these studies are less "basic" as

c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the developing science, or t o the s o l u t i o n of some

p a r t i c u l a r problem.

There i s another c l o s e l y r e l a t e d way i n which the s c i e n t i s t ' s

approach t o h i s research helps f a c i l i t a t e the 'process cf research u t i l i ­

z a t i o n . This i s by the s e l e c t i o n f o r study o f s i t u a t i o n s and populations

which are w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n s o c i e t y , such as i n d u s t r i a l work groups,

f a m i l y u n i t s , p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s , classrooms, e t c . I t should be

c l e a r , however, t h a t c e r t a i n basic problems can be most e f f e c t i v e l y i n ­

v e s t i g a t e d under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s w i t h populations of volunteers who

are w i l l i n g t o c o l l a b o r a t e i n s c i e n t i f i c experiments.

Channels of communication

But even i f the research s e t t i n g , type of problem, and treatment of

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the data are advantageous t o the p r o v i d i n g of important, and r e l e v a n t i n s i g h t s t o a wide v a r i e t y o f planners and acto r s , s t i l l a t h i r d type of problem may bo present. There may be no a c t u a l communication of such r e l e v a n t f i n d i n g s t o p o t e n t i a l consumers who need them. E f f e c t i v e communication must be e s t a b l i s h e d between r e l e v a n t s o c i a l s c i e n t i f i c resources and the p o t e n t i a l users of those resources. One help i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s the work of the s o c i a l science "middlemen", the science w r i t e r . A good s o c i a l science i n t e r p r e t e r i s able t o c l a s s i f y and synthesize research f i n d i n g s so t h a t they are more c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o the problems posed by operating persons, and are r e l a t e d to a wide v a r i e t y of problems so t h a t many p r a c t i t i o n e r s can f i n d the m a t e r i a l of relevance by reading such an overview, and can l e a r n where t o f i n d the sources of data. Examples of t h i s are the books by Goodwin Watson ( ) Gardner fciurphy ( ) and A l f r e d harrow ( ). Such overviews may also be presented as s p e c i a l l y i n v i t e d papers by s c i e n t i s t s at the pro­f e s s i o n a l meetings of p r a c t i t i o n e r s ( ) . Such overviews may f r e q u e n t l y have the stimulus value of c r e a t i n g the image of p o t e n t i a l i t y r e f e r r e d t o above, or provide someone who i s s e n s i t i v e t o a problem w i t h a d i r e c t ­i o n i n which t o seek f o r help.

I n the f i e l d of s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l research the i m p l i c a t i o n s of

the f i n d i n g s f o r what t o do i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n are o f t e n

complex and l i k e l y t o be t i e d up w i t h fears and u n c e r t a i n t i e s about the

consequences of the f i n d i n g s . Therefore more adequate and i n t e n s i v e

methods of communication are required t o st i m u l a t e an understan ding and

acceptance of research f i n d i n g s and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s than i n the p h y s i ­

c a l sciences. *'or t h i s reason the processes of demonstration and of

•r

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reassurance by peers are*often o f gr e a t importance. For example, a very important community p r o j e c t on the s o l v i n g of i n t e r g r o u p tensions sponsored an "open house" work shop f o r leaders from other communities to come and help review and i n t e r p r e t the research f i n d i n g s and t o observe the procedures which were being used. Peer reassurance i s i l l u s t r a t e d here by the f a c t t h a t the v i s i t o r s were able t o t a l k about the f e a s i b i l i t y and r e s u l t s of the p r o j e c t i u t h e i r own no n - t e c h n i c a l language v r i t h peers i n the experimental community who were perceived as "the same k i n d of people we are". This experience encouraged the v i s i t i n g leaders t o t r y apply­i n g some of these p r i n c i p l e s i n t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n s . The s t a f f of the Tavistock I n s t i t u t e of Human Relations has described a "budding-oi'f con­ference" i n which representatives of a f a c t o r y where a major research p r o ­j e c t had been goin^ on f o r some time i n v i t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v i s i t o r teams from s e v e r a l other i n d u s t r i e s t o come and review what had been going on. la b o r representatives t a l k e d t o l a b o r members of the host p l a n t , engineers t o engineers, and management t o management as the f i r s t phase of the con­ference, before t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s were c a l l e d i n to help analyze v/hat had been happening i n the p r o j e c t . I n many cases t h i s type of communicat­i o n i s necessary t o provide the m o t i v a t i o n and i n s i g h t needed f o r a "Dud-d i n g - o f f " of f i n d i n g s and methods t o new s i t u a t i o n s .

V/e have mentioned p r e v i o u s l y t h a t there i s an a d d i t i o n a l problem of

t r a n s l a t i n g d i a g n o s t i c i n s i g h t s about "why things are the way they are"

i n t o w e l l - f o r m u l a t e d hypotheses about/ "what t o do about i t " and how t o

t e s t whether these a l t e r n a t i v e l i n e s of a c t i o n are c o r r e c t and workable i n

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . This leads us to one of the most important

processes of science u t i l i z a t i o n , the use of the s c i e n t i s t as a consultant.

r

- 1 0 -

I n a vast m a j o r i t y of cases the e f f e c t i v e c a r r y i n g through of a process

of u t i l i s a t i o n of research f i n d i n g s i n t o i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c y making, p l a n ­

ning, and operations requires a c t i v e face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n between

a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t who serves as an i n t e r p r e t e r and c o n s u l t a n t and the

key operating people i n v o l v e d . Such a s c i e n t i f i c c o n s u l t a n t i s nob p r i ­

m a r i l y a research producer. He i s more of a s o c i a l engineer and han a

m u l t i p l e r o l e t o perform. On the one hand he must become i t n i l i a r enough

w i t h the operating problems so t h a t he can help reformulate them t o make

possible a more s c i e n t i f i c analysis of them. He must have a broad enough

o r i e n t a t i o n t o s o c i a l research and t h e o r y so t h a t he can b r i n g the r e l e ­

vant research laiowledge t o bear on the analysis of the problem and the

p r e d i c t i o n of probable consequences of various liness of a c t i o n . He must

also be able t o help set up procedures f o r measuring and assessing the

consequences o f new l i n o s of a c t i o n . Perhaps most important, such a

s c i e n t i s t - c o n s u l t a n t u s u a l l y f i n d s t h a t he needs t o take the r o l e of a

t r a i n e r of his operating co-workers i n "the s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e " or

" s c i e n t i f i c approach" bo t h i n k i n g about the new operating problems which

occur d a i l y .

I l l u s t r a t i o n s of the Process of Research U t i l i z a t i o n

Mow t h a t we've reviewed b r i e f l y some of the problems and p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of m o t i v a t i o n and communication i n v o l v e d i n applying s o c i a l science know­

ledge from other s e t t i n g s t o s p e c i f i c operating problems, l e t ' s look more

co n c r e t e l y at some case examples of such attempts t o apply s o c i a l science.

I n a l a t e r s e c t i o n we w i l l summarize what seem t o us some of the import­

ant general princip3.es t h a t underly these case i l l u s t r a t i o n s e

We are s a t i s f i e d

The Executive Committee ox a Coiumuuity Chest asked a s o c i a l psycholo­

g i s t t o help them t r a i n t h e i r fund s o l i c i t o r s . A f t e r l o o k i n g i n t o the past

p r a c t i c e s o f the s o l i c i t a t i o n procedure the cons u l t a n t recommended a number

of m o d i f i c a t i o n s d e r i v e d from research and theory. For example, he sugges­

ted t h a t s o l i c i t o r s p a r t i c i p a t e more a c t i v e l y i n the process of s e t t i n g

quota o b j e c t i v e s so t h a t they would f e e l p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y more committed t o

t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i v e s . This was an a p p l i c a t i o n from several research

f i n d i n g s t h a t persons who p a r t i c i p a t e i n a group de c i s i o n are more l i k e l y

t o c a r r y through the commitments of t h i s d e c i s i o n than are persons who

receive assignments or e x h o r t a t i o n w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Also the plan

included more c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of matching the s o l i c i t o r to h i s p a r t i ­

c u l a r " t a r g e t s " i n terms o f e x i s t i n g s t a t u s and group r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Re­

search on s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e has i n d i c a t e d the importance of p r e s t i g e and

reference group membarship i n e x e r t i n g i n f l u e n c e . Another a p p l i c a t i o n o f

reference group theory was a recommendation t o develop a c l e a r e r r a t i o n a l e

f o r expected size of c o n t r i b u t i o n i n terms of s p e c i f i c sub-populations t h a t

each g i v e r could see h i m s e l f as belonging t o .

The Executive Committee r e j e c t e d a l l such ideas w i t h a r e a c t i o n t h a t

"we made our quota l a s t year by the previous methods, so we b e t t e r use them

again". P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y they were unable t o : (1) accept the v a l i d i t y of

the data from elsewhere as r e l e v a n t ; (2) accept as r e a l i s t i c a goal o f

"doing b e t t e r than we have before"; (3) see d i a g n o s t i c a l l y some of the d i f ­

ferences between " l a s t year" and " t h i s year" as a money-raising s i t u a t i o n .

I t i s possible t h a t a l l of these hurdles might have been overcome i f

the c o n s u l t a n t had s t a r t e d out w i t h the o;.jective of c r e a t i n g a need f o r

- 12 -

help, r a t h e r than assuming t h i s already e x i s t e d . Or he might have been successful i n suggesting a p o l i c y of " t r y i n g out" a modified approach w i t h one p a r t of the p o p u l a t i o n .

Complacency shock

As we have i n d i c a t e d p r e v i o u s l y i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t f o r the i n d i v i ­

d ual or the group t o perceive and accept the f a c t t h a t the o p e r a t i n g s i t u ­

a t i o n needs improvement. The f o l l o w i n g case i l l u s t r a t e s some of the elements

i n v o l v e d i n t h i s type o f s i t u a t i o n where there i s no strong problem sensi­

t i v i t y o r image of p o t e n t i a l i t y :

Each year the Mutual S e c u r i t y Agency brings over numerous p r o d u c t i v i t y

teams from the various i n d u s t r i e s o f the Marshall plan c o u n t r i e s . These

teams o f twelve are delegated t o make a study of p r o d u c t i v i t y i n several

American p l a n t s i n order t o f i n d ways o f improving the p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e i r

own i n d u s t r y . As might be expected, there i s i n many cases a strong ten­

dency t o see any higher p r o d u c t i v i t y i n the American p l a n t s as due t o s p e c i a l

advantages not possible back home, such as unavailable equipment or superior

raw m a t e r i a l s . I n ordor t o f a c i l i t a t e comparative a n a l y s i s of t h e i r own

p l a n t s and the American p l a n t s the members o f the team from i n d u s t r y

were asked to make a s p e c i a l p r e - t r i p study o f p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e i r own

f a c t o r i e s by going around as a team v i s i t i n g the various f a c t o r i e s from which

they came. They made a c a r e f i i l r e c o r d o f p r o d u c t i v i t y data and of the v a r i ­

ous manufacturing procedures i n t h e i r p l a n t s . The f i r s t p l a n t they v i s i t e d

i n the United States had about three times greater p r o d u c t i v i t y per worker

than t h e i r own p l a n t s . I t was q u i t e easy, however, f o r them t o p o i n t out a

v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s of superior equipment which they f e l t c c u l d account f o r

the d i f f e r e n c e s . They were then taken t o a small p l a n t comparable i n size

- 13 -

and equipment to a t y p i c a l p l a n t i n t h e i r own country. A f t e r looking a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n the.y agreed t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n was comparable t o t h e i r own and t h e r e f o r e t h a t a comparison o f the f i g u r e s on p r o d u c t i v i t y should be v a l i d . The analysis of p r o d u c t i v i t y again i n d i c a t e d t h a t the p r o d u c t i v i t y per worker was two t o th r e e tirres as much as i n t h e i r own f a c ­t o r i e s . I n the face o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e i r complacency wa3 shattered. They became eager t o l e a r n how t o apply the di s c o v e r i e s and innovations of the American p l a n t s i n t h e i r own. This i l l u s t r a t i o n seems t o us t o be t y p i ­c a l o f many s i t u a t i o n s where an i n d i v i d u a l or an o r g a n i z a t i o n has o v e r t l y expressed a de s i r e t o improve the present s i t u a t i o n , b ut i s unable to accept various ideas f o r improvement as r e l e v a n t f o r themselves u n t i l they can see t h a t the improvements have been s u c c e s s f u l l y executed by someone " i n t h e i r own league ". When t h i s f a c t o r i s accepted then t h e data which have been discovered elsewhere are accepted as r e l e v a n t and a p p l i c a b l e t o the a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n ,

A research a p p l i c a t i o n conference

Let's t u r n now t o several i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f attempts t o communicate

research f i n d i n g s i n a way t h a t would c l a r i f y t h e i r relevance t o s o c i a l

p r a c t i c e . I n the f i r s t example a group of a d u l t education p r a c t i t i o n e r s

decided they would l i k e t o explore what heILp they could get i n t h i n k i n g

about t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l o p e r a t i n g problems from i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a selected

group of s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , so they organized a two-day conference which

had the f o l l o w i n g design:

During the f i r s t phase o f the conference, the p r a c t i t i o n e r s s at around

the t a b l e t a k i n g a census of what they regarded as c r i t i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l

- lh -

problems, attempting t o a r r i v e a t some consensus concerning the most important

problems as they saw them. They attempted t o formulate the nature o f these

problems and the causes as they understood them. During t h i s phase the f i v e

or s i x s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s from anthropology

t o psychology had the job' o f l i s t e n i n g and keeping whatever notes on t h e i r i n ­

t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the nature and the causes o f the problems, making cross r e f ­

erences t o any r e l e v a n t s o c i a l science research and t h e o r i z i n g which might be

h e l p f u l i n shedding l i $ i t on the var i o u s problems which were being explored.

During the second phase o f t h e conference, the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s took the

center of the stage t o s t a r t i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h each other. They shared and

i n t e g r a t e d t h e i r observations about the c r u c i a l dimensions o f the operating

problems which had been discussed, the v:ay i n which these problems might be

r e l a t e d t o deeper un d e r l y i n g problems on which research had been done, and

the k i n d of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s which might be t e n t a t i v e l y advanced as guide l i n e s

f o r c l a r i f y i n g the nature of the ope r a t i n g problems. During t h i s phase, a

wide v a r i e t y o f researches and research-derived g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s were brought

t o bear and there was considerable consensus i n r e f o r m u l a t i n g many of the

oper a t i n g problems. During t h i s phase, the p r a c t i t i o n e r s were p r i m a r i l y

l i s t e n e r s , although they asked questions of c l a r i f i c a t i o n . During the t h i r d

phase o f the conference, the whole group worked together on three a c t i v i t i e s :

(a) r e - d e f i n i n g the nature o f the basic operating problems i n a d u l t education,

( b l f o r m u l a t i n g some general p r i n c i p l e s f o r the improvement o f p r a c t i c e , and

( c ) i d e n t i f y i n g c e r t a i n areas o f needed research which should be conducted

i n a d u l t education s e t t i n g s t o t e s t tho value o f c e r t a i n t h e o r i e s developed i n

other s e t t i n g s , or to open up new f i e l d s of knowledge which had n o t been ex­

p l o r e d i n other s e t t i n g s . The p a r t i c i p a n t s were i n general agreement t h a t

t h i s type o f communication s i t u a t i o n was a very valuable and successful one

i n c l a r i f y i n g the relevance of s o c i a l science research t o various operating

problems and i n r e f o r m u l a t i n g o p e r a t i n g problems so t h a t they could be r e l a t e d

- 15 -

t o basic s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s and t h e o r y . Sevsral problems o f making t h i s k i n d o f i n t e r a c t i o n a successful co:amunication process were i d e n t i f i e d . I t was c l e a r , f o r example, t h a t the discussion c o o r d i n a t o r needed, i f p o s s i b l e , t o be s e n s i t i v e t o both the frame o f reference of the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s and the a d u l t educators i n order t o i d e n t i f y and help c l a r i f y p o i n t s of non-communi­c a t i o n and to help both groups f i n d rewards i n t h i s type of i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u ­a t i o n . I t seemed t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o help members o f both groups c l a r i f y t h e i r r o l e s as l i s t e n e r s and as a c t o r s i n various phases o f the com­munication process. The coordinator also had t o help give the conference a continuous movement toward a p p l y i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s from research t o operating s i t u a t i o n s , and f o r m u l a t i n g the major problems f o r f u r t h e r research.

A research review conference

Our second i l l u s t r a t i o n o f research comiunication i s a somewhat d i f f e r e n t

type of research u t i l i z a t i o n conference. This was a one-day meeting where a

heterogeneous group o f f i f t y coirimunity s o c i a l welfare leaders met t o l i s t e n

to a review of research on leadership and group dynamics.

During the f i r s t h a l f hour, the conference leader discussed w i t h the

cornmunity leaders ways i n which they might plan to get as much as possible

out of t h e research which would be presented. I t was agreed t h a t they would

l i s t e n w i t h an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n making notes on p o i n t s i n the research

review where each of them got glimmerings of possible relevance t o p a r t i c u l a r

s i t u a t i o n s or o p e r a t i n g problems about which they were concerned. At the

end o f the research review they would convene i n conmittces of s i x or seven

to share t h e i r thoughts and observations, i n order t o formulate (1) questions

of c l a r i f i c a t i o n t o the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ; and (2) t e n t a t i v e generalisations

which they would draw from the research roview concerning o p e r a t i n g problems.

These they would t e s t by g e t t i n g the r e a c t i o n o l the research s c i e n t i s t t o the

v a l i d i t y of t h e i r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and the p o s s i b l e extension of t h e g e n e r a l i ­

zations .

