318 chapter 12 art traditions from around the world · 318 chapter 12 art traditions from around...

318 CHAPTER 12 Art Traditions from Around the World

� FIGURE 12.1 This complex sculpture, composed of curved forms and intricate patterns, is only 121/4 � tall.Observe closely the precise detail and craft that went into the making of this elegant art object. Describe thetype of balance that organizes this object.

Kashmir or Northern Pakistan. Crowned Buddha Shakyamuni. Eighth century. Brass with inlays of copper, silver, and zinc.Height: 31.1 cm (121�4”). Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection. Asia Society: New York.

Figure 12.1 is an ancientobject of worship from

Kashmir or Northern Pakistan.The subject is Buddha Shakyamuni, spir-itual leader of the Shakya clan of Buddhism. His hands are positioned inthe gesture of teaching as he sits peacefully on a lotus flower risingabove the water on a thick stem.To the right and left of the base aresmall female and male figures. Art historians believe that these figuresrepresent the donors of the sculpture.

Compare and Contrast. Compare the Buddha Shakyamuni to a religious sculpture from another culture and time (Figure 13.5, page 354.)What similarities and differences can you find in the style and theme of the two works?

Art is more than just objects and images. It is a visual

story of a people and their culture. It reveals their

feelings, views, and beliefs. In a sense, art history mirrors

the history of the world. It is a window on the past and

the many cultures that enrich our lives.

In this chapter, you will:

Describe general characteristics in artworks from a

variety of cultures.

Compare and contrast historical styles, identifying

trends and themes.

Describe art traditions from cultures around the

world.

CHAPTER 12Art Traditionsfrom Around theWorld

319

LESSON 1

Art of Earliest TimesThe artworks produced many thousands of years ago tell us a great deal

about the earliest cultures and civilizations of our world. These ancientpeople left no written records. What we know of them has been learned from the objects and the art that they left behind.

Prehistoric ArtPrehistoric means before history, or before written records were kept. The

objects made by people during this period are all that remain to tell us aboutthe people who lived long ago.

Figure 12.2 is one of many cave paintings left by cave dwellers in Europeduring the Paleolithic period. The Paleolithic (pay-lee-oh-lith-ik) period,or Old Stone Age, began about two million years ago, and ended with the close of thelast ice age about 13,000 B.C. It was a time when people began using stone tools.In these cave paintings, the colors are so bright and the animals so realisticthat, for a long time, scholars refused to believe they had been created byprehistoric people.

To this day no one knows the purpose of the paintings. Found deep inside caves, far from the entrances and living areas, they probably were notcreated for decoration. Some scholars believe the paintings were part of ahunting ritual. A shaman, or medicine man, may have created the image ofthe animal, believing that it would help hunters capture the animal. Thepaintings may also have been visual prayers for animals to appear during thenext hunt. According to another theory, cave dwellers created the paintingsto celebrate a successful hunt.

Vocabulary

Paleolithic periodNeolithic periodmegalithscuneiformzigguratspharaohsdynasty


� FIGURE 12.2 An amateurarchaeologist excavated in this low-roofed cave for four years.One day his daughter, who wassmall enough to stand up straightin the cave and look up, discoveredthese paintings of sleeping,galloping, and crouching animals.

The Hall of the Bulls. c. 15,000 B.C.Altamira Caves, Spain.

As prehistoric peoples learned to herdanimals and grow crops, they alsolearned to live in harmony with theirsurroundings. This peaceful balance wasupset by population growth. Smalltribes began to fight over grazing landand soil suitable for growing crops. Theywere forced to band together into moreorganized groups for protection and alsoto be able to produce more food. Byaround 3000 B.C. four major civiliza-tions had developed at different pointson the globe. The ancient civilizations ofMesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Chinaemerged at this time.

Ancient River ValleysThe ancient civilizations of Meso-

potamia, Egypt, India, and China, arereferred to as river valley civilizations.Each of these civilizations was ruled bya monarchy, practiced a religion basedon nature, and achieved great skill in artand architecture.

