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5.1

IMS3230 - Information Systems

Development Practices

Soft Systems

Methodology(SSM)

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5.2

the systems ppro chgeneral systems theory (e.g. Bertalanffy 1968):

to understand the nature of large and complex systems

a system is a set of interrelated elements, with inputsand outputs, and with a set of processes which convertinputs into outputs

a system has a boundary and an environment with

which it interacts a system has a purpose, and its elements interact to

achieve this

systems relate to each other, and consist of subsystems

e.g. an inventory system

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5.3

systems have emergent properties:

the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

need to develop information systems for theorganisation as a whole, not for isolated functions

the interconnectedness of systems

understand the context of information systems

avoid the reductionism of scientific analysis:

decomposition of complex structures may distortour understanding as elements may react

differently when examined individually

the systems ppro ch

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5.4

the systems ppro ch organisational (human activity) systems are not

predictable:

peoples behaviour and interpretations

organisations are open systems, interacting withtheir environment

e.g. competitors, government policies, customers,suppliers

organisations are complex systems:

need people with a range of expertise andexperience to develop and implement information

systems

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5.5

the systems ppro ch the technological aspects are closed and

predictable

the human aspects are open and non-deterministic:

methodologies must take into account the importanceand complexity of the human element

computer solutions are not always

appropriate multiple viewpoints and solutions: which is

best?

may require technological and also attitudinal,

structural, environmental changes

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5.6

hard vs soft systems

thinking

Checkland (1981):

soft systems approaches

organisations are complex, with problems whichare fuzzy, ill-defined, not well-structured, andwhere multiple points of view exist

hard systems approaches

focus on the certain and precise in situationse.g. structured approaches, SSADM

assume there is, and consider, only one point ofview

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5.7

Soft Systems Methodology

developed at Lancaster University from the early 1970s byPeter Checkland as part of an action research program

Checkland wanted to adapt the ideas of systems theory to

form a practical methodology:a study of methods for application in a particular situation

not a development methodology: a methodology to identifychanges

human problem and process oriented, not techniqueoriented

a number of models built representing different viewpoints

exploration of problem situations to decide on action for

desirable changes

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5.8

hard systems thinking

systems exist in the real world and can beengineered

an objective, correct view exists

decomposition of systems into parts for examinationand understanding: scientific method

focus on howto do things, assumes whatto do isalready clear

the system's objectives can be defined in advance

alternative means of achieving them can be modelled

the most desirable is selected

deterministic, goal-seeking: seek optimum choice fromcompeting alternative solutions

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5.9

soft systems thinking

systems do not exist as such, but are an abstract conceptrepresenting a way of seeing and understanding the realworld: a holon e.g. the education system

the system is not some part of the real world but is theorganised process of enquiry itself

subjective, depending on background, experience, beliefs

need to understand and explore the whole and its context

SSM is a system of enquiry and has to be participative

the role of the SSM expert is to help the people in theproblem situation carry out their own study

modelsare not representations of real world activity but are

constructed in order to help debate it

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5.10


fuzzy, ill-structured, complex (i.e. soft) problems arecommon in organisations: human activity systems

the unpredictable nature of human activity systems:data, processes are relatively easy to model, but

to understand organisations, we need to include people inthe models

the people involved may have different and

conflicting objectives, perceptions, and attitudes

we need to address the soft aspects of problems, notjust the hard aspects, to achieve a better understanding

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5.11

The development of SSM:

action research

Action research:

to investigate and refine theoretical knowledge by activeand reflectiveparticipationin a real-world situation notunder the control of the researcher vs e.g. laboratoryexperiments

client-centred, contextual

goals negotiated with members of the organisation

not fact-finding, but a learning process

each social context is unique, no law-like generalisationsabout organisations vs the scientific method

insights rather than cause / effect relationships

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5.12


humans attribute meaning to their experiences andobservations

we form intentions, based on how we interpret oursituation, and

take purposeful action in response to our experience ofthe world: the experience / action cycle= learning

SSM:the focus is on an organised set of principles(methodology) which guide action in trying to manage(in the broad sense) real-world problem situations

Checkland and Scholes (1990), p. 5

the what to do and the how to do it are both tackled

(problem situation, not a problem)