- 16 -

The research review took about an hour and a h a l f . I t i n t e g r a t e d a great v a r i e t y of studies under s e v e r a l research t o p i c headings such as Leadership, Communication, Decision Making, P a r t i c i p a t i o n , e t c . Under each heading a v a r i e t y o f e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s were given and a number of t h e o r e t i c a l generaliza­t i o n s were formulated. During the next hour a l l of the sub-committees held very a c t i v e discussions, each committee having a r e c o r d e r - r e p o r t e r . The f o l ­l owing p e r i o d of i n t e r a c t i o n between the group r e p o r t e r s and the s o c i a l scien­t i s t s was also very a c t i v e , although r a t h e r f r u s t r a t i n g a t times f o r the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t . The sub-committees had been very i n v e n t i v e and c r e a t i v e i n applying and extending various research g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . He found himself i n a p o s i t i o n of c h a l l e n g i n g some o f the a p p l i c a t i o n s which were being suggested. He f e l t they needed considerable t e s t i n g before they could be applied.. He was active

i n suggesting boundaries to g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s and dangers o f over-simplyfying

the complexities of ope r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s by t h i n k i n g o nly i n terms of the i n t e r ­

a c t i o n of two or three v a r i a b l e s , r a t h e r than of many a d d i t i o n a l ones which

might be j u s t as impor tant-and which had not been explored i n the research

which he had been r e p o r t i n g . As a whole, the conference seemed to s t r i k e a

balance between p r o v i d i n g new i n s i g h t s i n t o the ana l y s i s of operating problems

and t r a i n i n g i n "the s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e " o f t h i n k i n g about some of the boun­

d a r i e s o f g e n e r a l i z i n g from one s i t u a t i o n and set o f v a r i a b l e s t o another. The

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the d i s c u s s i o n i n d i c a t e d a high degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the

r e s u l t s . The research reviewer and the conference leader f e l t t here were a

number of weaknesses which could be improved upon next time. They f e l t the

whole problem of adequate research u t i l i z a t i o n had not been grasped because no

s i n g l e i l l u s t r a t i o n had been c a r r i e d a l l the way through t o an examination o f

the problems of a c t i n g on new ideas and i n s i g h t s about a problem. They also

f e l t the research reviewer had not had enough o p p o r t u n i t y t o get i n s i g h t i n t o

the complexities of some o f the ope r a t i n g problems which were being t a l k e d about

so t h a t he could sense more f u l l y the relevance or l a c k of relevance of some o f

the research f i n d i n g s and t h e o r y which he had been r e p o r t i n g . I t was also ob­

served t h a t the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the dis c u s s i o n became q u i t e motivated to read

more s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , b u t the research reviewer had not been

adequately prepared t o suggest a v a i l a b l e types of reading which might provide

good follow-up.

Focusing the wide range o f s o c i a l sciences on a s p e c i f i c operating problem

During World War I I , one o f the authors had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a t r a i n i n g program i n which i t was necessary t o b r i n g the d i s c i p l i n e s of Anthropology, S o c i a l Psychology, P s y c h i a t r y , Economics, P o l i t i c a l Science, Journalism, and

Geography to bear on the s o l u t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c type of operating problem. To i n t e g r a t e t h i s d i v e r s e spectrum of i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a focused set o f operating knowledges, a t t i t u d e s , and s k i l l s , i t was necessary t o t r a i n each group o f op­e r a t i n g personnel (about a dozen i n each class) t o operate as a l e a r n i n g team i n u t i l i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n from many d i f f e r e n t s c i e n t i s t experts. For example, before a p o l i t i c a l science s p e c i a l i s t a r r i v e d , the operating group worked t o ­gether f o r a class p e r i o d on the p r e p a r a t i o n of a group i n t e r v i e w schedule of questions which would be covered and cross-checked i n conversational s t y l e d u r i n g the group discussion w i t h the s p e c i a l i s t . The f i n d i n g s of the group dis c u s s i o n would be summarized a f t e r the s p e c i a l i s t l e f t , and hypotheses would

be formulated f o r f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n and cross-checking w i t h other s c i e n t i s t s . I n some cases the t r a i n e e s needed t o convert the i n f o r m a t i o n they acquired i n t o s p e c i f i c i n t e r p e r s o n a l s k i l l s . For example, they needed t o get from the anthro­p o l o g i s t s the k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n which would a c t u a l l y help them behave appro­p r i a t e l y i n c r o s s - c u l t u r a l contacts w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a very d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e from t h e i r own. They found t l i a t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f appropriate behavior acquired by q u e s t i o n i n g the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s were not easy t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o a c t u a l behavior. Therefore, they found i t necessary and e f f e c t i v e to set up r o l e - p l a y i n g t o deal w i t h s p e c i f i c c r o s s - c u l t u r a l contact s i t u a t i o n s , w i t h the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t g i v i n g demonstrations and p r o v i d i n g at-the-elbow supervision i n appropriate behavior p a t t e r n s .

Another procedure f o r cross d i s c i p l i n a r y i n t e g r a t i o n used w i t h these t r a i ­

nees was t o give them a s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n a l problem tc solve, i n which t h e i r

- 17A -

f i r s t j o b was t o make decisions as t o what k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n they needed

and from what type of s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , and to formulate a procedure f o r

g e t t i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n from such s c i e n t i f i c personnel. The s c i e n t i s t s

were then secured and the group had to make gcod use o f them and i n t e ­

grate the m a t e r i a l i n t o a set o f operating decisions and a c t i o n s . I t was

the judgment o f the three leaders of t h i s t r a i n i n g program t h a t the focus

on the s o l u t i o n o f s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i n g problems was an indispensable r e q u i r e ­

ment f o r the successful i n t e g r a t i o n and use o f the resources of the various

s o c i a l sciences. One o f t h e problems o f such an approach was t h a t of

" t r a i n i n g " the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o enter i n t o t h i s group-interview pro­

cedure where they were asked t o focus t h e i r t h i n k i n g and background know­

ledge on c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n a l questions, r a t h e r than t o present prepared

l e c t u r e s o r g a n i z i n g the substantive content of t h e i r s p e c i a l t y around more

general or a b s t r a c t t o p i c headings. Most of them proved q u i t e ready to

make the adjustment and were able t o c o n t r i b u t e i n a very f r u i t f u l way.

- 18 -

Producing an applied s o c i a l science p e r i o d i c a l

Another example of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the s o c i a l sciences i s i l l u s ­

t r a t e d i n the p r o d u c t i o n of the new monthly p e r i o d i c a l A d u l t Leadership ( ) .

The p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n which h a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the production of

t h i s p e r i o d i c a l has conceived i t s main f u n c t i o n as communicating t o l a y

leaders p r i n c i p l e s and techniques f o r performing t h e i r j o b of community

and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p . I t was f e l t t h a t t h i s o b j e c t i v e c a l l e d f u r

drawing on the resources of the s o c i a l sciences i n order t o produce v a l i d

content f o r such a p e r i o d i c a l . On the other hand, i t was recognized t h a t

most s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s would not have the time or the s k i l l t o communicate

c l e a r l y through the type of w r i t i n g demanded f o r such a popular p e r i o d i c a l .

Therefore an Operating Committee was e s t a b l i s h e d which was composed of

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from the s o c i a l sciences, from t r a i n i n g methodology, from

magazine p u b l i c a t i o n and a r t l a y o u t , from p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , and from the

o perating f i e l d of l e a d e r s h i p p r a c t i c e . This group was given the major

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h r a s h i n g out w i t h the small p e r i o d i c a l s t a f f the majcr

p o l i c i e s and procedures f o r the content and production of the p e r i o d i c a l .

I n the e a r l y stages of production f e r v o r a number of t h i n g s happened which

helped t o put the microscope on c e r t a i n problems of s o c i a l science u t i l i z a t i o n .

For example, a f t e r agreement was reached, as i t was w i t h o u t too much d i f f i ­

c u l t y , concerning the o v e r a l l o u t l i n e of content f o r a p a r t i c u l a r issue of

the p e r i o d i c a l , some of the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t members of the Committee under­

took t o prepare c e r t a i n a r t i c l e s , and other members of the committee and

s t a f f w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d w r i t i n g s k i l l s undertook to produce other u n i t s , a f t e r

a b r i e f i n g i n the committee meetings about the main themes of the content*

Tension got a b i t high when the w r i t e r s t o l d the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t h a t

- 19 -

t h e i r productions j u s t couldn't be accepted w i t h o u t r e - w r i t i n g and the s o c i a l

s c i e n t i s t s t o l d the w r i t e r s t h a t t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s o v e r s i m p l i f i e d the basic

data which the a r t i c l e had been designed t o i n t e r p r e t . Out of these f i r s t

e f f o r t s have come a number of i n t e r e s t i n g production p a t t e r n s . For example,

c e r t a i n members of the p e r i o d i c a l s t a f f have now acquired s k i l l s i n b r i e f i n g

s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s about what k i n d of content i s needed i n rough d r a f t form

to provide the basis f o r a w r i t i n g j o b by a p r o f e s s i o n a l w r i t e r , whose

e f f o r t w i l l be reviewed by one or more s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s . Another success­

f u l p a t t e r n of production has been t o s e t up a b r i e f i n g session where one or

more s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t h i n k out l o u d about what the content and sequence

of a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c l e might be w h i l e the p r o f e s s i o n a l communicator takes

notes, asks questions of c l a r i f i c a t i o n , checks whether he i s g e t t i n g the

ideas by rehearsing them out l o u d , and then w r i t e s up a f i r s t d r a f t of the

a r t i c l e f o r review. Out of t h i s k i n d of i n t e r - a c t i o n has grown a very

r e a l mutual respect on the p a r t of both p a r t i e s and a much deeper appre­

c i a t i o n of the problems i n v o l v e d i n an adequate process of t r a n s i t i o n from

research f i n d i n g s and s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y t o communications of f u n c t i o n a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e t o laymen who have op e r a t i n g jobs o f leadership t o perform.

D i r e c t c o n s u l t a t i o n on a s o l u t i o n o f an operating problem

I n a p a r t i c u l a r c i t y the school p o p u l a t i o n had grown r a p i d l y and there

was need f o r an expansion o f school f a c i l i t i e s . Arrangements had been made

f o r a l o c a l e l e c t i o n i n which voters would have an o p p o r t u n i t y t o vote f o r

or against new schools and also f o r or against a bond issue t o finance

these schools.

While the l o c a l Parent-Teachers As s o c i a t i o n was thoroughly f a m i l i a r w i t h

the reasons f c r the need f o r the new school and was p a r t i c u l a r l y anxious t h a t

- 20 -

the outcome of the vote be f a v o r a b l e , they f e l t t h a t the vote should r e p r e ­

sent the desire c f the e n t i r e community. Therefore they decided t o s t a r t

a campaign t o i n f o r m people about the f a c t s t o be voted upon and t o get

out the vo t e . I n planning the campaign, the head of the l o c a l PTA sought

the advice of a s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t on what the PTA should do i n order t o

be sure t h a t the voters'acted when the time came t o vote.

This p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t had had research experience during

the war on the problem of why people d i d or d i d not buy war bonds. He knew

t h a t the studies of the d i f f e r e n t war bond campaigns had shown t h a t the

mass media were u s e f u l i n h e l p i n g people t o understand the reasons why i t

was jj i i p o r t a n t f o r people t o buy bonds. But he also knew t h a t a major

f i n d i n g cf the st u d i e s of the d i f f e r e n t war bond campaigns was t h a t people

were only l i k e l y t o act by buying one when they were p e r s o n a l l y asked to

do so.

He drew upon h i s knowledge of these and r e l a t e d r e s u l t s i n advising the

l o c a l PTA. He urged them t o p l a n a campaign u t i l i z i n g both the mass media

and personal s o l i c i t a t i o n but w i t h emphasis on the l a t t e r . He suggested

t h a t they ask the l o c a l newspaper and r a d i o s t a t i o n s t o c a r r y as complete

i n f o r m a t i o n as p o s s i b l e on the f a c t s of the s i t u a t i o n and t o repeat t h i s

i n f o r m a t i o n i n somewhat d i f f e r e n t s t o r i e s on d i f f e r e n t days so as t o increase

the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t people would become aware o f the e l e c t i o n and the issues

i n v o l v e d , But he emphasized, i n t a l k i n g w i t h the PTA, t h a t i f they wished

t o motive people t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n v o t i n g t h a t i t would be very important

t o have each household c a l l e d upon by a volunteer from the PTA t o encourage

every e l i g i b l e v o t e r i n the household t o vote. A c t i n g i n a vigorous manner

upon h i s advice, the PTA organized an i n f o r m a t i o n program about the need

- 21 -

f o r a d d i t i o n a l schools and the cost of these a d d i t i o n s which was widely

disseminated through the cooperation o f the l o c a l mass media. But most

important of a l l , however, the l o c a l PTA organized a campaign i n which

every household throughout the c i t y was c a l l e d upon. I n these personal

c a l l s on i n d i v i d u a l households, neighbors of the person c a l l e d upon gave

him f a c t s about the s i t u a t i o n and urged him t o be sure t o vote i n t h e f o r t h ­

coming e l e c t i o n . The e f f e c t o f t h i s campaign w i t h i t s house-to-house

s o l i c i t a t i o n was a l a r g e vote i n the e l e c t i o n and one which was overwhelm­

i n g l y i n f a v o r of the a d d i t i o n a l schools and of the bond issue t s finance them.

An i n - s e r v i c e seminar

A f i n a l i l l u s t r a t i o n of methods o f research i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a com­

b i n a t i o n of using s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s from other s i t u a t i o n s t o help

understand and apply the f i n d i n g s of research conducted w i t h i n an agency.

A s o c i a l science team was asked to undertake a program of research to evaluate

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the f o r e i g n assistance program of one of the government

agencies. I t became c l e a r t h a t i n order t o understand and use the type of

r e s u l t s which would be coming from the study i t would be e s s e n t i a l t h a t the

program planning s t a f f and key a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of the agency understand some

of the u n d e r l y i n g dynamics of a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n , group a c t i o n and resistance

t o change. Therefore, before the study was completed, the key members of

the s t a f f were given an o p p o r t u n i t y on a volunteer basis t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n

a seminar on "changing a t t i t u d e s and behavior". The seminar was r e s t r i c t e d

t o 15 p a r t i c i p a n t s who would commit themselves to attend a l l the sessions

i n s p i t e of the operating pressures of t h e i r d a i l y jobs. The one session a

week was h e l d several blocks away from the o f f i c e b u i l d i n g . The ground

- 22 -

r u l e s of the seminar were t h a t research f i n d i n g s and general t h e o r e t i c a l

p r i n c i p l e s which might be r e l e v a n t t o the operating problems of the various

members of the group would be presented f o r d i s c u s s i o n , but the discussion

would not wander o f f i n t o the s p e c i f i c discussion of any of the operating

problems of the members of the group u n t i l the f i n a l sessions of the seminar.

However, the l a s t h a l f hour o f each two-hour p e r i o d was set aside f o r " b r a i n

storming". I n t h i s p e r i o d each member, going around the t a b l e , was asked

t o f r e e - a s s o c i a t e any connections he had made or was able t o make between

the t h i n g s t h a t had been r e p o r t e d and discussed i n the session and h i s own

operating s i t u a t i o n . The seminar leaders kept a r e c o r d of these f r e e -

a s s o c i a t i o n connections f o r l a t e r review and dis c u s s i o n when there was a

s p e c i f i c focus on the review and a n a l y s i s of operating problems of the

agency. This review also provided a t r a n s i t i o n t o l o o k i n g a t the research

f i n d i n g s of the eva l u a t i o n study of t h e i r own program. I t was the f e e l i n g

of the research team t h a t these "background theory and research r eport

sessions" provided the k i n d of s e n s i t i v i t y and perspective which helped

t h i s group o f op e r a t i n g persons t o be able t o come t$ g r i p s e f f e c t i v e l y

and o b j e c t i v e l y w i t h the f i n d i n g s o f the research conducted i n t h e i r own

s i t u a t i o n .

what's the s i t u a t i o n ?

One of the most d i f f i c u l t and y e t important problems f o r the s o c i a l

s c i e n t i s t when s e r v i n g as a consultant i s the job of g e t t i n g an accurate

p i c t u r e q u i c k l y of j u s t what the operating problem i s so t h a t he may be

able t o s e l e c t and i n t e r p r e t r e l e v a n t research r e s u l t s and t h e o r e t i c a l

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s developed elsewhere. The conscientious research s c i e n t i s t

- 23 -

i s q u i t e l i k e l y t o take the p o i n t of view t h a t t h i s i s an impossible task

w i t h o u t an a d d i t i o n a l comprehensive research diagnosis based on measure­

ment of the present s i t u a t i o n . Frequently t h i s i s c o r r e c t , and w i l l be

the focus o f the second s e c t i o n o f the chapter. Frequently, however, t h i s

approach i s not f e a s i b l e , and would r e q u i r e q u i t e an i m p r a c t i c a l delay i n

the d e c i s i o n making and planning demands. Therefore the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t

c onsultant i s f r e q u e n t l y faced w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y of " g e t t i n g the p i c t u r e "

as q u i c k l y and as o b j e c t i v e l y as p o s s i b l e * The f o l l o w i n g case i l l u s t r a t e s

two techniques o f t a c k l i n g t h i s problem:

The s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t was asked t o con s u l t w i t h the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a

lar g e h o s p i t a l on any r e l e v a n t knowledge there might be which would be

h e l p f u l i n improving the i n t e r g r o u p tensions between the nurses, doctors,

and attendants, i n such a way t h a t there would be improved care of the

p a t i e n t s . During one afternoon t h e consultant conducted three "problem

census" group sessions. I n one session he met w i t h a group of medical

personnel, i n another w i t h a group of nu r s i n g personnel, and i n the t h i r d

w i t h a group of attendants. I n each session he shared h i s problem of wanting

bo get v a l i d data on the problems each sub-population f e l t they had of

cooperation w i t h the other sub-populations, i n the i n t e r e s t s of serving

the p a t i e n t . He selected t h r e e persons a t random i n each group, e x p l a i n i n g

t h a t w h i l e he interviewed them i n f r o n t o f the r e s t of the group he would

l i k e t o have every other member j o t down whether they agreed w i t h or d i s ­

agreed w i t h the responses of the interviewee and what m o d i f i c a t i o n s and

a d d i t i o n s they would make i n t h e i r own response. The data would be reported

v e r b a l l y i f there was time, but would be handed i n i f there was not s u f f i ­

c i e n t time. The i n t e r v i e w s were then conducted w i t h a pre-planned set of

- 2k -

questions, and proceeded s l o w l y enough so t h a t the r e s t of the group could

formulate the v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r responses. Most o f them were very o.ctive

i n doing t h i s . The i n t e r v i e w s and supplementary data i n d i c a t e d t h a t most

of the tensions and low morale stemmed from i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s which

occurred i n the d a i l y r o u t i n e s of h o s p i t a l l i f e . I t seemed t o the con­

s u l t a n t from these r e p o r t s t h a t probably a good deal of the d i f f i c u l t y had

t o do w i t h non-communication of expe c t a t i o n s , and n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

deci s i o n making, or non-communication of decisions which had been made.