MesopotamiaThe area of Mesopotamia included the

cultures of many people within an exten-sive region. The region was the fertilecrescent of land between the Tigris andEuphrates rivers in the Middle East. Thepeople lived in city-states, and each citywas ruled by a monarch. Today, this landis shared by Syria and Iraq.

The Sumerians were the first domi-nant group in the area. They were thefirst people to have a system of writing(using symbols to represent spoken lan-guage). Cuneiform (kyoo-nee-uh-form) was the Sumerian writing systemmade up of wedge-shaped characters. Thesecharacters stood for concepts and ideas.Because paper was not yet developed,clay tablets were used. Some of thesestill exist.

LESSON 1 Art of Earliest Times 321

Prehistoric BuildersEventually prehistoric people moved

out of caves and began constructingtheir own shelters. Small communitiesdeveloped, and some hunters gave uptheir nomadic life and settled down,becoming farmers. After some time,small tribal groups grew into organizedvillages surrounded by cultivated fieldsand domesticated animals.

During the Neolithic period, peoplebuilt structures of stone. The Neolithic(nee-uh-lith-ik) period, or New StoneAge, is a prehistoric period stretching roughlyfrom 7000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. During thistime, humans developed agriculture,and stone tools were refined. Ancientstructures from this period, called mega-liths, have been found throughoutEurope, Asia, and even North America.Megaliths (meg-uh-liths) are largemonuments created from huge stone slabs.As early as 4000 B.C., circular arrange-ments of huge, rough-hewn stones werecreated in Western Europe. The mostfamous of these is Stonehenge in Eng-land. Built around 2000 B.C., it consistsof a series of four concentric rings.Builders used an ancient buildingmethod that we now call post-and-lintelconstruction. Upright slabs, called posts,support horizontal slabs, called lintels.More than half of the original stonesstill stand. The tallest measures 17 feetand weighs more than 50 tons. Scholarsare uncertain how prehistoric people,working with primitive tools, were ableto cut these huge stones, transport themmany miles, and then raise them intoposition. The purpose of Stonehengehas also baffled scholars for many cen-turies. In the past, people believed agreat magician created it. Today, Stone-henge is thought to have served as akind of observatory, enabling people topractice a type of astronomy and serveas an accurate calendar.


Sumerian artists depicted figures in alifelike and realistic way. Look at Figure12.3. This small sculpture shows precisedetails of dress and facial features.Sumerians also built structures knownas ziggurats (zig-uh-rats), or steppedmountains made of brick-covered earth (Figure 12.4). These temples had exte-rior staircases. A temple honoring thegod of the city was placed at the top.Does it resemble other buildings thatyou have seen?

In time, the Sumerian civilizationmerged with that of Akkad, its northernneighbor, giving rise to the civilizationof Babylonia (around 750 B.C.). Baby-lonian art and architecture resembledSumerian to a great extent. AnotherMesopotamian civilization, calledAssyria, emerged after the decline ofBabylonia. A distinct Assyrian artisticstyle began to emerge around 1500 B.C.Assyrian artists created precise, detailedstone reliefs, which they painted usingmany colors. They depicted royalevents, hunts, wars, and animals, espe-cially horses and lions. Human figureswere given less emphasis, although theywere still depicted in a realistic anddetailed way.

� FIGURE 12.3 This figurewas placed in the temple torepresent the worshiper. Thewide eyes, hands folded inprayer, and attention to detailare typical of Sumeriansculpture.

Statua di Donna. c. 2700–2600 B.C.Marble. The Iraq Museum,Baghdad, Iraq.

� FIGURE 12.4 A templehonoring the god of the citywas placed at the top of theziggurat. This structure wasbuilt in 2100 B.C. What otherart and architecture wasbeing created throughout theworld at that time?

Ziggurat. Ur, Iraq. c. 2100 B.C.


EgyptThe culture of ancient Egypt devel-

oped along the banks of the Nile Rivermore than 3,000 years before the birthof Christ. Religion influenced every partof Egyptian life. The pharaohs, or Egypt-ian rulers, were worshiped as gods and heldcomplete authority over the kingdom. Egyp-tians believed in life after death and pre-served the bodies of the pharaohs inpreparation for the afterlife. The famouspyramids were built as the tombs of thepharaohs.