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5.13


Check land and Scholes (1990) p. 6:

the basic shape of the approach is to formulatesome models which it is hoped will be relevantto the real-world situation, and use them bysetting them against perceptions of the realworld in a process of comparison. That

comparison could then initiate debate leading toa decision to take purposeful action to improvethe part of real life which is under scrutiny

see Fig 1.3 p. 7

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5.14


Checkland and Scholes (1990), pp 286 - 287

no automatic assumption the world is systemic: consciouschoice to take a part of the world as a system to beengineered

distinguish between unreflecting involvement in theeveryday world and conscious systems thinking about thereal world: the SSM user is conscious of moving from oneworld to another many times

in systems thinking holons are constructed: purposefulhuman activity systems embodying emergent properties,layered structure, processes of communication and control

holons are used to enquire into the real world in order toarticulate a debate or dialogue intended to define changes

deemed desirable and feasible

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5.15

the situation is a product of a particular history

the improvers are the users of SSM

the focus is the search for one (or more) world view: aset of assumptions about reality

the world view is extracted from the problem situationthrough debate on the purpose of the organisation

the world view forms the basis for describing systemrequirements

implemented changes will change the nature of theproblem situation as perceived: continuous cycle oflearning


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5.16

Evolution of SSM

Two modes:

mode 1: Checkland (1981)

7 stage model, is the most well-known version

mode 2: Checkland and Scholes (1990)

developed from further action research

two interacting streams of structured enquiry togetherlead to changes:

- logic-based stream: holons

- cultural analysis stream

mode 2 is more a framework of ideas:

the version of mode 1 is seen as just one option

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5.17

Stages of SSM: 1. the problem

situation: unstructured

(See Fig 24.1, p. 471 in Avison & Fitzgerald (2003))

explore the problem situation: to understand the real causes

problem owners: those on whose behalf the study has been

initiated actors: those taking part in the situation, other stakeholders

analysts attempt to reveal many possible views of thesituation

the structure of the problem situation: physical layout,reporting structure, formal and informal communicationpatterns

activities carried out

climate: relationships between structure and activities

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5.18

Stages of SSM: 2. the problem

situation: expressed

express the problem situation more formally

no particular way prescribed, but rich pictures are oftenused as a communication technique

elements include:

clients, actors, tasks, the environment, problem areas,conflicts, concerns, controlling bodies, otherstakeholders, relationships, issues

exploration, discussion, communication: to help movefrom thinking about the problem situation towardsthinking about what can be done about it

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5.19

Rich pictures

graphical representation of the organisation or work area

self explanatory and easy to understand

a subjective process: there is no correct picture

hard facts: e.g. activities, departmental boundaries,physical and geographical layout, product types, resources,

soft facts: concerns, conflicts, socio-organisational roles,political issues, relationships, employee needs,

rich pictures help:- to identify what is really important in the situation

- people understand their role in the organisation

- to define aspects of the organisation to be addressed by

the information system

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5.20

Primary tasks and issues

Rich pictures also help to identifyprimary tasks and issues primary tasks

tasks the organisation must perform as part of its purpose:what is central to this organisation?

the boundaries of primary task systems coincide with areal world manifestation:

e.g. a functional boundary as in a personnel system

issues

topics or matters of concern or conflict

generally the boundaries of issue-based systems do notmap on to real world boundaries:

e.g. a system to resolve disagreements about resourceusage

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5.21

Stages of SSM: 3. root

definitions of relevant systems

the problem solver imagines and names relevantsystems: a way of looking at the problem situation whichprovides useful insights

a system is a perceived, meaningful grouping of people,

objects and activities

e.g.problem theme= conflicts between two departments

a relevant system= a systems that redefines departmentalboundaries

identify one or more relevant systems for each problemtheme

a subjective process, several relevant systems should beidentified, both primary task systems and issue-based

systems

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5.22

Root definitions

a root definition is created for each relevant system

relevant systems are a focus for debate and exploration

root definition:

a concise, verbal definition expressing the nature of apurposeful activity system regarded as relevant toexploring the problem situation

useful in exposing different views

(see examples: Avison and Fitzgerald 1995, pp 120-122)

expresses the core purpose of a purposeful activitysystem and is always a transformation of some inputentity into a new form of entity (output)

use the CATWOE checklist to ensure that six essential

characteristics are included

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5.23

Root definitions

the CATWOE checklist:

whois doing whatfor whom, to whom are theyanswerable, what assumptionsare being made, and inwhat environmentis it occurring?