To check f u r t h e r whether these were the most r e l e v a n t phenomena, the

consu l t a n t r e c r u i t e d several volunteers from each r o l e t o recreate some

t y p i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n episodes, using r o l e - p l a y i n g techniques. From h i s

observations of these s i t u a t i o n s the c o n s u l t a n t f e l t f a i r l y secure about

some of t h e major v a r i a b l e s which were i n v o l v e d and was able t o summarize

some of the r e l e v a n t research from other s o c i a l h i e r a r c h i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ,

and t o make some general i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s about the problems i n v o l v e d . Also,

he suggested from experience elsewhere t h a t key personnel be a c t i v e l y i n ­

volved i n an a c t u a l research p r o j e c t i n which they would p a r t i c i p a t e i n a

f u l l e r diagnosis of the dynamics o f t h e i r own problem s i t u a t i o n * This

step takes us i n t o the next s e c t i o n o f t h i s chapter on the u t i l i z a t i o n

of research done w i t h i n the operating s i t u a t i o n . The main p o i n t we wanted

t o i l l u s t r a t e i n t h i s b r i e f example i s the f a c t t h a t the c o n s u l t a n t can use

a v a r i e t y of techniques t o get a t l e a s t crude data on the p a r t i c u l a r

operating problem so t h a t he can more a p p r o p r i a t e l y m o b i l i z e the s c i e n t i f i c

resources of research and t h e o r i z i n g done elsewhere which may be re l e v a n t

i n s t i m u l a t i n g i n s i g h t s about the present problem.

- 25 -

I n t e r p r e t a t i v e Review of Case I l l u s t r a t i o n s

Important v a r i a t i o n s i n the a p p l i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n

One of the important f a c t s we can note from the v a r i e t y of i l l u s t r a t i o n s

above i s t h a t the p s y c h o l o g i c a l readiness and a b i l i t y of the p a r t i c i p a n t s

t o use s o c i a l science and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from s i t u a t i o n

t o s i t u a t i o n . We have noted t h a t i n some cases the operating personnel

have taken i n i t i a t i v e t o seek new knowledge and ways of applying i t while

i n other cases t h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o p o t e n t i a l i t i e s doss not e x i s t . Also,

where t h i s desire t o seek new i n f o r m a t i o n does e x i s t , i n some s i t u a t i o n s i t

i s a very general a t t i t u d e of c u r i o s i t y about p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a p p l i c a t i o n

(such as i n the research a p p l i c a t i o n conference and the research review

conference) r a t h e r than a search f o r help on a s p e c i f i c problem (such as

the school bond campaign or the improvement of the morale i n the h o s p i t a l ) .

The j o b of the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t when the p r a c t i t i o n e r s

ask him, " T e l l us i n general what's going on and what new t h i n g s are being

discovered i n your f i e l d , " as contrasted t o the request "Do you know of

any knowledge t h a t w i l l help us i n s o l v i n g t h i s problem?". We can note

another d i f f e r e n c e i n our case i l l u s t r a t i o n s between those s i t u a t i o n s i n

which the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t i s p r i m a r i l y an i n f c r m a t i o n - g i v e r , and other

s i t u a t i o n s where he i s an a c t i v e c o n s u l t a n t i n guiding the process of

research a p p l i c a t i o n and doing an a c t i v e j o b of i n t e r p r e t i n g s c i e n t i f i c

method and the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s from one s i t u a t i o n

t o another.

Our case i l l u s t r a t i o n s emphasize the importance of t h i s mere ac t i v e

r o l e f o r the s c i e n t i s t i n applying s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and theory i n an

- 26 -

appropriate and e f f e c t i v e manner. This does n o t mean t h a t many important

a p p l i c a t i o n s have not also emerged from a p r a c t i t i o n e r reading some book

of s o c i a l science i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , or he a r i n g some research i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

speech. Such i l l u s t r a t i o n s are not very l i k e l y t o come t o our a t t e n t i o n .

I t i s our hunch, however, t h a t the comple x i t i e s of s o c i a l science research

u t i l i z a t i o n are so great t h a t i n most cases i t r e q u i r e s the very active

team-work of motivated p r a c t i t i o n e r s and w e l l - o r i e n t e d s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s

t o b r i n g about i n t e l l i g e n t a p p l i c a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e s c i e n t i f i c knowledge

and t h e o r y .

The process of research u t i l i z a t i o n

A review of the case i l l u s t r a t i o n s above from a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t of view

reveals a number of t h i n g s t h a t r a t h e r t y p i c a l l y need t o happen i f success­

f u l a p p l i c a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c research and theory i s t o r e s u l t . Even

though the s i t u a t i o n s d i d d i f f e r g r e a t l y from one another the f o l l o w i n g

common elements seemed t o be necessary, or a t l e a s t h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e :

1, There needed t o be the m o t i v a t i o n t ? seek and use s c i e n t i f i c resources

I n s i t u a t i o n s where t h i s m o t i v a t i o n d i d n o t e x i s t , i t needed t o be s t i m u l a t e d

by demonstrations cf p o t e n t i a l i t y , by complacency shock, and other approaches.

This seemed to be the f i r s t step before f u r t h e r progress could be made.

2. Then an a c t i v e process of r e d e f i n i n g and r e f o r m u l a t i n g operating

problems was r e q u i r e d so t h a t the relevance of s c i e n t i f i c research done e l s e ­

where could be perceived. I n the research a p p l i c a t i o n conference the team

c f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s d i d an a c t i v e j o b of f i r s t l i s t e n i n g t o the p r a c t i t i o n e r s '

statements of t h e i r problems and then attempting t o break these problems down

and r e f o r m u l a t e them f o r s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s . I n the case of the research

- 27

review conference and of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n - s e r v i c e seminar the p r a c t i ­

t i o n e r s took the i n i t i a t i v e i n att e m p t i n g to r e l a t e t h e i r operating problems,

as they saw them, t o various research problems which had been worked on.

3. I n n e a r l y a l l of the case i l l u s t r a t i o n s we saw t h a t the s o c i a l

s c i e n t i s t , i n order t o t r y t o be h e l p f u l , had t o do an a c t i v e job o f g e t t i n g

o r i e n t e d t o the a c t i o n problem as the p r a c t i t i o n e r saw i t i n order t h a t he

might do an i n t e l l i g e n t job of s e l e c t i n g appropriate s c i e n t i f i c resources

f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . He had t o be a s k i l l e d

l i s t e n e r , i n t e r r o g a t o r and i n one case he had the persons involved recreate

some of the t y p i c a l s o c i a l i n t e r - a c t i o n s of the problem s i t u a t i o n i n order

t o get an appropriate o r i e n t a t i o n . I n many cases of s o c i a l science a p p l i ­

c a t i o n an even more adequate d i a g n o s t i c research job i s necessary t o get

the f a c t s about the p a r t i c u l a r o p e r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n . This type of research

i s discussed i n the next s e c t i o n of t h i s chapter where we deal w i t h the

u t i l i z a t i o n of research conducted w i t h i n the s e t t i n g .

U. I t u s u a l l y i s h e l p f u l f o r t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t t o communicate a

general o r i e n t a t i o n or "way of l o o k i n g at behavioral dynamics" as a frame­

work w i t h i n which t o i n t e r p r e t s p e c i f i c data. This c e r t a i n l y suggests t h a t

some type of general education i n the behavioral sciences i s needed as a

background f o r e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n c f research knowledge t o p a r t i c u l a r

problems.

I n a d d i t i o n t o r e f o r m u l a t i n g operating problems i n terms cf r e l e ­

vant s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s or v a r i a b l e s , an a c t i v e job cf t h i n k i n g about

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n and a p p l i c a b i l i t y of research knowledge and theory i s

r e q u i r e d . This r e q u i r e s t h a t the s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t as a consultant help

- 28 -

the a p p l i e r gain an understanding of the methodology &f research a p p l i c a t i o n

by f a c i n g such questions as c o m p a r a b i l i t y of p o p u l a t i o n s , comparability of

s i t u a t i o n a l dynamics, e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t o

d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s , and experimental mindedness i n t r y i n g new s o l u t i o n s .

6. One other very important aspect of research a p p l i c a t i o n has been

r e f e r r e d t o . The s c i e n t i f i c knowledge which i s r e l a t e d t o a given operating

s i t u a t i o n or a problem may be of s e v e r a l types. For example, i t may give

i n s i g h t i n t o "why t h i n g s are the way they are", or i t may give perspective

on "ways i n which the s i t u a t i o n could be d i f f e r e n t ' ' , or i t may give i n f o r ­

mation about "how we can go about changing the s i t u a t i o n " . I n a l l cases,

successful a p p l i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t the a p p l i e r i n t e r p r e t , p l a n , and

execute s p e c i f i c steps c f a c t i o n i n h i s own s i t u a t i o n . This requires

c r e a t i v e and r e a l i s t i c t h i n k i n g about "what would happen i f " . Helping

formulate c o r r e c t hypotheses and plans a t t h i s p o i n t i s a challenging

t a s k , Even though the d i r e c t i o n s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n may be w e l l understood,

i t may be necessary t o acquire new t e c h n i c a l or human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s t o

execute the desired steps.

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USING SCIENTIFIC METHODS FOR RESEARCH ON THE PROBIEMS (F AM ORGANIZATION

Soci a l science research i s being clone i n c r e a s i n g l y i n r e a l l i f e s e t t i n g s

and on problems of major s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . This t r e n d i s l i k e l y to con­

t i n u e as the methodologies and substantive f i n d i n g s of the s o c i a l sciences

become more extensive and more able t o shed important l i g h t on complex prob­

lems. But i f an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t o d e r i v e f u l l b e n e f i t from any research

done on i t s problems, experience suggests t h a t the work must be organized,

planned and conducted i n accordance w i t h c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s and p r i n c i p l e s .

The r e s t of t h i s chapter i s devoted t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of these patterns and

p r i n c i p l e s . I t i s w r i t t e n p r i m a r i l y from the standard p o i n t of a research

s t a f f which conducts sample surveys i n or f o r an operating o r g a n i z a t i o n but

the p r i n c i p l e s s t a t e d are b e l i e v e d to be g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e .

E s t a b l i s h i n g A Working Relationship

Creating a cooperative atmosphere

An important problem i n v o l v e d i n conducting research i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n

concerns the a t t i t u d e of the research s t a f f toward the o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s

personnel. Since organizations vary g r e a t l y i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s and values,

a researcher may wish, a t times, t o conduct research i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n

whose values and c o n v i c t i o n s d i f f e r i n important ways from h i s own. Under

such circumstances, i t i s important t h a t he a c t i n a way t h a t makes clear

t h a t he respects the values of the o r g a n i z a t i o n and o f i t s members even

though he may not completely agree w i t h them. I n planning and conducting

- 30 -

the research and i n r e p o r t i n g the r e s u l t s t o the o r g a n i z a t i o n , he w i l l se­

cure b e t t e r cooperation when he dis p l a y s a s e n s i t i v e a p p r e c i a t i o n of the

values of the o r g a n i z a t i o n .

This does not mean t h a t t he researcher, h i m s e l f , need f e e l compelled

t o accept and be guided p e r s o n a l l y by the values o f the organ i z a t i o n . He

can maintain h i s own values and h i s personal i n t e g r i t y , p r o v i d i n g , o f course,

t h a t they are not i n d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h those of the organization. When

the researcher's values and those of the o r g a n i z a t i o n are i n d i r e c t c o n f l i c t ,

he u s u a l l y i s wise i n not conducting research f o r the or g a n i z a t i o n .

The major purpose from an organization's standpoint f o r conducting r e ­

search i s t o improve i t s o p e r a t i o n . But improvement always requires change.

This problem i s not new. Organizations are continuously undergoing some

change. A l l t h a t research does i s t o increase the amount and magnitude o f

change. A l l the problems involved i n changing t he a c t i v i t i e s o f an organ­

i z a t i o n , consequently, are present when attempts are made t o apply research

f i n d i n g s .

I t i s common experience t h a t orders by themselves are seldom s u f f i c i e n t

t o produce e f f e c t i v e change i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s f u n c t i o n i n g . Other

procedures i n c l u d i n g those which make some use o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n u s u a l l y are

r e q u i r e d . The persons who need to seek the p a r t i c i p a t i o n or cooperation of

the others are those persons who possess i n f o r m a t i o n as t o what changes might

b r i n g improvement. I'jhen t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s based on research, i t i s the r e ­

searchers, consequently, who are p r i m a r i l y faced w i t h the problem of securing

the p a r t i c i p a t i o n and cooperation of the others i f the research r e s u l t s are

- 31 -

t o be a p p l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y . Moreover, a p p l y i n g new ideas r e q u i r e s not only

a knowledge of the new idea but also a f u l l understanding of the present

o p e r a t i o n . The research s t a f f , consequently, faces t he problem of securing

p a r t i c i p a t i o n not only t o f a c i l i t a t e cooperation i n b r i n g i n g about desirable

changes, but also t o be sure t h a t the changes sought represent the best t h i n k ­

i n g based both upon past experience and c u r r e n t research f i n d i n g s .

Much of the r e s t of t h i s chapter w i l l be devoted t o a cons i d e r a t i o n of

how t o secure i J i i s k i n d of p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Cooperation i n seeking and achiev­

in g change grows out of honest p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n and an

a p p r e c i a t i o n of the important ideas t h a t the many d i f f e r e n t kinds of people

i n v o l v e d can c o n t r i b u t e . Cooperation i s not created by manipulation, at

l e a s t , not f o r lon g *

Avoiding r e s i s t a n c e

When an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s contemplating having research undertaken f o r

i t , t h ere may be some important persons i n i n f l u e n t i a l p o s i t i o n s whe view

the proposed research w i t h some r e s e r v a t i o n s . I t i s w e l l not t o proceed

w i t h the research u n t i l these c r i t i c i s m s and r e s e r v a t i o n s have been examined

f u l l y and i n r e l a t i o n t o the advantages and disadvantages of undertaking

the research* Their r e s i s t a n c e w i l l manifest i t s e l f sooner or l a t e r and i t

u s u a l l y i s b e t t e r t o have i t out i n the open e a r l y and f u l l y faced. Often,

i f t h i s i s done-candidly and unemotionally, these persons w i l l become more

and more i n v o l v e d i n the research and i n c r e a s i n g l y favorable i n t h e i r

a t t i t u d e toward i t *

- 32 -

I f r e sistance i s ignored or brushed aside i t i s very l i k e l y t o r e s u l t

i n e f f o r t s t o stop the research i f d i f f i c u l t i e s are encountered or i t niay

r e s u l t i n attempts to b l o c k a p p l i c a t i o n s of the research.

Creating r e a l i s t i c expectations

Just as some persons are unduly s k e p t i c a l as t o the probable value

of the r e s u l t s t h a t research w i l l y i e l d , others are unduly o p t i m i s t i c .

This l a t t e r group tends t o have expectations as t o what research can do

f o r them or f o r the o r g a n i z a t i o n which are u n r e a l i s t i c . This can r e s u l t

i n serious d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r there are a s p i r a t i o n s t h a t even the best r e ­

search cannot p o s s i b l y achieve. I f people w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n maintain

these u n r e a l i s t i c expectations, they are bound t o be disappointed w i t h the

r e s u l t s obtained from any study no matter how good these r e s u l t s are.

Such disappointment may lead them t o r e j e c t using research i n the f u t u r e .

I n order t o avoid the disappointment which occurs when unreal expec­

t a t i o n s e x i s t , i t i s important t o create expectations t h a t are modest i n

r e l a t i o n t o the probable c o n t r i b u t i o n s from research. The c r e a t i o n of

these moderate expectations i s best done during the planning stages of the

research p r o j e c t . This can be done w h i l e discussing the problem t o be

s t u d i e d and the probable character of the r e s u l t s t o be obtained. When

expectations are modest, the value of the research r e s u l t s are l i k e l y t o

be greater than a n t i c i p a t e d . This encourages the f u r t h e r use o f research.

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Organization of Research Relationships

An i n t e r n a l s t a f f versus an outside research o r g a n i s a t i o n

There i s no simple nor u n i v e r s a l answer t o the question of whether

research should be conducted by a u n i t i n the o r g a n i s a t i o n or by an outside

research s t a f f . I t depends upon the problem and upon the s i t u a t i o n * Some

observations can be made, however, which may be u s e f u l i n h e l p i n g t o decide

i n a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n which i s b e t t e r * I t may be w e l l t o make these

observations by s t a t i n g some questions and commenting upon them b r i e f l y *

I s a research s t a f f l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n or i s a research

s t a f f from outside the o r g a n i z a t i o n more l i k e l y t o :

1. Be able t o t a c k l e and conduct the research w i t h the greater

fcbjectivity?

Usually an outside research s t a f f , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f i t i s from

a well-known research i n s t i t u t i o n , i s able to r e s i s t w i t h

greater success any pressures l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a loss of

o b j e c t i v i t y ,

2* Be able t o focus the research on the most fundamental dimensions

o f the problems being considered?

Often the o f f i c e r s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n are so close t o the

problem i n v o l v e d t h a t they tend 'to see o n l y the immediate

problems and o f t e n confuse symptoms and basic causal f a c t o r s *

The research i s more l i k e l y t o be pr o d u c t i v e i f i t i s focussed

on the causal f a c t o r s r a t h e r than symptoms. An outside research

s t a f f , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f from a well-known and respected research

i n s t i t u t i o n , i s o f t e n i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t c focus the research

- 3U -

on the causal f a c t o r s r a t h a r than symptoms or immediate

operating problems of a t r a n s i t o r y n a t u r e . An i n s i d e research

s t a f f of high p r e s t i g e and power, may a t times, be equally

successful i n being able t o focus the research on the basic

•problems. But i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r an i n s i d e research s t a f f

t o question and do research on the assumptions and underlying

philosophy upon which i t s top management i s o p e r a t i n g .