Egyptian artists decorated templesand tombs according to very strict rulesset forth by the priests. The rulesrequired that each part of the body beshown from the most visible angle.Look at Figure 12.5. The heads, arms,legs, and feet are shown in profile. Theshoulders and eyes, however, are shownfrom a frontal view.

The paintings found on the wallsinside the tombs reveal a great deal aboutlife in Egypt. Scenes from the life of theperson buried in the tomb were intendedto remind the spirit of life on earth.

IndiaIn the Indus River Valley, the ancient

civilization of India arose. Only inrecent times have historians realized theage of Indian culture. For many cen-turies, no one knew that a civilizationhad flourished on the banks of theIndus River in northwest India. Then in1865, railroad workers uncovered a hillof crumbling, fired-clay bricks near thecity of Harappa (in present-day Pak-istan). The bricks were found to bethousands of years old, dating back to2500 B.C.

In 1922, a second city was discoveredin the same area. Called Mohenjo-Daro(moh-hen-joh dahr-oh), meaning “Hillof the Dead” (Figure 12.6), the city was

� FIGURE 12.5What symbols orfeatures make thesefigures seemimportant? Observethe shapes in theboxes along the topborder. These arehieroglyphs, an earlyform of picturewriting. They giveinformation aboutthe painted scene.

Egyptian. The GoddessHathor Places the MagicCollar on Sethos I.Thebes, NineteenthDynasty. c. 1303–1290B.C. Painted bas-relief.226.5 cm (891�8�). TheLouvre, Paris, France.

� FIGURE 12.6 Experts believe the city of Mohenjo-Daro wasabandoned because the climate changed. The ancient Indians built withfire-baked bricks, which meant they had ready access to timber. Thearea is a desert today.

Mohenjo-Daro, India. c. 2500 B.C.


once home to about 35,000 people.Architectural remains indicate that itserved as a major commercial center.Wide, open streets divided the city intolarge blocks. The city featured multi-storied houses made from fired brickand wood, and elaborate, sophisticateddrainage systems.

At this archeological site, workers discovered a number of small reliefcarvings in soapstone (Figure 12.7).These carvings are the earliest knownexamples of Indian art. As you can see,several unusual lines and shapes areincised above the animals. These arecharacters from the ancient Harappansystem of writing.

Over 70 cities, towns, and villageshave been discovered in the Indus val-ley, as well as evidence of an organizedkingdom with a central governmentthat existed about 4,500 years ago.

ChinaThe Yellow River valley became the

site of the ancient Chinese civilization, a civilization that retains many of itsancient traditions today. Beginning4,000 years ago, it is the oldest continu-ous culture in the history of the world.

As their civilization developed, theChinese gained skill and knowledge inmany different areas. They inventedpaper, porcelain (a type of ceramic), and

� FIGURE 12.7 The designs on these seals “belonged” to their owners. Seals were pressedinto soft clay to secure a container or document.

Soapstone seals from Mohenjo-Daro (Indus Valley culture). Karachi Museum, Karachi, Pakistan.


woodblock printing as well as the com-pass and gunpowder. Until moderntimes, emperors ruled China. Its histori-cal periods were divided into dynasties,which were named after ruling families.A dynasty is a period of time during whicha single family provided a succession ofrulers. Bronze vessels found in ancientgraves reveal that Chinese artisans castbronze as early as the first imperial Chi-nese dynasty, the Shang dynasty, whichbegan in 1766 B.C. The ritual wine ves-sel shown in Figure 12.8 is an exampleof the intricate work done at that time.Abstract motifs and spirals cover thevessel. Experts believe the spirals standfor clouds, rain, or water. Such imagesreveal an ancient Chinese regard fornature. Many early bronze vessels showextraordinary technical mastery—

evidence of the centuries of develop-ment required before such artworkscould be created.

AnalyzingAncient Art

Selecting and AnalyzingExhibitions. Research exhibitions ofancient art online or at art museums inyour community. Select early artworksfrom the cultures listed in this lesson.Analyze the exhibitions to form conclu-sions about formal qualities, or how thesecultures used the elements and principlesof art. Also, form conclusions about his-torical and cultural contexts.What wasthe role or significance of the artworksor art objects in these ancient cultures?