C ustomers = victims or beneficiaries of T

A ctors = those who do T

T ransformation = the conversion of input to output

W eltanschauung = the assumptions, the world view whichmakes T meaningful in context

O wner = those who could stop T

E nvironment = elements outside the system which it

takes as given

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5.24

Stages of SSM: 4. buildingconceptual models

develop a conceptual modelfor each root definition:

an informal diagram of something relevant to thesituation

not a model of the situation, but a diagram of theactivities of what the system described by the rootdefintion will do

conceptual models are used to structure enquiry into the

problem situation, notfor checking that the modelmatches the real world

the process of building root definitions and conceptualmodels is an iterative process of debate andmodification moving towards an agreed definition

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5.25

Conceptual models

Checkland & Scholes (1990)

assemble and structure the minimum necessaryactivities to carry out T

base this on logical contingency:

to convert raw materials into a finished product, you firstneed to obtain the raw materials

identify the monitor and control activities and theoperationalactivities

structure similar activities in groups together

use arrows to show logical contingency

See Avison & Fitzgerald (1995) pp 122-127 for someexamples

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5.26

Stages of SSM: 5. comparingconceptual models with perceived reality

this debate creates new perceptions of reality, suggestsnew relevant systems, and concentrates thought onpossible changes

use informal discussion, formal questioning, scenario

writing based on operating the models, trying to modelthe real world using the conceptual model

formal questioning supported by creation of a matrixcomparing activities in the model with the activities in thereal world

the aim is to compare the models with the real world tofind an accommodationbetween different interests in thesituation which is seen to be an improvementof theinitial problem situation

not a solution in the hard systems thinking sense

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5.27

Stages of SSM: stages 6 & 7

6. assessing feasible and desirable change

analysis of changes proposed in Stage 5 to createproposals for those considered feasible and desirable

may or may not involve the development of an informationsystem

7. action to improve the situation

recommend action to improve the situation

no methods described for implementing solutions:changes must be systemically desirable: truly relevant to thesituation

and culturally feasible: perceived as meaningful within the

particular culture and its world view

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5.28

SSM mode 2

Checkland and Scholes (1990)

two streams of structured enquiry unfold through timeinteractively:

- logic-based stream

- cultural analysis stream

the stream of cultural enquiry

- analysis of the intervention

- social system analysis- political system analysis

all three cultural analyses complement the logic-basedstream

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5.29

analysis of the intervention: Analysis One:

intervention in in a problem situation is itselfproblematical

useful to analyse roles in the study:

who has the role client: why have they requested theintervention?

who has the role would-be problem solver: theirperceptions, knowledge and readiness to makeresources available

who has the role problem owner:

SSM mode 2: cultural enquirystream

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5.30

social system analysis: Analysis Two:

uses a model of a social system as a continually changinginteraction between three elements:

roles, norms, and values

role: a social position recognised as significant, e.g.team captain

norm: characterises a role, e.g. expected behaviours

value: used to judge performance of a role, e.g.beliefs about what is good and bad behaviour

(the engineering company example)

the account of the social system will never be complete or

static

SSM mode 2: cultural enquirystream

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5.32

Checkland and Scholes (1990) suggest:

develop an information flow model

define information categories and data structures

design of an information system

SSM could enrich the information requirementsdefinition steps of other methodologies

SSM and information systems

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5.33

for fuzzy, ill-structured problem situations

for problem exploration

not prescriptive or technique-oriented

action research oriented: experience in use of SSMhelps to refine the methodology

used in different ways by different users in differentcircumstances

is it just a front end?

practicality? Is it too vague?

is it just consensus seeking?


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5.34

SSM: criticisms

too subjective:

- all viewpoints are considered equally valid

- ignores political and social structures conditioning peoplesviews

- ignores power relationships that constrain peoples actions

assumes improvement can occur just by changing

peoples views without changing the social structures thatshape our views

ignores issues of conflict and coercion and the difficulties

of avoiding superficial consensus

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5.35

SSM: criticisms

exploration of world views should be an ongoing process,posing difficulties in practical situations of moving fromabstract debate to pragmatic problem solving

e.g. Flood and Jackson (1991) p. 189

argue that SSM resolves this difficulty by merely leavingclosure of the debate to the prevailing power

structures as reflected in the dominant culture of theorganisation

Flood, R.L. and Jackson, M.C. (1991) Creative ProblemSolving: Total Systems Intervention. Wiley, Chichester

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5 36

References

Prescribed text:

Avison, D.E. & Fitzgerald, G. (2003). Information SystemsDevelopment: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools. (3rd

ed), McGraw-Hill, London.

Chapters 4.1, 10.1-10.3, 24.1

Checkland, P.B. and Scholes, J. (1990). Soft Systems

Methodology in Action. Wiley, Chichester.

Refer to additional references in the readings at the unit web pageand in the prescribed text

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