Have a b e t t e r knowledge of the problem and of a l l i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s

Although an i n s i d e research s t a f f may a t times be handicapped

by not being able t o t a c k l e a problem i n terms of i t s more

important dimensions, i t nevertheless u s u a l l y knows more about

the problems of an o r g a n i z a t i o n than an outside research s t a f f .

An i n s i d e research s t a f f u s u a l l y has an appreciable amount

of i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e about the problems of the o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

t h e i r h i s t o r y and some of the major developments w i t h regard

t o them.

Receive the f u l l cooperation o f a l l of the persons involved?

An i n s i d e o r g a n i z a t i o n u s u a l l y has closer contacts w i t h tha

personnel whose cooperation w i l l be important t o the research.

I f an atmosphere of confidence and t r u s t permeates the organ­

i z a t i o n , then an i n s i d e research s t a f f i s l i k e l y t o obtain

the b e t t e r cooperation.) On the other hand i f c o n f l i c t and a

s u b s t a n t i a l amount o f f e a r and d i s t r u s t i s present, an outside

o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h a r e p u t a t i o n f o r o b j e c t i v i t y and i n t e g r i t y

i s l i k e l y t o be able t o o b t a i n the b e t t e r c o o p e r a t i o n In

- 35 -

general, any research o p e r a t i o n which depends upon o b t a i n i n g

data from peoples 1 responses w i l l secure f u l l accurate data

only when the people whose cooperation i s r e q u i r e d f e e l t h a t

they can t r u s t the research s t a f f .

Have or be able t o secure the personnel r e q u i r e d t o do the

research, i n c l u d i n g personnel w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i a l i z e d

competence t h a t may be required?

The d e s i r a b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a

t r a i n e d research s t a f f i n c l u d i n g s p e c i a l i z e d t e c h n i c a l

personnel w i l l depend i n p a r t upon whether t h i s i s a one­

time study or one of a continuous s e r i e s of r e l a t e d s t u d i e s P

I f the o r g a n i z a t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s l y conducting a s u b s t a n t i a l

amount of such research, i t i s o f t e n advantageous f o r i t

t o create i t s own research s t a f f * I f i t i s a one-time study,

or i f the volume o f research undertaken i s l i m i t e d , the

o r g a n i z a t i o n wften secures b e t t e r and more economical r e ­

search by using an outside research s t a f f r a t h e r than

c r e a t i n g one f o r the s i n g l e study.

Be able t o exercise the i n f l u e n c e r e q u i r e d t o have the r e s u l t s

c f the research e f f e c t i v e l y used?

I n some s i t u a t i o n s an i n s i d e research s t a f f has the power

and p r e s t i g e t o assure t h a t the r e s u l t s are l i k e l y t o be

used. I n other instances, an outside research s t a f f w i t h

an e x c e l l e n t r e p u t a t i o n i s more l i k e l y t o be able t o e x e r t

the i n f l u e n c e r e q u i r e d . I n deciding whether t o use one or

the other, or both i n a cooperative arrangement, co n s i d e r a t i o n

can be given to' the p r e s t i g e and power r e q u i r e d and the

amount each i s judged t o have. Another dimension of the

problem i s probably a t l e a s t as important as the question

of an i n s i d e versus an outside research s t a f f . This ques­

t i o n concerns the importance o f the person t o whom the

research s t a f f r e p o r t s * I f he i s a top o f f i c e r , there i s

l i k e l y t o be s u f f i c i e n t i n f l u e n c e present t o encourage

serious c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the r e s u l t s . I f he i s a person

of minor importance, the research f i n d i n g s are much less

l i k e l y t o r e c e i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

Self-surveys

A procedure which has m e r i t where the problem i s not too complex

and where widespread p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s advantageous i s the s e l f - s u r v e y . (

With t h i s procedure the o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t s e l f , conducts the study w i t h

appropriate t e c h n i c a l advice and assistance* Usually a manual i s a v a i l ­

able tc. t e l l how, on a step by step b a s i s , the s e l f - s u r v e y i s t o be con­

ducted. Most organizations also secure the assistance of a competent

s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t t o serve during the p e r i o d of the survey as a consultant.

This c o n s u l t a n t answers questions and provides advice on how t o conduct

the survey. This includes such tasks as h e l p i n g t o t r a i n personnel to

do the tasks r e q u i r e d , advising cn a n a l y s i s plans and h e l p i n g i n the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the r e s u l t s . I n a d d i t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,

- 37 -

the s e l f - s u r v e y also has the advantage u s u a l l y of c o s t i n g l e s s than a

study done by a research s t a f f o r a t l e a s t of i n v o l v i n g l e s s cash o u t l a y .

I t also provides a means of doing a study when the shortage of t r a i n e d

researchers would, make i t impossible t o do any other k i n d o f study.

The s e l f - s u r v e y , however, can only be used on a l i m i t e d v a r i e t y

of problems. They have t o be problems f o r which i t i s pos s i b l e t o develop

a reasonably simple s e l f - s u r v e y procedure which w i l l , nevertheless, y i e l d

r e s u l t s of s a t i s f a c t o r y accuracy. A continuous danger present i n using

s e l f - s u r v e y s i s t h a t the u t i l i z a t i o n of u n s k i l l e d persons w i l l y i e l d

r e s u l t s c o n t a i n i n g serious e r r o r s . I n s i t u a t i o n s where t h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y

l i k e l y t o occur, or where the consequences of such e r r o r s would be

p a r t i c u l a r l y disastrous, i t would be unwise t o use the s e l f -survey<=

- 38 -

H i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l of the research s t a f f

' K e t t e r i n g and others have observed t h a t when a research s t a f f i s under

the d i r e c t s upervision o f the person whose operation i s being a f f e c t e d by

the research, t h a t o f t e n the research i s discontinued. They have concluded

t h a t a research s t a f f t o f u n c t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y must r e p o r t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y

t o t h e person who i s su p e r i o r to the man whose operation i s a f f e c t e d by the

research r e s u l t s . This p r i n c i p l e seems eq u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o both the phy­

s i c a l and s o c i a l sciences and f o r the same reason. As the r e s u l t s of r e ­

search l e a d t o improvements 3 the head o f the o p e r a t i o n most a f f e c t e d may

f e e l threatened. I n s o f a r as he f e e l s threatened, he i s apt t o wish t o

have the research discontinued or the r e s u l t s ignored, when t h i s occurs

he may discontinue i t or bury the research f i n d i n g s i f he has the a u t h o r i t y

t o do so. Consequently, the research s t a f f i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n should not

r e p o r t t o , nor be d i r e c t l y responsible t o the person whose operation i s

d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e research, but should r e p o r t t o the next higher

echelon.

There i s another important advantage i n having the research s t a f f r e ­

p o r t to the next higher echelon than the person whose o p e r a t i o n i s being

a f f e c t e d by the research. Wnen the research s t a f f r eports t o the man whose

oper a t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by i t , not only may he discontinue i t , but he may

l i m i t the scope of the problems s t u d i e d or he may order i t t o produce f i n d ­

ings t o prove him r i g h t i n what he i s doing, t'uch r e s t r i c t i o n s make i t im­

po s s i b l e t o conduct research e f f e c t i v e l y .

I n emphasizing t h a t t he research s t a f f should r e p o r t t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y

high echelon i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n t o p r o t e c t i t s s t a b i l i t y and i n t e g r i t y , i t

- 39 -

does n o t mean t h a t a l l i t s a c t i v i t i e s must be conducted through channels

v i a t h i s " l e v e l . Usually i t i s w e l l t o use the formal channels i n agreeing

on the nature and scope o f a p a r t i c u l a r research p r o j e c t , but a f t e r t h a t

i s done there i s a d i s t i n c t advantage i n the research s t a f f ' s e s t a b l i s h i n g

d i r e c t and close contact and communication w i t h a l l the d i f f e r e n t echelons

arid groups i n v o l v e d i n the research. Even i n using the f o r m a l channels i n

agreeing on the nature of the research p r o j e c t , any author! t y present should

not be used t o force the research on the u n i t s i n v o l v e d . I t u s u a l l y i s un­

wise t o undertake research f o r or i n a u n i t which does not genuinely want

i t . Experience shows t h a t there are v e r y few s i t u a t i o n s where i t i s wise

f o r a s o c i a l science research s t a f f t o use a u t h o r i t y to f o r c e others to

cooperate i-ath i t . When people are ordered to cooperate, they are l i k e l y t o give d i s t o r t e d i n f o r m a t i o n .

Problems i n Research Design

Basic r a t h e r s u p e r f i c i a l v a r i a b l e s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n

I t i s not a t a l l uncommon f o r an o r g a n i z a t i o n to request research be

done on some problem about which i t , c u r r e n t l y , i s very much exercised and

f e e l s important. Often, however, when t h i s problem i s examined i t proves

not t o be the best problem upon which to do research. I t may be a symptom

r a t h e r than the u n d e r l y i n g problem. I t may be a p a r t o f a more fundamental

problem. Or i t may n o t be s t a t e d i n dimensions which p e r m i t systematic,

q u a n t i t a t i v e research.

The f i r s t task of a research s t a f f i s to diagnose the s i t u a t i o n and

t o prepare a c l e a r statement of o b j e c t i v e s f o r the research. Discussing

the problem f u l l y w i t h the o f f i c e r s and s t a f f of the o r g a n i z a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s

- Uo -

t h i s diagnosis. Attempting t o s t a t e t h e problem i n dimensions based upon

the best a v a i l a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s also helps.

The f i n a l statement of the problem and of the o b j e c t i v e s o f the r e ­

search u s u a l l y must be acceptable t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . Often the discus­

sions i n v o l v e d i n diagnosing the problem l e a d t o a r e c o g n i t i o n and accept­

ance o f the problem as s t a t e d i n t h e research o b j e c t i v e s . Sometimes, how­

ever, t h i s does not occur, i f f u r t h e r discussions do not lead t o an ac­

ceptance of the problem as s t a t e d , the research s t a f f may have t o s t a r t on

a p i l o t or small scale study devoted t o a p e r i p h e r a l problem bat one which

the o r g a n i z a t i o n recognizes and about which i t i s much concerned. From

the r e s u l t s obtained i n 15lis p i l o t study, the research s t a f f u s u a l l y can

demonstrate the nature o f the basic problem upon which the major research

should be concentrated. Often the research s t a f f gains also a c l e a r e r under­

standing of the basic problem as a r e s u l t o f the p i l o t study.

R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e o r e t i c a l and a p p l i e d o b j e c t i v e s

I t i s impossible t o emphasize s u f f i c i e n t l y t h a t research devoted t o

the o p e r a t i n g problems of an agency need n o t , and i f w e l l done, w i l l not,

be concerned w i t h the symptoms of problems nor w i t h s u p e r f i c i a l minutiae.

Nor w i l l i t be concerned s o l e l y w i t h f i n d i n g s p e c i f i c answers t o s p e c i f i c

problems. There i s accumulating evidence p o i n t i n g t o the advantage of de­

si g n i n g research d e a l i n g w i t h a s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i n g problem i n such a way

t h a t t he r e s u l t s can be generalized and a p p l i e d t o other r e l a t e d s i t u a t i o n s .

I f the s c i e n t i s t doing research f o r an agency seeks o n l y t o f i n d spe­

c i f i c answers t o s p e c i f i c problems, he i s l i k e l y t o run i n t o serious d i f f i ­

c u l t i e s . One d i f f i c u l t y , f o r example, i s that there are so many s p e c i f i c

- kl -

problems t h a t he w i l l be hopelessly swamped. Another i s t h a t the cost of

the research i s l i k e l y t o exceed the value of the s p e c i f i c answers. But

p a r t i c u l a r l y important i s the f a c t t h a t by the time t h a t the research has

p r o v i d e d a s p e c i f i c answer t o a p a r t i c u l a r problem, the s i t u a t i o n w i l l have

so changed t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s p e c i f i c problem i s no longer the problem.

New ones have replaced i t . ( ) By i n f e r e n c e t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t research

designed t o meet the long range problems o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l be more

valuable and have greater a p p l i c a t i o n than " f i r e - f i g h t i n g " research designed

t o meet immediate problems.

The great value o f generalized knowledge f o r dealing w i t h s p e c i f i c

problems was w e l l s t a t e d i n a phrase a t t r i b u t e d t o Kurt Lewin, "Nothing i s

so p r a c t i c a l as a good theory." I n designing research focused on major

v a r i a b l e s , the p r o b a b i l i t y of s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s i s increased i f the best

a v a i l a b l e theory i s used as a guide as t o what t o measure and what r e l a t i o n ­

ships t o t e s t . The b e t t e r the theory used i n guiding the research design,

the g r e a t e r i s the p r o b a b i l i t y of f i n d i n g marked and important r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Obviously the more t h a t the research discovers about those major va r i a b l e s

which have a marked r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the problem being s t u d i e d , the greater

i s the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the research t o s o l v i n g t h i s and r e l a t e d problems-

Generalizations or statements of p r i n c i p l e s which summarize the marked,

important r e l a t i o n s h i p s discovered i n the research have two valuable uses.

They serve as guides t o help solve problems l i k e the one upon which the r e ­

search was focused. They also make a c o n t r i b u t i o n to a v a i l a b l e s c i e n t i f i c

knowledge and t h e development of t h e o r y . c a r t w r i g h t ' s "Some P r i n c i p l e s o f

Mass persuasion" i s a good i l l u s t r a t i o n . ( )

I n s i t u a t i o n s where important changes i n the character of the problem

are l i k e l y t o occur between the time t h a t the research i s s t a r t e d and the

r e s u l t s are a v a i l a b l e , i t i s necessary f o r the researcher to take t h i s i n t o

account i n designing h i s research. I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n c e n t r a t i n g research

on the major v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d , he o f t e n w i l l f i n d i t u s e f u l t o design

h i s research so t h a t the r e s u l t s w i l l adequately cover any reasonable range

of change t h a t may occur i n the s i t u a t i o n during the time r e q u i r e d f o r the

research. One way of doing t h i s i s to design the research so t h a t i t w i l l

y i e l d r e s u l t s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r dealing w i t h any one of two o r more widely

d i f f e r i n g s i t u a t i o n s . I f these assumptions i n v o l v e s i t u a t i o n s more extreme

than any t h a t i s l i k e l y t o occur, t h e n the a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n a t the end of

the study w i l l f a l l between the extreme s i t u a t i o n s assumed. By bracketing

h i s problem i n t h i s manner and having adequate data t o deal w i t h a range

of s i t u a t i o n s , the researcher u s u a l l y i s able t o make v a l i d and u s e f u l

d e r i v a t i o n s from h i s f i n d i n g s t o the s i t u a t i o n t h a t e x i s t s when the r e ­

search f i n d i n g s become a v a i l a b l e .

Research on p r i n c i p l e s and processes - not f o r s u r v e i l l a n c e

I n conducting o r g a n i z a t i o n a l research (See Case A pp. t o ) , i t

i s w e l l f o r the research s t a f f to emphasize and reemphasize t h a t t h e ob­

j e c t i v e o f the research i s t o discover the r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of d i f f e r e n t

methods and p r i n c i p l e s and t h a t the study i s i n no way an attempt t o perform

a p o l i c i n g f u n c t i o n . The emphasis must be on discovering what p r i n c i p l e s

and methods work best and why, and not on f i n d i n g and r e p o r t i n g which i n ­

d i v i d u a l s are doing t h e i r jobs w e l l o r p o o r l y .

Unless these o b j e c t i v e s are made c l e a r t o a l l and r i g o r o u s l y adhered

t o , i t w i l l not be p o s s i b l e f o r the research s t a f f to secure the f u l l co­

op e r a t i o n t h a t i t needs from the people i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n being studied.

I n t h i s r e l a t i o n also i t i s important f o r the research s t a f f t o make c l e a r

- 1*3 -

t o every person t h a t the i n t e r v i e w s , q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , and other data obtained

from each person w i l l be kept s t r i c t l y c o n f i d e n t i a l . People need t o know

t h a t these m a t e r i a l s are being c o l l e c t e d f o r purposes o f s t a t i s t i c a l analy­

s i s and t h a t no one w i l l be able t o t e l l what s p e c i f i c answers were given

by a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l .

The commitment o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y must be c l e a r l y g i v e n and s t r i c t l y

adhered t o . This a t times may r e q u i r e the research s t a f f not to r e p o r t

separately the data f o r very small groups, since t o do so might r e v e a l the

a t t i t u d e s and answers of t h e i n d i v i d u a l members of the small group.

An o r i e n t a t i o n focused on d i s c o v e r i n g b e t t e r p r i n c i p l e s and methods

of o r g a n i z a t i o n and l e a d e r s h i p reassures persons who may f e e l threatened

by the research, i f they f e e l t h a t the research i s to l e a r n how t o help

them t o do t h e i r j o b more s u c c e s s f u l l y they u s u a l l y are eager t o cooperate.

This cooperation u s u a l l y increases as they s ee the research r e s u l t s used

f o r t h i s purpose r a t h e r than t o discharge or demote those whose work at

present i s not successful.

- 10* -

Assuring Use of Research Results

Inducing cooperative r a t h e r than defensive a t t i t u d e s

Measurements of any company or governmental operation almost always

show t h a t some t h i n g s are being done w e l l and other t h i n g s are not being

done so w e l l . I n examining these research r e s u l t s , tha o f f i c e r s of an

or g a n i z a t i o n can take p r i m a r i l y a c o n s t r u c t i v e or a defensive a t t i t u d e

toward the data.. F o r t u n a t e l y , mest o f f i c e r s take a c o n s t r u c t i v e p o i n t cf

view. Occasionally, however, a company o f f i c e r or supervisor takes a

defensive a t t i t u d e and immediately becomes f e a r f u l when data are obtained

which show t h a t h i s operation i s not now f u n c t i o n i n g i n the best possible

manner. His impulse as soon as he has seen such research r e s u l t s i s t o

l o c k them up immediately so t h a t no one else can discover t h a t the operation

i s not now f u n c t i o n i n g p e r f e c t l y . Most company o f f i c e r s or supervisors take

the opposite p o i n t of view when l o o k i n g a t s i m i l a r data* Their r e a c t i o n i s

t o l o o k a t the r e s u l t s which present a favorable p i c t u r e w i t h pleasure but

t o l o o k a t them h a s t i l y . They then t u r n w i t h genuine enthusiasm t o the

r e s u l t s which i n d i c a t e where and i n what manner the operation can be improved.