Check Your Understanding

1. For what purpose might cave paint-ings have been created?

2. What is a ziggurat?3. Why and for whom were the pyra-

mids built?4. Define the word dynasty.5. Describe general characteristics of

artworks from the Paleolithic period,Ancient Egypt, and Ancient China.

� FIGURE 12.8 This vesselwas used in a ceremony toensure harmony with thespirits of deceased ancestors.Notice the large eyes and beakof an owl on the lower part ofthe vessel. Can you find otheranimals in the designs thatcover this container?

Ancient China. Ritual Wine Container.Shang dynasty. Thirteenth centuryB.C. Bronze. 30.1 � 12.2 � 12.5 cm(117�8� 43�4 � 47�8�). Arthur M.Sackler Gallery, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, D.C. Gift of Arthur M. Sackler, s1987.23a-b.

LESSON 2

Art of Asia and the Middle EastThe cultures of India, China, Japan, and the Middle East have all produced

exciting art forms, some very different from European art. The art of Asiaand the Middle East reflects different philosophies and religious beliefs fromthose in Western art.

IndiaThe art of India has been strongly influenced by the Hindu and Buddhist

religions. Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions. It began in ancientIndia around 2000 B.C. It is not one religion but a group of many relatedsects. Buddhism began as a Hindu reform movement, and had a strong influence over the country from the third century B.C. to the sixth centuryA.D. Among the earliest, and most important, examples of modern Indianarchitecture are stupas (stoop-uhs), which are beehive-shaped domed places ofworship. These were built by Buddhist architects to house relics of Buddha,their religion’s founder. Each stupa was reached through four gates coveredwith relief sculptures (Figure 12.9).

After the fifth century, Hinduism rose again in popularity because it wasencouraged by the monarchs of the period. Hindu temples and sculptures ofthe Hindu gods were created. Hinduism combined several different beliefsand practices that developed over a long period of time. In Hinduism thereare three primary processes in life and in the universe: creation, preserva-tion, and destruction. The three main Hindu gods reflect this belief system.

Vocabulary

stupasscrollpagodawoodblock printingmosques


� FIGURE 12.9 Domes such as this wereoften erected over holy places, burial mounds,and holy relics. What is the purpose ofpreserving such things?

Great Stupa. Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India. c. first century B.C.

LESSON 2 Art of Asia and the Middle East 327

They are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu,the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer (Figure 12.10). In Hinduism, bothhumans and animals are believed tohave souls that undergo reincarnation.Reincarnation is a purification process inwhich the soul lives in many bodies inmany lifetimes until it becomes one withBrahma, the great soul.

India exported its religions to the restof Asia. In Cambodia many templeswere built of stone in the Indian style.The temple at Angkor Wat (Figure12.11) was originally a Hindu templebuilt between A.D. 1113 and 1150. Dedi-cated to Vishnu by its builder, it repre-sents the Hindu view of the universe.

� FIGURE 12.11 The layoutof this temple was designed tocreate a solar calendar by whichthe summer and winter solsticesand the spring and fall equinoxescould be fixed. Why was thisimportant in an agriculturalsociety?

Southeast Asia. Temple at Angkor Wat,Cambodia. 1113–50.

� FIGURE 12.10 TheHindu god Siva is called theDestroyer. This sculpture isrich in symbolism. Noticewhat the figure is standing on. The objects he holds are a drum that symbolizes creation and a flame that symbolizes destruction. How isdestruction related tocreation?

Unknown, India, Tamil Nadu. Siva as Lord of the Dance. c. 950.Copper alloy. 76.2 � 57.1 �17.8 cm (30 � 221�2 � 7�). Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California,given anonymously.

ChinaChina adopted Buddhism during the

Han Dynasty, which lasted from 206B.C. to A.D. 220. Buddhism was easilyadopted in China because, like otherChinese religions, it stressed the har-mony of human beings with nature. Animportant part of Buddhism is medita-tion, focusing one’s thoughts on a singleobject or idea. Chinese artists found thatlong periods of meditation enabledthem to perceive the beauty of an object or a scene with greater clarity.This enabled them to more effectively

capture the beauty of the subject intheir paintings. Chinese art of the last2,000 years has been greatly influencedby Buddhism and meditation.