Tney immediately share t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e i r colleagues, subordinates,

and a l l other r e l e v a n t personnel i n order t h a t the necessary steps can be

taken which w i l l l e a d t o f u r t h e r improvement i n the company's performance.

As we s h a l l see, there i s much t h a t b©th the o f f i c e r s of an organization

and the research s t a f f can do t o prepare and a s s i s t the personnel of the

o r g a n i z a t i o n t o take a c o n s t r u c t i v e r a t h e r than a defensive a t t i t u d e toward

research r e s u l t s .

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P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p l a n n i n g and i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

I f peeple are u n f a m i l i a r w i t h a research p r o j e c t and know l i t t l e about

i t , they are not l i k e l y t o understand the f i n d i n g s or be i n t e r e s t e d i n

applying them. Personal involvement not only decreases the b a r r i e r s t o

the use of data, i t increases the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t the r e s u l t s w i l l be

understood and accepted. P a r t i c u l a r l y important, however, i t y i e l d s

p o s i t i v e m o t i v a t i o n t o apply the r e s u l t s . This involvement should include

a l s o those who can i n f l u e n c e the a p p l i c a t i o n of the r e s u l t s and should

s t a r t a t the very beginning c f the p r o j e c t and increase as the p r o j e c t

reaches the a n a l y s i s stages. To w a i t u n t i l research r e s u l t s are a v a i l a b l e

before attempting t o secure p a r t i c i p a t i o n represents a f a i l u r e r e a l l y to

use p a r t i c i p a t i o n and i s l i k e l y t o l e a d t o the f u l l or p a r t i a l r e j e c t i o n of

the r e s u l t s .

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n and involvement depends very much

upon the r a t e or t i m i n g i n v o l v e d . There seems t o be nc s u b s t i t u t e f o r

t a k i n g adequate time a t many p o i n t s i n t h e process. The f i r s t p o i n t occurs

when an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s considering whether t o have research done cn a

problem i t faces. I f high pressure s e l l i n g i s a p p l i e d , r e s i s t a n c e i s very

l i k e l y - t o occur. On the other hand, i f t h e i r problem and needs are

examined c a r e f u l l y and c o n s i d e r a t i o n given t o the help t h a t research can

and cannot provide w i t h nc pressure f o r a d e c i s i o n , the o f f i c e r s of an

o r g a n i z a t i o n u s u a l l y are more l i k e l y t o see and accept the assistance t h a t

research can probably provide, Moreover the research s t a f f i s more l i k e l y

t o understand the problem and be more able t o design an e f f i c i e n t study

than i f the d e c i s i o n t o proceed w i t h t h e study i s made h a s t i l y . When an

o r g a n i z a t i o n a f t e r c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n has decided t h a t i t w i l l b e n e f i t

- 1*6 -

from having research done on i t s problems and begins t o press the research

s t a f f t o have the research done, i t s o f f i c e r s are much more l i k e l y to be

i n t e r e s t e d i n the study t o take the time and energy r e q u i r e d t o become

f u l l y i n v o l v e d i n the research.

Securing the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the r e l e v a n t personnel i n the planning

stages of a study y i e l d s two d i v i d e n d s . I t enriches and improves the

m a t e r i a l used i n planning the study and also achieves the d e s i r e d i n v o l v e ­

ment. A s i m i l a r gain occurs i n using p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e analysis and

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n phases c f the research p r o j e c t . The knowledge of company

operations possessed by company o f f i c i a l s and employees makes them experts

whnse help i s needed by a research s t a f f i n planning a study and i n t e r ­

p r e t i n g the data.

Presentation of p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s f a c i l i t a t e s acceptance of research r e s u l t s

The involvement and i n t e r e s t of the o f f i c e r s of an organization tend

t o want i f the research s t a f f w a i t s u n t i l the completion of the analysis

before p r e s e n t i n g any r e s u l t s t o them. Moreover; people u s u a l l y can do a

b e t t e r job of i n t e r p r e t i n g research r e s u l t s when given time t o a s s i m i l a t e

g r a d u a l l y the major f i n d i n g s emerging i n the research. I f nothing i s r e ­

por t e d t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n u n t i l the f i n a l analysis i s presented, the o f f i c e r s

are confronted w i t h a body of data which o f t e n includes some r e s u l t s which

s u r p r i s e them. The research s t a f f has then faced them w i t h what amounts

t o a take i t or leave i t s i t u a t i o n n e i t h e r of which are d e s i r a b l e reactions

from the standpoint of the researchers. On the ether hand when the research

s t a f f presents t o the o f f i c e r s of an o r g a n i z a t i o n some i n k l i n g of the probable

- hi -

r e s u l t s but presents them as h i g h l y t e n t a t i v e , the o f f i c e r s are not compelled

immediately t o accept or r e j e c t the data. Moreover, as f u r t h e r data are

reported t o them and p r o g r e s s i v e l y b u i l d a c l e a r e r and c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of

the r e s u l t s , the o f f i c e r s f o l l o w i t w i t h i n t e r e s t . Moreover, during t h i s

p e r i o d of time they can t e s t the v a l i d i t y of the r e s u l t s by using other

evidence or c l u e s . This t e s t i n g and d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t the r e s u l t s are v a l i d

f a c i l i t a t e s t h e i r acceptance.

People f i n d i t hard t o make a major change r a p i d l y i n t h e i r t h i n k i n g .

I t seems t o r e q u i r e time f o r each c f us to t e s t new ideas and new r e s u l t s

and g r a d u a l l y t o discover t h e i r v a l i d i t y and t o accept them. Not u n t i l

then are we w i l l i n g t o b u i l d decisions upon these new f i n d i n g s . There

seems t o be no s u b s t i t u t e f o r time i n t h i s process. Whenever pressure i s

exerted t o achieve changes i n p o i n t s of view or t h i n k i n g i n unduly short

periods of time there i s l i k e l y t o be st r o n g emotional r e s i s t a n c e t o i t .

S e l f - a n a l y s i s techniques f a c i l i t a t e use of r e s u l t s - ^

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the form of s e l f - a n a l y s i s i s more l i k e l y t? be fo l l o w e d

by changes than i f the analysis i s made by someone e l s e . This p o i n t and,

the s p e c i f i c procedures used t o implement t h i s p o i n t are not new. C l i n i c a l

p s y c h o l o g i s t s are w e l l aware of the importance of s e l f - a n a l y s i s f o r b r i n g i n g

about change. ( ) Some of the procedures which appear: t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y

e f f e c t i v e f o l l o w i

- The f a l l o w i n g three sections have been taken from: Floyd C. Mann and Rensis L i k e r t ; -'The Need f o r Research on Communicating Research Results," t o appear s h o r t l y i n Human Organization.

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One important dimension of s e l f - a n a l y s i s as used, f o r example, i n Case A i s t h a t i t s t a r t s from and centers around o b j e c t i v e measurements. This tends t o keep the discussion i n an o b j e c t i v e atmosphere. There are no statements, r e p o r t s or recommendations by outside experts t ^ which an i n d i v i d u a l or a group con take exception, there are only unemotional o b j e c t i v e data.

I n the series of meetings described i n Case A, no expert t e l l s t h e group what the data mean or what t h e i r problems are. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s are worked out by the members of the group themselves w i t h t h e representa­t i v e from the research o r g a n i z a t i o n there to answer • • t e c h n i c a l questions which the group leader cannot answer. P r i o r t o the meeting, members of the research s t a f f always study the data t h a t are to be discussed. At times i n the meetings the research s t a f f members.may ask questions about the data t o help focus a t t e n t i o n on what appears t o them t o be important p o i n t s t h a t are being overlooked. By t a k i n g t h i s r o l e the research r e p r e s e n t a t i v e avoids making recommendations t h a t may be naive i n the l i g h t of the e n t i r e s i t u a t i o n . He alsc side-steps many of the i n d i v i d u a l and group p r o t e c t i v e mechanisms which are s e t i n t o a c t i o n d u r i n g any r e a l e v a l u a t i o n of the s e l f o r the o r g a n i z a t i o n i n which the s e l f i s deeply i n v o l v e d . The use of questions t o help focus a t t e n t i o n on the important problems, and on the s o l u t i o n s suggested by the data produce s o l u t i o n s from the group and assure t h e i r acceptance by the group.

Resistances have t o be recognized and worked through, not glossed over. As might be expected, survey r e s u l t s are o c c a s i o n a l l y q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from what the graup expects. When t h i s occurs resistances i n d i f f e r e n t forms and degrees of overtness have t o be met and d e a l t w i t h before the group can proceed again toward i t s ob­j e c t i v e . I f the h a n d l i n g of resistances i s postponed they w i l l surface l a t e r when i t may be much more d i f f i ­c u l t t o deal w i t h them adequately or when i t i s too l a t e t o handle them a t a l l . When resis t a n c e s are not d e a l t w i t h e f f e c t i v e l y they are apt to block c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n .

Timing and pacing are important i n f a c i l i t a t i n g the acceptance of the data and gaining r e c o g n i t i o n of the needs t o act upon them. I n those s i t u a t i o n s i n which the survey r e s u l t s are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from what i s expected, i t i s necessary t o proceed very c a u t i o u s l y — p r e f e r a b l y l e t t i n g the i n d i v i d u a l s who aro s u r p r i s e d set the tempo. This means l e t t i n g the group pace i t s e l f i n the speed w i t h which i t considers the d i f f e r e n t

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aspects of the f i n d i n g s and also i n determining the depth t o which the a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the data w i l l go at any one meeting. These two f a c t o r s are important i n t h a t they tend t o reduce the number of times t h a t resistances a r i s e because the group members are not y e t prepared t o understand or ready t o accept c e r t a i n f i n d ­ings as f a c t s .

e. I t i s w e l l t o present the r e s u l t s i n a p o s i t i v e atmos­phere emphasizing f i r s t the r e s u l t s which show what i s being done w e l l . Then i n presenting r e s u l t s d e a l i n g w i t h operations which can be improved, i t i s w e l l t o o r i e n t the discussion toward what the data suggest are ways t o make the operation b e t t e r . Consideration of how t o improve, e n l i s t s i n t e r e s t w h i l e concentration an weaknesses or f a i l u r e s produces a n x i e t y and an avoidance r e a c t i o n .

f . A r b i t r a r y i n s i s t a n c e t h a t the data are accurate, which i s an i m p l i c i t demand t h a t the others make an immediate r e d e f i n i t i o n of the s i t u a t i o n , only serves t o increase the emotional resistance and the amount of time u l t i m a t e l y r e q u i r e d t o get the f i n d i n g s accepted and used. I t i s best t o give the i n d i v i d u a l or group ways t o save f a c e — l e t him explore a l l of the d i f f e r e n t possible meanings which the f i n d i n g s might be assumed t o h a v e — b e f o r e going ahead. One of the more important things t h a t an o u t s i d e r can e f f e c t i v e l y do here i s to provide the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h the m o t i v a t i o n t o reexamine h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d and see i f there are not even b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o the perceptual clues he has been g e t t i n g end p i e c i n g together than the p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n which he r e t o f o r e has s a t i s f i e d

• him,

g. Present the r e s u l t s i n simple non-technical language. Use shop language and graphical p r e s e n t a t i o n as much as p o s s i b l e . This f a c i l i t a t e s s e l f - a n a l y s i s by making the group r e a l i z e the data deal w i t h t h e i r s i t u a t i o n and i s not something belonging t o the research o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Analyzing data i n groups

The procedure described i n Case A involves working w i t h groups rather

than w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s alone, Lewin ( ) and h i s students ( ) have

emphasized the power of the i n t e r a c t i n g f o r c e s exerted by group members on

- 50 -

one another. Mann i s f i n d i n g t h a t t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y applicable t o a

group's discussion of data d e a l i n g w i t h i t s own work s i t u a t i o n . ( )

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n group discussions and group decisions concerning f u t u r e

a c t i o n sets i n t o motion pressures f o r a c t i o n which are more e f f e c t i v e

than when i n d i v i d u a l s alone are concerned. By working w i t h and through

groups use i s made o f these c o n t i n u i n g group f o r c e s .

The group s i t u a t i o n seems t o be important f o r s e v e r a l reasons:

a. Through' group discussions, the f i n d i n g s can be examined i n a broader perspective because the group brings t o the data experience t h a t i s r i c h e r and more v a r i e d than t h a t of any one i n d i v i d u a l .

b. Group discussions, by a l l o w i n g the p o o l i n g and exchange of t h i s wider range o f i n f o r m a t i o n , also provide the ps y c h o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n which superiors and subordinates at a l l l e v e l s can discuss possible s o l u t i o n s and thus give each other new and improved ways of viewing and s o l v i n g t h e i r problems.

c. The discussion, by groups, of the research data compells a l l members of the group t o recognize openly the existence of the major problems revealed by the data. Important and serious problems which may have long been f e s t e r i n g are brought t o l i g h t i n an atmosphere and r e l a t i o n s h i p which leads t o c o n s t r u c t i v e attempts t o solve them.

d. Group discussions also help supervisors a t a l l l e v e l s t o l e a r n what i s expected of them by the group concerning t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h subordinates, associates and t h e i r own Chief.

e. Group decisions concerning the next steps put powerful pressures i n the form of r e c i p r o c a l expectations on each member t o c a r r y out the decisions agreed to by the group.

Use of h i e r a r c h i c a l sources of i n f l u e n c e

To assure e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f research f i n d i n g s i t i s important

t o recognize the h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t i s also

- 51 -

e s s e n t i a l t o u t i l i z e the power s t r u c t u r e s as perceived by members of the

or g a n i z a t i o n . Any s e r i e s of meetings ts> achieve p a r t i c i p a t i o n should

f o l l o w a sequence which recognizes the presence of these f o r c e s . Research

data presented t o the groups i n the meetings should show how d i f f e r e n t

persons i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n perceive the power r o l e s of other persons i n

the l i n e and i n s t a f f groups. The people a t the top of each o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

u n i t — p a r t i c u l a r l y i f they are perceived as competent and p o w e r f u l — a r e

found t o exerciee appreciably more i n f l u e n c e on the o r g a n i z a t i o n than any

other persons w i t h i n i t .

One reason i t i s so important t o secure the i n t e r e s t and f u l l

support of top management i n planning research and i n t e r p r e t i n g the

r e s u l t s i s due t o the p a r t i c u l a r problems involved i n applying the

r e s u l t s of s o c i a l science research. The pre s i d e n t o f an automobile

company does not have t o understand the research i n v o l v e d i n developing

a new automobile engine when he approves plans f o r p u t t i n g i t i n t o

p r o d u c t i o n . A l l he needs t o know i s t h a t i t w i l l perform b e t t e r and

r e q u i r e less f u e l than the present engine. The problem of applying s o c i a l

science research r e s u l t s , however, i s not so simple. E f f e c t i v e a p p l i ­

c a t i o n depends very much upon f u l l understanding and use of the research

by the top management of the o r g a n i z a t i o n . Consequently, i t i s important

t o keep top management f u l l y informed of the progress of the research

and f u l l y i n v o l v e d i n the a p p l i c a t i o n of the research f i n d i n g s .

Even i n p h y s i c a l science and engineering research i t helps t o have

top management i n t e r e s t e d i n the research and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i t . This

i n t e r e s t encourages design engineers and those who must apply the r e s u l t s

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t o f o l l o w the research mere c l o s e l y and reduce the l a g between the develop­

ment of new knowledge and i t s a c t u a l use.

Using data so t h a t i t presses f o r a c t i o n

Business executives and government o f f i c i a l s who have made extensive

use of s o c i a l science research o f t e n p o i n t t o the f a c t t h a t they use the

research r e s u l t s i n such a way as " t o make the data do the work of pressing

f o r a c t i o n . " T. R. Gamble used research r e s u l t s very e f f e c t i v e l y when he

was D i r e c t o r of the War Finance D i v i s i o n d uring the l a s t war.

One i l l u s t r a t i o n w i l l serve t o show how he d i d t h i s . He knew, f o r

example, from h i s experience as Chairman of the Oregon tfar Bond Committee

t h a t personal s o l i c i t a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l i f s u b s t a n t i a l sales of bonds were

t o be made t o l a r g e numbers of i n d i v i d u a l s . He discovered, also, a f t e r he

became D i r e c t o r of the War Finance D i v i s i o n , t h a t the chairmen of many other

s t a t e s d i d not accept h i s experience as a guide t o what they ought t o do.

They shuddered a t the thought of having to r e c r u i t and t r a i n tens of thou­

sands of volunteers t o serve as s o l i c i t o r s i n war bond campaigns. Conse­

que n t l y , when he urged them t o use s o l i c i t a t i o n and c i t e d h i s tiwn experience,

they would solemnly assure him t h a t t h e i r s t a t e was d i f f e r e n t from Oregon

and t h a t personal s o l i c i t a t i o n was not necessary t o s e l l bond3 i n t h e i r

s t a t e . The r e s u l t was an impasse and a t f i r s t s e v e r a l states d i d not use

personal s o l i c i t a t i o n .

A study of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the Second War Bond Drive provided

Mr. Gamble w i t h data such as t h a t shown i n Figure 1 . He had a b r i e f

pamphlet prepared which showed these and r e l a t e d r e s u l t s . He d i s t r i b u t e d

these pamphlets t o a l l the States and County War Bond Committees. He also

- 53 -

had these r e s u l t s presented i n the r e g i o n a l meetings i n which the plans f o r

the T h i r d War Bond Drive were discussed and developed. The net e f f e c t of

using the data i n t h i s way was t h a t War Bond Committees convinced themselves

of the value of s o l i c i t a t i o n . They r e c r u i t e d and t r a i n e d a much l a r g e r

group of s o l i c i t o r s . As a r e s u l t the number of people who were personally

asked t o buy war bonds increased from 2$% i n the 2nd Drive t o $0% i n the

3rd and the sales of Series E Bonds almost doubled.

The o b j e c t i v e i m p a r t i a l i t y o f accurate measurements u s u a l l y f a c i l i t a t e s

o b j e c t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the f a c t s and t h i s leads to the acceptance and

implementation of e f f e c t i v e p o l i c i e s . When decisions are made by p i t t i n g

one person's experience and judgment a g a i n s t t h a t of another, there i s

us u a l l y disagreement. Often the best decision i s n ot made, and any de c i ­

s i o n t h a t i s made i 3 accepted and f o l l o w e d only h a l f - h e a r t e d l y by many of

the persons i n v o l v e d .

Appraising use of research r e s u l t s by remeasurement

One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y human tendency i s t o assume t h a t whenever a

change i s made i t r e s u l t s i n an improvement. Unfortunately, t h i s i s not

always the case. There i s only one way t o know whether a change has r e ­

s u l t e d i n an improvement and t h a t i s t o measure the e f f e c t o f the change.

I t i s not uncommon t o f i n d t h a t the f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n of research r e s u l t s

has made no measurable improvement. I t may take two or three attempts a t

change t o produce improvement of any magnitude.

A c o n t i n u i n g problem which tends t o i n f l u e n c e the way research r e s u l t s

are a p p l i e d and t o l i m i t the amount of c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d experimentation

conducted i n or g a n i z a t i o n s , i s the r e l a t i v e l y common p o i n t of view t h a t i f

- 5k -

a p a r t i c u l a r change i s thought t o be good why t e s t i t experimentally on o n l y

p a r t of tiie o r g a n i z a t i o n . Those who h o l d t h i s view u s u a l l y i n s i s t t h a t the

change be introduced g e n e r a l l y , where a p p l i c a b l e , so t h a t a l l u n i t s w i l l

b e n e f i t and the o r g a n i z a t i o n derive maximum r e s u l t s from the change. A

demonstration of the value of t e s t i n g changes exp e r i m e n t a l l y o f t e n i s a l l

t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o convince them t h a t u s u a l l y an o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l derive

greater b e n e f i t s and more r a p i d l y i f i t t e s t s the proposed changes e x p e r i ­

mentally before i n t r o d u c i n g them g e n e r a l l y ,

SOME ILLUSTRATIVE CASES

Two types: Research done w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n and research done outside an o r g a n i z a t i o n

I n c onsidering how t o organize and conduct research devoted t o the

problems of a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t i s important t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e

two broadly d i f f e r e n t kinds of s i t u a t i o n s . This i s necessary since t h i s

d i f f e r e n c e a f f e c t s the way i n which the research should be organized and

conducted i f e f f e c t i v e use of the research r e s u l t s i s t o be obtained. One

general type of s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t i n which the research deals w i t h problems

i n v o l v e d w i t h the organization's own i n t e r n a l o p e rations. Case A below i s

of t h i s t y p e . I n s i t u a t i o n s of t h i s type, the research operation i s l i k e l y

t o have an appreciable impact on the o r g a n i z a t i o n and how i t operates.

Consequently, i t i s extremely important t o have the f u l l support and i n t e r ­

e st of the very top o f f i c e r s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n and t o have t h e i r f u l l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the plans f o r the research and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n , unless

top management understands, seeks, and f u l l y supports the changes being

- 55 -

undertaken, and understands the character of the r e s i s t a n c e t o the changes

and the reasons f o r t h i s r e s i s t a n c e , the attempts t o apply the research

w i l l encounter r e a l d i f f i c u l t y and may even f a i l .

The second general type of research s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t i n which the

research deals w i t h problems faced by the o r g a n i z a t i o n but where the prob­

lems are outside of the o r g a n i z a t i o n . Studies concerned w i t h the buying

behavior of consumers or w i t h c i t i z e n response t o governmental a c t i v i t i e s

i l l u s t r a t e t h i s general k i n d o f problem. Case B below i s an example of

t h i s k i n d c f research.

Case A (a s y n t h e t i c case)

The D i r e c t o r of I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s i n Company A approached a research

o r g a n i z a t i o n one day w i t h the statement t h a t they had no immediate, pressing

problem but t h a t they had some long-range problem which he f e l t would be

b e n e f i t t e d by research. A f t e r a l e n g t h y discussion of some of these

problems and a co n s i d e r a t i o n of what k i n d o f research design would be

most l i k e l y t o y i e l d u s e f u l r e s u l t s , i t was agreed by the two of them

t h a t they would give the matter f u r t h e r thought and have another meeting

i n v o l v i n g other persons from both o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Further discussions of the p o t e n t i a l value of research f o r helping t o

solve the long-range problems faced, l e d the D i r e c t o r of I n d u s t r i a l Rela­

t i o n s t o recommend t o the President t h a t Company A proceed w i t h the pro­

posed research. This was f o l l o w e d by a meeting of the head of the research

o r g a n i z a t i o n , along w i t h two members of the research s t a f f , w i t h the

President, Executive Vice-president and the D i r e c t o r o f I n d u s t r i a l Relations

- 56 -

of Company A. I n t h i s session, the p o t e n t i a l value o f the research p r o j e c t

i n h e l p i n g t o deal w i t h some of the long-range problems of the Company

were discussed a t l e n g t h , i n c l u d i n g some discussion o f how the research

r e s u l t s might be a p p l i e d and the problems l i k e l y t o be encountered i n

t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . On the basis of t h i s meeting, and the recommendations

p r e v i o u s l y made, the President a u t h o r i z e d the study t o be made. The r e ­

search o r g a n i z a t i o n before agreeing t o proceed w i t h the study held a s i m i l a r

k i n d of meeting w i t h the President and Executive Committee of the Union

Local. The response and assurance of cooperation obtained i n t h i s meeting

and the genuine i n t e r e s t i n the research on the p a r t o f top management

encouraged the research o r g a n i z a t i o n t o agree t o undertake the proposed

study.

Comment: Many organizations l i k e Company A, s t a r t research

w i t h long range o b j e c t i v e s i n s i g h t . Others s t a r t i t i n i t i a l l y

as a r e s u l t of more immediate problems. Excessive turnover or

absenteeism, s t e a l i n g , and low p r o d u c t i v i t y are a few examples

of the kinds of immediate problems which may l e a d a Company to

ask f o r assistance from a research s t a f f . Often these more

immediate problems are symptoms of more fundamental problems

and need t o be so t r e a t e d i n the research design and i n applying

the research r e s u l t s .

The f i r s t step i n undertaking t he research was t o organize a se r i e s

of p l anning sessions. The purposes o f these sessions were as f o l l o w s :

1. To o b t a i n as much i n f o r m a t i o n as possible from company

o f f i c e r s and personnel as t o the major dimensions of the

- 57 -

long-range problems. This i n f o r m a t i o n was needed t o be

sure t h a t the research design included a l l the major

hypotheses t h a t should be encompassed i n the study.

2. To inform a l l i n t e r e s t e d persons and groups of the study

i n a way t h a t would enable them t o ask questions about the

study, t o express any fe a r s or re s e r v a t i o n s they might

have, t o discuss these f e a r s , and t o ob t a i n a l l the i n ­

fo r m a t i o n they wanted or needed i n order to have s u f f i c i e n t

confidence i n the study t o coooerate f u l l y w i t h i t .

3. To plan and conduct the study i n such a way t h a t a l l

persons whose a c t i o n was r e q u i r e d t o implement the

study were f u l l y informed about i t , were i n t e r e s t e d i n

i t and had an adequate o p p o r t u n i t y t o ask t h a t the study

o b t a i n data they needed to make the best possible decisions

on the problems f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e i r areas of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

Taking s u f f i c i e n t time t o secure t h i s involvement was

necessary f o r the r e s u l t s of the study t o be implemented.

Comment: I t i s important to give a l l the people who are a f f e c t e d

appreciably by a research p r o j e c t an o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n about

i t f u l l y , t o ask questions and make suggestions w i t h regard t o i t .

F u l l access t o i n f o r m a t i o n about the study and as much i n v o l v e ­

ment and p a r t i c i p a t i o n as i s f e a s i b l e reduces f e a r s of the

research and increases the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t the r e s u l t s w i l l

be c o n s t r u c t i v e l y used.

- 58 -

These planning sessions were not compressed i n t o too short a p e r i o d

of time and were arranged i n such' a way t h a t those persons whose actions

would be r e q u i r e d t o implement the study had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p a r t i c i ­

pate and t o r a i s e the questions t h a t were on t h e i r minds. One of the

important f u n c t i o n s of these p l a n n i n g sessions was t o s t i m u l a t e t h i n k ­

i n g t o consider p o s s i b l e courses o f a c t i o n which might improve present

and f u t u r e o p e rations. This helped t o suggest o b j e c t i v e s f o r the research

by i n d i c a t i n g the data r e q u i r e d t o help choose among p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e

courses of a c t i o n .

Another important f u n c t i o n which these planning sessions were de­

signed t o perform was t o help managerial and supervisory personnel t o

become b e t t e r aware of the character and magnitude of some of the l a r g e r

problems 3 e s p e c i a l l y human problems, which they faced. Oftentimes people

are so immersed i n day-to-day operations t h a t they are n o t aware of seme

of t h e i r l a r g e r and more important problems.

As the plans f o r the study proceeded and the a c t u a l c o l l e c t i o n of the

data got under way, i t was f e l t d e s i r a b l e t o keep the company's personnel

whose involvement was important, informed of developments. This was done

through s p e c i a l communications t o them as w e l l as through the r e p o r t s i n .

the company house organ. This sense of involvement was maintained and

even increased by r a p i d l y r e p o r t i n g back some of the p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s

of the research.

Commenti Unless there are f a i r l y frequent r e p o r t s t o i n t e r e s t e d

persons and groups on the progress of the research, t h e i r

i n t e r e s t tends t o l a g . Moreover, whenever anyone f e e l s l e f t out

-59 T

and uninformed, he tends to develop f e a r f u l and suspicious

a t t i tudes . Consequently, whenever a research s t a f f f a i l s to -

keep a l l those persons who have a re la t ionship to a research

pro jec t informed of developments and progress they are

fo s t e r ing suspicious a t t i tudes toward the research. These

f e a r f u l and suspicious a t t i t udes , i n the absence of accurate

informat ion, are apt to lead to inaccurate rumors about the

research. The e f f e c t of these rumors upon the research can be

devastating.

In presenting the prel iminary r e su l t s , emphasis was placed on thei r

prel iminary and ten ta t ive nature. Company o f f i c e r s were reminded that

more de ta i led analysis might w e l l change the in te rp re ta t ion of the i n i t i a l

r e s u l t s . An i l l u s t r a t i o n that proved useful was to c i t e the experience of

the company which found that those employees who were union members had a

less favorable a t t i tude toward the company than non-union members. This

r e l a t ionsh ip , however, was changed as soon as the character of work of the

employees was held constant. Blue-col lar workers had a less favorable

a t t i tude toward the company than whi t e -co l l a r workers and when the e f f e c t

of union membership was analyzed separately f o r b lue-co l la r workers and

f o r whi te -co l l a r workers, the f ind ings were changed. Union members then

were found to have s l i g h t l y more favorable a t t i tudes toward the company

than non-union members.

Occasionally, the i n i t i a l react ion of a company o f f i c e r to measure­

ments which showed tha t a pa r t i cu la r por t ion of the company was performing

Appreciably'poorer" than-the res t of-tffe" cbmpany wcs•'•to- f e e l ; t h a t there

- 60 -

should be a change i n the supervisory personnel involved. To . fo res ta l l

t h i s reac t ion , top management i n Company A emphasized the r e spons ib i l i t y

of management to help supervisors and managers to develop the s k i l l s

ca l led f o r i n t h e i r j ob . There was continual emphasis that the purpose

of the research was not to perform a p o l i c i n g f u n c t i o n but rather tc f i n d

what p r inc ip les and methods are associated wi th bet ter performance and

how to help mediocre units to improve. Throughout the study the focus

was on discovering the methods which produce successful operation and

learning how to t r a i n people to use these methods e f f e c t i v e l y . I t was

important that supervisory personnel not fear the research as a po l i c ing

operation l i k e l y to hur t them but view i t rather as a major e f f o r t to help

each o!fti.them t o learn- how to perform n i s job more, successful ly.

Th? resul ts from the study i n Company A f e l l i n to two d i s t i n c t l y

d i f f e r e d categories. The f i r s t kind of resul ts were those which deal

w i t h the measurements of company operations, e i ther f o r the company as

a whole or f o r sub-units of the company. The other kind of data were

those which were based on cross-tabulations and which, f o r example, shewed

the d i f f e r e n t levels of employee p roduc t iv i t y associated wi th d i f f e r e n t

methods of supervision. This second kind of analysis i n addition to

i t s value to Company A, adds to the body of fundamental knowledge about

the pr inc ip les of organizational func t ion ing and leadership. Each of

these two kinds of resul ts were reported to the company personnel.

In Company A the resu l t s i n i t i a l l y presented to company o f f i c e r s

were of the f i r s t k ind . They were "straight-runs" showing resul ts f o r

the company as a whole and f o r some of the major operating departments

- 61 -

of the company. These and s imi la r data were presented f i r s t to the President and the Executive Vice-president i n a meeting which was organized by the Director of I n d u s t r i a l Relat ions. The presentation of the resul ts was done by the member of the research organization who was i n charge of the study.

This presentation did not include a f a t report presenting an

analysis and an in te rp re ta t ion of the data. On the contrary, only

tabular resu l t s were presented and discussed. The discussion and i n t e r ­

pre ta t ion were par t ic ipa ted i n by a l l of those present a t the meeting.

For example, questions were asked by the President as to why at t i tudes

toward f i r s t - l i n e supervision d i f f e r e d so subs tan t ia l ly i n two d i f f e r e n t

departments. Tentative hypotheses were of fe red by him and the Executive

Vice-president as to possible causes. Tabulations already completed

by the research s t a f f proved some of these hypotheses untenable and

corroborated others. Addi t ional hypotheses tha t were suggested became

guides f o r f u r t h e r analyses of the data and these f u r t h e r analyses were

examined i n subsequent meetings w i t h these and other company o f f i c e r s .

Further meetings wi th the President, Executive Vice-president and

Director of I n d u s t r i a l Relations were held which were devoted p r imar i ly

to looking at the resu l t s f o r the company as a whole. In the meetings,

a t t en t ion p a r t i c u l a r l y was devoted to analyzing those resu l t s which

suggested tha t there was need f o r some change i n company p o l i c y ; Several

changes occurred but only a f t e r f u r t h e r analysis of the data and d i s ­

cussions w i t h those p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t e d . One change, f o r example,

involved an important modif ica t ion i n some of the benef i t s provided by

- 62 -

the company f o r employees. Another change resu l ted i n a substantial

s h i f t i n the manner i n which job evaluation was performed. A t h i r d pro­

duced s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n the operation of the suggestion system.

At the end of the i n ^ i a l meeting wi th the President and Executive

Vice-president, they suggested that they would l i k e to hold a series

of s imi la r meetings w i t h groups of vice-presidents present. Each group

was to include departments having re l a t ed a c t i v i t i e s .

These meetings were arranged and the data presented included not

only the resu l t s f o r the company as a whole and f o r the departments whose

vice-presidents were present, but also included resul ts f o r the major

d iv is ions w i t h i n each of these departments. There were extensive examin­

a t ion and discussion of the f ind ings by these groups of company o f f i c e r s .

A major area of discussion i n these meetings w i t h the President and

groups of vice-presidents had to do w i t h plans as to how each of the

d i f f e r e n t departments and the i r various sub-units could best go about

analyzing and applying the resul ts of the study bearing upon the i r

operation. I t was decided to have each vice-president present to his

d i v i s i o n heads the resul ts f o r his department. In tu rn each d iv is ion

chief was to present t o his section heads the resul ts f o r the d iv is ion

and f o r the sections and so on down t i l l the r e su l t s were discussed

w i t h rank-and- f i le employees.

Comment: In many instances these groups were considering problems

of inter-personal and inter-group r e l a t i ons which had been

points of f r i c t i o n f o r soine time and which were emotionally

loaded. Problems, which had been avoided because they were

extremely d i f f i c u l t , were f requen t ly brought out i n t o the

- 63 -

open by data. The objective i m p a r t i a l i t y of the f indings

helped the members of the group to approach these problems

i n a constructive problem-solving o r i en t a t i on . Employees'

a t t i tudes and feel ings came to be f a c t s , not things t s be

disregarded because they appeared to be too d i f f i c u l t to

handle or d id not clamor f o r immediate a t t en t i on .

One s i g n i f i c a n t change was introduced when the resul ts were reported

by each vice-president to his immediate subordinates. I n the meetings

wi th the President and the Executive Vice-president, the resu l t s had

been presented by the member of the research organization who directed

the study. I n the meetings conducted by each vice-president f o r his

s t a f f , the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r presenting the resul ts was placed upon the

vice-president. I t was necessary f o r him to become s u f f i c i e n t l y f a m i l i a r

w i t h the methodology used i n the study so that he could describe •the

methods used and answer any questions about the study which might arise

during the presentation of the r e s u l t s . For example, when some of the

measurements indicated tha t a p a r t i c u l a r operation was not being done

as w e l l as might be expected, the people who were responsible f o r these

operations o f t en were l i k e l y to question the accuracy of the measurements.

Under these circumstances, i t was necessary f o r the vice-president to be

s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l informed about the methods used and the magnitude and

scope of possible errors so that he could answer these questions as to

the probable accuracy of the r e s u l t s . I t was also necessary f o r him to

point to other measurements and resu l t s which supported the specif ic

r e s u l t being questioned*

- 6k -

Each vice-president was provided wi th tabulat ions showing the resu l t s

f o r the company as a whole and f o r h i s department and f o r each d iv i s ion

w i t h i n his department. Results were available also f o r other related

or comparable departments so that the vice-president could show his p a r t i ­

cular group how they compared w i t h other comparable uni ts w i th in the

company. Data were also made available by the research organization

showing measurements f o r comparable operations i n other companies outside

of Company A. A l l these resul ts made i t possible f o r the vice-president

to discuss w i th his s t a f f the pat tern of resu l t s f o r his department.

In each of these meetings conducted by a vice-president , a member of

the s t a f f of the Director of I n d u s t r i a l Relations was present to help

answer any questions that might a r i s e . In add i t ion , a member of the

research organization was also present to answer any spec i f ic questions

about the research which the vice-president might not be prepared to

answer, and also to explain what kinds of addi t iona l tabulations could be

made. The groups were encouraged to ask f o r add i t iona l tabulations which

would help them see what problems existed, where i n t h e i r departments the

problem occurred, what caused the problem and what changes might be most

l i k e l y to improve the s i t u a t i o n . Most groups asked f o r these addi t iona l

tabula t ions .

Af t e r these sessions wi th the vice-president each d iv i s ion head was

asked to conduct s imi lar meetings w i t h his subordinates and they i n t u rn

asked t h e i r section-heads to conduct meetings w i t h t h e i r subordinates. I n

t n : e manner the resul ts were reported to lower and lewer echelons i n the

company u n t i l the resul ts had been reported to a l l of the employees of

the company.

- 65 -

Comment: The series of meetings were s tar ted at the top of

the l i n e organization and worked down. I t was found that i n

most departments where the people at the top took a genuine

in teres t i n the f i n d i n g s , studied them and t r i e d to apply them,

that the data were discussed more adequately and used more

construct ively i n working out act ion steps than where such

in te res t was l ack ing .

- 66 -

A high degree of personal involvement i n the analysis and in te rp re ta ­

t i o n was obtained through having each supervisor who was engaged i n any

managerial or supervisory a c t i v i t y pa r t i c ipa te i n two kinds o f meetings.

F i r s t , there was one or more meetings i n wliich he pa r t i c ipa ted as a sub­

ordinate with h i s associates and under the leadership o f his chief , and

secondly, there was one or more meetings where he par t ic ipa ted as the chief

of h is group and conducted the meeting wi th h i s own immediate subordinates.

This l a t t e r compelled him to be f a m i l i a r enough wi th the techniques used i n

the c o l l e c t i o n of the data and the ove r - a l l resul ts so tha t he could answer

questions which arose i n the discussion.

Some of the vice-presidents asked the i r d i v i s i o n heads and subordinates

to report back to them the in te rpre ta t ions a r r ived at i n the discussions and

the actions that were taken on the basis of these in te rpre ta t ions . In those

departments where th i s was done, appreciably more e f f e c t i v e use was made o f

the research results and appreciably greater ac t ion was taken on the basis

of the resul ts than i n those departments where the vice-president only asked

h is subordinates to discuss the resu l t s w i th t h e i r s t a f f and t h e i r subordi­

nates.

The second major use of the measurements obtained i n Company A was to

analyse the data to discover the pat tern o f relat ionships tha t existed be­

tween such variables as organizat ional s t ructure , managerial and supervisory

practices on the one hand and employee p roduc t iv i ty and job s a t i s f ac t i on on

the other.

Comment: Figures 2 and 3 show some of the relat ionships tha t were

found and i l l u s t r a t e one o f the methods of analyses used. Such

f ind ings as these are not only o f value to "Company A , " but they

- 6 7 -

and generalizations based on them and s imi la r resul ts make an important cont r ibu t ion to our fundamental knowledge about o r ­ganizational func t ion ing and leadership. ( > , ) The pattern of re la t ionships obtained from th i s analysis was used by

Company A i n three major ways:

1. These relat ionships were studied by the top o f f i c e r s of the

company i n s t a f f meetings along wi th re la ted data from other

s imi la r studies. The purpose of t h i s analysis by top o f f i c e r s

of the company was to examine present company po l i c i e s i n the

l i g h t of these relau, onships and to consider modifying those

po l ic ies where the resul ts suggested a modi f ica t ion would

bring improvement. A l l the d i f f e r e n t kinds o f po l i c ies a f ­

fec t ing employee behavior and reaction were s tudied, inc lud­

ing po l i c i e s dealing wi th such matters as wage, promotion,

job evaluat ion, company b e n e f i t s , t r a in ing and supervisory

pract ices.

2. The t r a i n i n g department b u i l t much of t h e i r mater ia l f o r

t r a in ing supervisors i n human rela t ions s k i l l s upon resul ts

obtained from the research. They used i t f o r case mater ia l

and to point to some of the more common human re la t ions prob­

lems tha t exis ted i n the company. I n the t r a in ing sessions

supervisors discussed what changes i n supervisory practices

and procedures would be most l i k e l y to bring about improve­

ment, especial ly i n r e l a t i o n to those kinds of problems which

the data showed occurred most f requent ly . They also discussed

the patterns of re la t ionships that were discovered to consider

- 68 -

why cer ta in kinds of supervisory behavior was associated

wi th high or w i th low p roduc t iv i ty or morale.

3. The patterns oi ' re la t ionship which were discovered, along

wi th the re la ted material from other stucb.es, were made

available to a l l levels of management as they examined and

studied the spec i f i c measurements dealing with t h e i r own

operation. The purpose of making these resul ts available

when the measurements were being studied was to help guide

the decisions as to which course of ac t ion among the a l t e r ­

natives present would be most l i k e l y t o r e su l t i n an improve­

ment.

The o f f i c e r s o f company A encouraged middle and lower levels of manage­

ment, a f t e r c a r e f u l study and discussion of the research resul t s , to i n t r o ­

duce modif icat ions i n t h e i r operation which the personnel involved f e l t would

be l i k e l y to br ing about an improvement. A f t e r these changes had been i n

operation for a s u f f i c i e n t per iod of t ime, top management authorized middle

and lower levels of management to arrange wi th the research organization f o r

whatever remeasurement was required i n order to discover the effectiveness

of the changes made.

This remeasurement, which was done i n several d i f f e r e n t parts o f the

company, demonstrated that some of the changes introduced produced s i g n i f i ­

cant improvement and other changes had a neg l ig ib le e f f e c t . I n some s i t ua ­

t ions i t took two or three cycles o f measurement, analysis , attempted change,

and remeasurement before improvement began to occur.

- 6 9 -

Case B: research on a population being served fay an agency

Case B presents another general type of s i t ua t i on . I t d i f f e r s from

Case A i n tha t the research i s focused on persons outside of the organiza­

t i o n , i n Case A the measurements were obtained from people w i t h i n the o r ­

ganization. In both cases the resul ts were used to bring about improvement

i n the operation of the organization. I n Case A the changes involve i n t e r n a l

re la t ionsh ips , i n Case B the changes are program changes to help the organ­

i za t i on achieve i t s object ives more e f f e c t i v e l y . I n both types of cases

those persons who are i n posi t ions of inf luence need to par t i c ipa te i n

planning the research and i n decisions on applying the research, unless

t h i s i s the case, the research resul ts are not l i k e l y to be applied.

I n the Summer and F a l l of 19hl the Department of Agricul ture asked

the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Boards i n the Great Lakes Dairy States to undertake

campaigns to increase the production of m i l k . This increase was necessary

to meet the increasing demand that was occurring i n the uni ted States as a

r e su l t of increased purchasing power on the par t of consumers and also to

meet our commitments to England to supply substant ia l amounts of evaporated

m i l k , cheese, and dr ied skim mi lk .

The o f f i c e r s i n the Department of Agr icu l ture who were responsible f o r

t h i s increase i n mi lk production were eager to give the A g r i c u l t u r a l War

Boards i n the Great Lakes States every assistance possible i n order that

t h e i r campaign to increase m i l k production would meet w i th success. As a

par t o f the assistance being given to the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Boards, they

asked the Div i s ion of program Surveys i n the Bureau o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Eco­

nomics i f i t would be w i l l i n g to help the X State Agr i cu l t u r a l War Board

- 70 -

by conducting a study to help guide i t s campaign to increase milk production.

A f t e r the Divis ion indicated i t s wi l l ingness to make the study, the Depart­

ment of Agr icul ture o f f i c e r responsible f o r the mi lk program asked the Chair­

man of the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Board i n X State whether he would l i k e t h i s

assistance. The Chairman was in teres ted i n securing a l l the help he could

on the important and d i f f i c u l t task he faced and was glad to have the study

undertaken.

Comment: This s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s a d i f f i c u l t problem often

encountered i n doing socia l science research f o r an organiza­

t i o n or agency. I n t h i s case an arm of the Federal Government

asked the research s t a f f t o make a study to help an agency of

a state government. Even though t h i s state agency had close

func t iona l t i e s w i th the Federal agency involved i t was never­

theless proud of i t s autonomy and determined to maintain i t .

Under such circumstances i f the research s t a f f had

appeared to be responsible so le ly to the Federal agency and

interes ted only i n the problem as seen by the Federal agency,

animosities and f r i c t i o n s would l i k e l y have developed which

could have created a s i t ua t i on making the research d i f f i c u l t

t o conduct or causing the resul ts to be ignored. To create

the cooperation, support and involvement needed, i t was nec­

essary f o r the research s t a f f to approach the l o c a l agency with

a genuine and sincere in te res t i n learning what the o f f i c e r s of

the agency f e l t t h e i r problems t o be and what they would l i k e to

see studied.

- 71 -

This same kind of problem, of course, i s faced when­

ever a centra l s t a f f of an organization suggests that research

be done f o r one of the operating un i t s . I t even occurs i n a

less obvious form when a company asks to have research done f o r

a pa r t i cu l a r department. I n a l l these si tuat ions the research

s t a f f must es tabl ish a cooperative re la t ionslap wi th the loca l

people concerned which w i l l develop confidence i n the researchers

and involvement i n the research.

When members of the s t a f f of the Div i s ion of Program Surveys met w i t h

the X State A g r i c u l t u r a l War Board to discuss the proposed study and to de­

velop spec i f i c objectives f o r the study, i t became clear tha t the War Board

wanted to get a l l the help they could but "they were not too sure that r e ­

search could help them nor i n what way. They f e l t t ha t , by and large, they

knew the s i t u a t i o n i n X State we l l and tha t t h e i r campaign plans were sound.

The X State A g r i c u l t u r a l 'War Board believed the fo l lowing to be the

f a c t s :

1. The State A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c i a n ' s data f o r X State showed

that the t o t a l number of cows i n X State was larger than a t

any previous time i n the s ta te ' s h i s t o r y . Consequently, the

War Board was of the opinion that v i r t u a l l y a i l the barns i n

X State were f u l l and hence no f u r t h e r increase i n cow numbers

rfas pract icable at t h i s time without an increase i n barn space.

They also knew tha t t h e i r own barns were f u l l and that the

barns of a l l the farmers they knew were f u l l .

2. They knew that the pr ice of mi lk i n re la t ionship to the

p r ice of feed made i t h ighly p r o f i t a b l e to feed milk cows

- 72 -

heavily including grains and pro te in concentrates i n order

to increase the mi lk production per cow. They were fo l lowing

t h i s pract ice themselves and a l l of the farmers they knew

were fo l lowing th i s p rac t i ce . They assumed that t h i s was

true among farmers generally i n X State.

Believing these to be the fac t s f o r X State, the War Board was of the

opinion tha t the way to increase da i ry production was (1) to assure an ade­

quate supply of feed grains and p ro t e in concentrates a t a reasonable p r i ce ;

(2) to f a c i l i t a t e the bu i ld ing o f addi t iona l barn space; and (3) to increase

the available farm labor f o r da i ry operation. Consequently, the War Board

proposed to ask that feed be made avai lable at a spec i f i ed pr ice , and t o

request that p r i o r i t i e s be granted or al locat ions made so that farmers

could obtain a l l the lumber, concrete, s t ee l , plumbing, and other material

required f o r bu i ld ing addi t iona l barn space. They also f e l t i t desirable

tha t steps be taken to increase the farm labor supply i n X State.

With t h i s background the study vas undertaken. The major objectives

of the study were to f i n d the extent t o which farmers were at present pro­

ducing the maximum amount of mi lk and what steps could be taken which would

make possible a f u r t h e r increase i n da i ry production. These objectives

included discovering what resources, i f any, farmers f e l t they needed to

increase t h e i r da i ry production. Such resources being addi t ional barn

space, mi lk ing machines, other equipment, more feed, higher qua l i ty feed,

more labor , etc . The study also had as an object ive discovering the ex­

tent to which dairy farmers i n X State were motivated to attempt to pro­

duce a maximum amount of m i l k and what the influences were that were

motivating them to increase dai ry production and what the motivat ional

- 73 -

forces were that were act ing i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n . This included

seeking to discover how farmers f e l t about mi lk prices and the extent to

which farmers knew tha t a pr ice guarantee had been made on milk and dairy

products through June 30, 19U3, I t was also desired to know the extent to

which farmers knew that there was an'urgent demand f o r an increase i n milk

production and the reasons f o r th i s increase i n demand.

The study was designed wi th a s u f f i c i e n t l y large sample so tha t the

resu l t s could be analyzed separately f o r each of three major milk producing

areas. These areas were the counties producing mi lk p r imar i ly f o r (a)

cheese, (b) evaporated mi lk and (c) d r i e d skim m i l k . I n each « e a a cross-

section of farmers and a sample of township A.A.A, committeemen were i n t e r ­

viewed. Interviews were conducted i n a t o t a l of nine d i f f e r e n t counties,

three counties i n each of the three d i f f e r e n t areas. I n each of these

counties the three county A.A,A. committeemen were also interviewed.

During the time of the in te rv iewing , the study d i rec to r made an e f f o r t

p e r i o d i c a l l y to drop i n f o r short v i s i t s w i th the Chairman of the State

A g r i c u l t u r a l War Board. He used these v i s i t s to repor t on the progress i n

the in terviewing and to quote some of the answers being obtained i n the i n ­

terviews. He knew that many of the answers were proving t o be quite d i f f e r ­

ent from what the v/ar Board expected and wanted to prepare them f o r the r e ­

su l t s .

The resu l t s obtained from the interviews w i t h the farmers and the A.A.A*

committeemen proved to be quite d i f f e r e n t from what the s ta te Agr i cu l tu ra l

War Board expected. Their expectations were based on the s t a t i s t i c s and r e ­

ports avai lable to them and what they learned from t a l k i n g wi th t he i r f r i ends

and acquaintances. But unfortunately they lacked important information.

- lh -

They d id not have avai lable any data r e f l e c t i n g the informat ion, a t t i tudes

and behavior of the rank-and-f i le of farmers i n X State.

The resul ts based on a cross-section of farmers b r i e f l y were as f o l l o w s ;

1. "There i s ample barn space to accommodate considerable ex­pansion i n herds., ' , . Thus, to 93 per cent of the farmers contacted, the lack of barn space i s not a determinate fac ­to r i n deciding whether or not to expand,.,

2. "Labor supply i n the State appears to be adequate and the fear o f a labor shortage does not seem to be an important obstacle to an expansion i n p roduc t ion , , ,

3. "Equipment needs appear to be no handicap to increased production.

U, "An overwhelming proport ion of X State farmers are s a t i s f i e d w i t h the present price o f m i l k . . .

5. "Running through a l l the data i s the very noticeable thread that the farmer i s uncer ta in , that he lacks confidence i n the continuation of good pr ices , that he i s apprehensive o f a collapse of prices and markets a f t e r the war , . ,

" I t appears tha t memories of the catastrophe that struck farmers a f t e r the l a s t war and the experience of the recent hard, lean depression years have sensi t ized farmers to the danger of debt , . .

"The great importance of guarantees of secur i ty and pr ice over a long period of time i s apparent.. .

6. "A t h i r d major k ind of brake on expansion i s a d i s t i n c t lack of in format ion , . , F i r s t , farmers are confused and only par­t i a l l y informed about the actions o f the government i n regard to production and pr ices . Second, they lack knowledge about the p o s s i b i l i t y of increased output through bet ter feeding p r ac t i c e s , . ,

7. "Expansion of production i n dairying can, of course, come i n one or both of two ways; larger herds, and bet ter feeding. The f i r s t involves physical expansion, which may be hampered by the fears and uncertaint ies indicated above. The l a t t e r , be t te r feeding, could be done despite uncer ta in t ies . How­ever, bet ter feeding i s not the means by which the average farmer w i l l make large increases. . .

"Ninety-four per cent o f those expanding production are en­la rg ing herds. The overwhelming propor t ion of those i n t e r ­viewed f e l t tha t they were already a t , or close t o , the economic l i m i t on feeding i n t e n s i t y . "

- 7 5 -

The resul ts from interviews wi th township A.AJU committeemen showed

a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t pat tern f r o m that obtained from farmers. The

fo l lowing resul ts quoted from the o r i g i n a l report present some of the major

differences tha t were found:

1, "Committmen seem to be responding much f a s t e r than other farmers to the present favorable conditions by planning to feed t he i r cows heavier t h i s yea r . . .

2, "There appears to be some evidence that committeemen a n t i c i ­pated the need f o r increased production of mi lk and are taking advantage of i t by increasing t h e i r herds f u l l y a year i n ad­vance of other f a rmers . , ,

3, "Strongly a f f e c t i n g the foregoing i s the d i f fe rence i n informa­t i o n between the two groups. Three-quarters of the committce-men s i g n i f i e d that they had heard of the government guarantees as opposed to only o n e - f i f t h o f the farmers."

The interviews i n t h i s study were made between September 20 and October

1, l ? l i l and prel iminary resu l t s were presented to the Agr i cu l tu ra l War Board

on October 2. The War Board was qui te surprised by the resul ts because the

f ind ings were almost the opposite of what they had believed to be the s i tua ­

t i o n . Af t e r they had the resul ts avai lable they began to check them by

t a l k i n g to county A.A.A. committeemen and various other groups of farmers

whom they knew. A f t e r a few days of these discussions they became i n ­

creasingly convinced that the resul ts presented to them i n the preliminary

f ind ings were subs tan t ia l ly correct .

The pat tern i n b r i e f that they found was the one indicated by the

study: the wel l - informed farmers, l i k e themselves, knew of the increase

i n demand f o r m i l k , knew the reasons f o r t h i s increase and the probable

s t a b i l i t y o f the increased demand. These farmers, l i k e the members o f

the State War Board, had already increased cow numbers to the po in t where

t h e i r barns were f u l l and were now increasing production f u r t h e r by

- 76 -

heavier feeding of grains and concentrates, bounty 4 . A , A . committeemen

displayed much the same pat tern of behavior as the members of the A g r i ­

c u l t u r a l Var Board. Township committeemen were somewhat more l i k e the

rank-and-f i le of farmers than the county A.A.A. committeemen but they too

were ahead of the rank-and- f i l e of farmers i n the amount of information

they had and i n the extent to which they were already increasing milk

production.

Comment: The research s t a f f de l ibera te ly made much use of the

pat tern of resul ts that was found. They pointed out that the

township committeemen*3 a t t i tudes and behavior were more l i k e

the resu l t s wliich the War Board had expected to f i n d than were

the a t t i tudes and behavior of farmers generally. This helped

to show tha t informed farmers were behaving as the War Board

believed a l l farmers were behaving. The War Board also recog­

nized tha t t h e i r own f r i ends and contacts tended, l i k e themselves,

to be much better informed than farmers general ly. This made i t

easy to suggest tha t , probably, as the resul ts indica ted , many

farmers were not as w e l l informed as the War Board had previously

assumed.

A f t e r several days of studying the f ind ings and tes t ing i t by t a l k i n g

wi th farm leaders and group of farmers, the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Board became

convinced o f the accuracy of the f i nd ings . They then d r a s t i c a l l y revised

t h e i r plans f o r the campaign to increase milk production i n X state, The

revised plans ca l l ed , f i r s t , f o r a major in format iona l campaign through the

mass media, especial ly rad io , i n which there would be much emphasis upon:

(1) the great increase i n demand f o r mi lk and mi lk products, the reasons f o r t h i s increase and the reasons why t h i s increase i n demand would not collapse suddenly;

- 77 -

(2) the price support and guarantees to which the government was committed through June 30, 19k3$

(3) the importance of increasing dairy production pr imar i ly by the heavier feeding o f grains and concentrates.

I n addi t ion to t h i s intensive campaign through the mass media, the

plans also cal led f o r meetings of farmers by school d i s t r i c t s i n loca l

school houses. These were to be evening meetings on a date to be set which

was t o be about the f i r s t of November. At these school d i s t r i c t meetings,

the township committeemen were to explain and discuss wi th the farmers the

need f o r the increase i n m i l k , the character of the government pr ice sup­

ports and guarantees, and the best methods f o r achieving t h i s increase i n

production through heavier feeding.

A f i n a l part of the ent i re campaign was to have each faimer cal led upon

by a township A.A.A. committeeman. The purpose o f t h i s v i s i t was fu r the r

to encourage farmers to increase dairy production and to answer t h e i r ques­

t ions about the need f o r th i s increase. The v i s i t was to be combined with

the usual A g r i c u l t u r a l Conservation program v i s i t i n which farmers were

asked annually to sign up f o r approved s o i l conservation practices. This

v i s i t f o r the combined purposes was to be held ea r l i e r i n the crop year

than the annual conservation practice v i s i t .

I t was recognised by the State var Board tha t the township committee­

men would have to be provided with f u l l facts about the need f o r increased

m i l k , the government program price guarantees wi th regard to m i l k , and the

advantages of increasing production by heavier feeding. Mater ia l covering

these points was prepared by the War Board and supplied to a l l county a g r i ­

c u l t u r a l o f f i c i a l s . Plans were also drawn f o r the v i s i t s tha t the township

committeemen were to make on each f a r m e r ' i n order to explain the need f o r

increased dai ry production.

- 7 8 -

I n order to tes t the adequacy of th i s p lan, the materials prepared

and the t r a i n i n g given township committeemen, three experimental counties

were selected. During the period of October lh to October 18 interviewers

of the d iv i s ion of Program Surveys accompanied township committeemen while

they made t he i r c a l l s oh farmers i n these counties.

Several def ic iencies were observed i n the manner i n which the town­

ship committeemen conducted the v i s i t s with farmers. One deficiency was

a lack of information about the en t i r e program f o r increasing milk produc­

t i o n . Township committeemen, because they lacked th is information or f a m i l ­

i a r i t y wi th i t , tended to t a l k more about the s o i l conservation program,

which they knew w e l l , and much less about the m i l k campaign which was the

urgent requirement at the tome. The spec i f i c def ic iencies i n information

and i n the manner i n which the v i s i t s were conducted were reported by the

Divis ion of Program Surveys to the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Board. The War Board

i n s t i t u t e d l o c a l t r a i n i n g programs to overcome these deficiencies before

the township committeemen cal led upon farmers generally during the early

par t of November throughout the mi lk producing areas of X State to en­

courage them to increase mi lk production.

Comment: This i s a very l i m i t e d i l l u s t r a t i o n of how the r e ­

search-action-research-action cycle can be operated. Af t e r the

i n i t i a l study, plans f o r applying the resul ts were developed and

the adequacy of these plans was then pre-tested i n an experiment

or p i l o t p r o j e c t . The resu l t s obtained were then appraised

through measurement and the plan modified and improved before

more general appl ica t ion . When the problem i s a continuing one

f u r t h e r measurements should be obtained a f t e r the general app l i ­

cat ion.

- 79

The X State War Board found the assistan ce given to them i n t h i s study of s u f f i c i e n t value that the A g r i c u l t u r a l War Boards of the other Great Lakes Dairy States, when they learned of the stuoy , asked f o r s imi lar as­sistance i n t he i r own states. Time and f i n a n c i a l l im i t a t i ons made i t im­possible to conduct separate studies i n each of the states f o r the d i f f e r ­ent War Boards but representatives of the Div i s ion of program Surveys met wi th these War Boards and described the resul ts of the X State study, the major conclusions which came from i t and the spec i f ic applications tha t were made. Each of these State A g r i c u l t u r a l War Boards then made corres­ponding applications i n t h e i r own State.

An ind ica t ion of the value of t h i s p ro jec t can be obtained by exam­

i n i n g the increase i n dai ry production tha t occurred i n X State during the

ensuing twelve months. The increase i n mi lk production f o r the year Novem­

ber 1, 19hl to October 31, 19U2 over the previous twelve-month period was

6.Y#. This was one of highest rates of increase that occurred throughout

the ent i re pre-war and war period. Moreover, the study led the State War

Board not to request the a l loca t ion of s t ee l , lumber, cement, plumbing

ma te r i a l , etc. which had o r i g i n a l l y been contemplated. This saved scarce

mater ia l f o r urgent needs i n the war e f f o r t .

Case C: a s tory of what not to do

Case C i s a condensed synthetic case. I t focuses on undesirable prac­

t i ces and reference to desirable pract ices has been largely omitted. I t i s

presented here because there continues to be evidence that among business,

government and other agencies, attempts are made to use socia l science re ­

search i n s i tuat ions where the researchers are i so la ted from contact w i th

- 80 -

operating personnel. Such conditions prevent p a r t i c i p a t i o n and involve­

ment by operating personnel i n the research process and prevent the re­

search s t a f f from developing a f u l l understanding of operating problems.

Case C (a synthetic case)

This organization was headed by a competent acuirinistrator, but he

happened to have no s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g or research experience. This de­

f i c i e n c y made i t impossible f o r him t o judge the competence of the research

personnel on his s t a f f and to knov; to whom and to what extent he could

delegate tasks and funct ions . I t handicapped him seriously also i n his

attempts to judge whether a proposed research pro jec t or program was the

best design or would even adequately meet the requirements of the operating

agency requesting the research.

This administrator was a very earnest man who took his respons ib i l i ty

seriously. He recognized that research resul ts might exercise a major i n ­

fluence i n decisions on important matters. He also recognized that some of

the methods of the socia l sc ien t i s t s were newly developed. This caused

him to f e e l they were untested and hence l i k e l y , a t t imes, to y i e l d erro­

neous resu l t s . As a consequence he established procedures involving checks

and balances.

Unfortunately, i n order f o r his system to work the i s o l a t i o n of the

research personnel from the operating personnel was required. ?his im­

posed a condi t ion on the research organization which made i t v i r t u a l l y im­

possible f o r i t to perform the research services expected of i t .

An agency desir ing to have research done on a problem i t currently

faced could request to have the research done but only through a l i a i son

- 81 -

person designated to perform th i s f u n c t i o n by the administrative head o f the research organization. Through channels a research u n i t or section was then given the research request. The research s t a f f then designed a research p ro jec t t o meet the problem as i t was described to them through these chan­nels, usual ly there was l i t t l e opportunity to discuss the problem or the proposed research wi th the agency requesting the study.

The absence of any contact, except seriously r e s t r i c t e d contact, be­

tween the research personnel and the personnel of the operating agency

tended to r e su l t i n the research organization only being asked to make spot

checks, do research on r e l a t i v e l y inconsequential problems or not to be

asked to do research. This occurred because the l i a i s o n person, not under­

standing the p o t e n t i a l i t y of the research methodologies, f a i l e d to see and

suggest to the agency personnel how some of t h e i r major problems could be

tackled through research.

Comment; The personnel o f operating agencies usually have no

way of knowing the extent to which social science research can

contribute to the so lu t ion of the many problems they face. They

obtain t h i s informat ion p r i m a r i l y by discussing t h e i r problems

s u f f i c i e n t l y w i t h socia l sc ien t i s t s f o r the sc ien t i s t s to be­

come f a m i l i a r wi th the problems and to indicate what kinds of

assistance research might be expected to contr ibute . Conse­

quently, i n s i tua t ions l i k e t h i s where the contacts between

the operating personnel and the research s t a f f are r e s t r i c t ed

to a minimum, there i s l i t t l e opportunity f o r the sc ien t i s t s

to become f a m i l i a r with operating problems and t o suggest how

research might be used to help solve them, tohen the personnel

- 82 -

of operating agencies are unable to obtain ideas and sugges­

t ions from the s c i en t i s t s , they necessarily l i m i t t h e i r requests

f o r research only to the very few p o s s i b i l i t i e s which t h e i r re ­

s t r i c t e d knowledge of research and i t s p o t e n t i a l i t y suggests.

Under such condi t ions , i t i s v i r t u a l l y impossible f o r the

the operating personnel to grasp the f u l l magnitude of what r e ­

search can do f o r them and to seek th i s assistance. S imi l a r ly

the research personnel, not knowing the operating problems, do

not recognize the need that operating personnel have f o r research

and so are unable to suggest possible research pro jec t s . These

circumstances necessarily r e s u l t i n research being done only on

minor aspects of problems or on s u p e r f i c i a l problems.

A f t e r a request f o r research had been given the research s t a f f , a

study design was developed. The study design was then reviewed by one or

more members of a group of research consultants which t h i s administrator

had appointed to advise him. These consultants usually came to Washington

f o r one or two days a week and so usually had only a cursory knowledge of

the problems of the agency and consequently of the required research. Their

discussions and advice usually resul ted i n some modifications i n the research

design. A f t e r these changes, the consultants general ly gave t h e i r approval

which i n t u rn resul ted i n the administrator 's authorizing the s t a f f to pro­

ceed w i t h the research p ro jec t .

Comment; Whenever research plans are reviewed by outside ex­

perts who do not have s u f f i c i e n t time to become thoroughly

f a m i l i a r wi th the problem, the research s t a f f generally fee l s

under pressure to use a research design which w i l l be subject

- 83 -

to a minimum of c r i t i c i s m and change. This , o f course, resul ts

i n a tendency to use a design of a t r a d i t i o n a l character rather

than one which i s s p e c i f i c a l l y and e f f i c i e n t l y focused on th i s

pa r t i cu l a r problem.

Upon completion of the research, a technica l report was prepared by

the research s t a f f . This repor t , again, was reviewed and c r i t i c i z e d by

the research consultants. The repor t was then revised to take these

c r i t i c i s m s and suggestions in to account, A s i m p l i f i e d , non-technical re ­

po r t was then prepared f o r submission to the agency which requested the

research.

When th i s non-technical report was ready, i t was taken by the l i a i s o n

person to the agency and discussed i n a general way wi th the key operating

personnel i n the agency. The l i a i s o n person had not had research t r a i n i n g

and only l i m i t e d research experience. He usually had had no d i rec t contact

w i th the research which was done f o r t h i s agency : As a ru le the only con­

t a c t the l i a i s o n person had wi th the research was to pa r t i c ipa te i n the

i n i t i a l discussion with the agency personnel i n which the research was r e ­

quested and i n the e d i t o r i a l discussions which occurred when the s i m p l i f i e d ,

non-technical report was being reviewed and put i n f i n a l form.

The administrator i n charge of the research organization did not wish

the research s t a f f to par t i c ipa te i n the appl ica t ion discussions, any more

than he wished them to pa r t i c ipa te i n the i n i t i a l discussions i n which the

research was requested by the agency. As a r e s u l t , few par t i c ipa ted .

The l i a i s o n person usually d i d not f u l l y understand the research, was

unfami la i r w i th the methods used and had no appreciation of wi th in what

l i m i t s of error the resul ts could be in terpre ted or generalized. Often

- 8U -

t h i s l i a i s o n person had only a general impression as to what the research

resul ts meant and what they d id not mean. He was of l i t t l e help to the

agency personnel when they would ask; " I n r e l a t i o n to th is problem we can

pursue po l icy A or po l i cy B. Are we l i g h t i n i n t e rp re t i ng these resul ts to

mean tha t we should pursue po l i cy B f o r these and these reasons?" The

l i a i s o n person usual ly could not answer such questions because he did not

understand the research we l l enough to be able to answer i t .

The l i a i s o n person being unfami l i a r with the methodology used and the

detai ls of the research could not perform another important func t ion i n ­

volved i n helping an agency to use the resul ts of research conducted on

i t s problems. Oftentimes as the o f f i c e r s of an agency examined the r e ­

sul ts of a study f o r implicat ions f o r operating decisions, questions were

raised which were not f u l l y answered by the o r i g i n a l analysis. Frequently,

however, the o r i g i n a l data could be retabluated or analyzed f u r t h e r so as

to y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t f ac t s to holp answer the new questions. But the

l i a i s o n person was unable t o suggest that th is could be done because he

was unfami l ia r w i th the methodology and the data.

Comment: I f research f o r an operating agency i s done w e l l , i t

w i l l y i e l d generalizations applicable to many problems and

po l i c i e s and not jus t spec i f ic answers to spec i f i c questions.

But to use these generalizations f u l l y and co r rec t ly , i t i s

essential t l i a t thoy be understood by the operating personnel.

An e f f e c t i v e understanding of the generalizations usually i s

best acquired by discussing the i r implicat ions f o r pa r t i cu la r

operating problems. This requires discussions o f such prob­

lems by key operating persons wi th sc ien t i s t s who either have

- 85 -

conducted the research or know i t w e l l . When administrative

regulations prevent such discussions, the use of the research

resul ts are seriously l i m i t e d .

There i s another kind of problem which occurs when a

l i a i s o n person without research t r a i n i n g i s placed between the

research and operating personnel. Oftentimes the most i n t e l l i ­

gent appl icat ion of the research f ind ings involves recognizing

the presence of patterns of resu l t s and not j u s t considering

i n d i v i d u a l items. Moreover, these pat tern in terpre ta t ions may

require knowledge not only of the f ind ings from th i s pa r t i cu la r

stucty but knowledge of the resu l t s of other research including

work done previously i n t h i s agency and work done elsewhere and

published. 1'he sc ien t i s t s who conduct the research have t h i s

background knowledge of other research resu l t s . A l i a i s o n per­

son who lacks s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g almost never has t h i s knowledge

and consequently i s less l i k e l y to be able to help the operating

persons to see the patterns of resu l t s that have relevance f o r

t h e i r decisions.

As might be expected, operating agencies found tha t research conducted

under these circumstances was not ve ry .u se fu l to them, progressively they

asked f o r and used research less and less .

Before the war was over, t h i s research organization was abolished.

Some parts of i t , however, were s h i f t e d to other agencies. Some of these,

a f t e r they were s h i f t e d , managed to develop a close, func t iona l r e l a t i o n ­

ship wi th the operating agencies whose problems they were studying. Those

parts which developed a close, func t iona l re la t ionship w i th operating

agencies survived and performed important and valuable research funct ions.

- 86 -

This case suggests that socia l sc ien t i s t s w i l l be we l l

advised to counsel administrators against establ ishing an or ­

ganization l i k e Case C. They would be wise also i n avoiding

posi t ions on any research s t a f f which i s organized l i k e Case C.

Such an organizational arrangement imposes such r e s t r i c t i ons

on the research that i t i s v i r t u a l l y impossible to do s i g n i f i ­

cant studies and to have any research resul ts used e f f e c t i v e l y .

RESEARCH AND TRAINING IN APPLYING RESEARCH

One of the important but neglected research areas i n the socia l s c i ­

ences i s research on the process of applying research f ind ings . The content

of t h i s chapter has been based la rge ly on crude, unsystematic observations

and experience and i s necessarily t e n t a t i v e . Systematic research i s needed

urgently to provide an integrated body of knowledge on how best to apply

knowledge, especially on how to apply the knowledge emanating from socia l

science research. There cannot be an applied socia l science technology of

any magnitude and importance u n t i l a more systematic body of knowledge i s

available on how to apply research f i n d i n g s .

A review of current programs of graduate t r a i n i n g f o r social scien­

t i s t s suggests also that there i s need to broaden the curriculum beyond

the current teaching o f research methodology to include more systematic

t r a i n i n g i n some of the methodological s k i l l s useful i n the appl icat ion

of science.

The po t en t i a l contr ibut ion o f the soc ia l sciences to the solution o f

socia l problems i s tremendous and l a rge ly unrealized as y e t . I t i s im­

portant not to overse l l the po t en t i a l value of socia l science research

- 8? -

ei ther generally or f o r spec i f ic s i t ua t ions . I t i s equally important,

hot/ever, fo r s o c i a l sc ient i s t s not to undersell soc ia l science research

nor t o lack confidence i n the s c i e n t i f i c method as a t o o l f o r solving the

complex social problems which our world faces. This f a i t h underlies a l l

the successful applications and use o f social science research.

y

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