The Chinese were the first people toconsider “picture painting” a valuableendeavor. This was because many artistswere also scholars who wrote poems inbeautiful writing (called calligraphy)using brushes that could make thick andthin lines. They used these samebrushes and line techniques to paintpictures.


They painted fans, pages of books,and scrolls (Figure 12.12). A scroll is along roll of parchment or silk. Some werehung on walls, while others were meantto be unrolled a little at a time and readlike a book.

The earliest Chinese paintings werefilled with images illustrating the beliefsthat people should live together peace-fully and be respectful of their elders.With the influence of a new religion,Buddhism, the focus of painting beganto shift away from humans and towardnature. By around A.D. 1100, the land-scape was the main theme of Chinesepainting.

The Chinese also produced sculpturefor religious purposes and to honor thedead. During the Sung (soong) Dynasty(A.D. 960–1279), artists first producedceramic objects of porcelain made froma fine-grained white clay called kaolin(kay-uh-luhn). Work in porcelainreached its highest point during theMing Dynasty (A.D. 1368–1644). Today,collectors especially prize porcelain fromthis dynasty (see Figure 5.4, page 99).

JapanIn A.D. 552 the ruler of a kingdom in

nearby Korea sent the Emperor of Japana gift. The gift was a bronze figure of theBuddha, the founder of Buddhism.Along with the sculpture came priests tospread Buddhist teachings. Eventuallymany of the people of Japan acceptedthis new religion. They also learnedabout new styles of art. For the next 250 years, Japanese art would showstrong traces of Korean, Chinese, andother Asian styles.

The first important Japanese artobjects of “modern times” were startedin A.D. 594. These were magnificentBuddhist temples that were builtthroughout the country. Since theislands of Japan are made of volcanicrock, the Japanese could not use stoneto build their temples. Instead, they

� FIGURE 12.12 Notice how small the people are inrelation to the landscape. The hut blends in with the naturalsetting. The calligraphy bordering the drawing is an importantpart of the picture. Notice how it echoes the shapes of the leaves. How might the calligraphy be part of the“conversation”?

Hua Yen. Conversation in Autumn. 1762. Ink and color on paper. 115.3 �39.7 cm (453⁄8 � 155⁄8�). The Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio.The John L. Severance Fund.


made them from wood. In the process,they elevated the architecture ofwooden structures to new levels.

Japanese temples are intricatelyassembled and richly decorated. Theyare carefully fitted together with specialjoints. Because Japan suffers frequentearthquakes and violent storms, thebuildings had to be durable. One of themost interesting features of early Japan-ese temples was the pagoda (puh-gohd-uh). This is a tower several storieshigh with roofs curving slightly upward atthe edges (Figure 12.13).

The Japanese also created monumen-tal sculptures, often of the Buddha.Such a sculpture can be seen in Figure12.14, the Great Buddha at Kamakura.It was cast in bronze in A.D. 1252. It issituated outdoors in a grove of trees,which seems an appropriate setting forthis contemplative Buddha.

� FIGURE 12.13 This pagoda stands as the oldest woodenstructure in the world. Its purpose is to preserve relics.

Pagoda from the Temple Complex at Horyuji, near Nara, Japan. c. A.D. 616.

� FIGURE 12.14 The Great Buddha wasonce housed in a temple, but the temple wasdestroyed by a tidal wave. What effect doesits current location have on this artwork?

Great Buddha. 1252. Bronze. Height: 10.68 m (35’).Kamakura, Japan.

Hokusai was an artist who changed his name as often as he changed resi-

dences. At the age of 37, he began to call himself Hokusai, the name he is

known by today. He often combined it with other names. The most unusual one

was Gakyojin Hokusai: A Man Mad About Painting, Hokusai.

In eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Japan, printmakers specialized

in one area of the printing process. They were designers, woodcarvers, or print-

ers. Artisans did not usually cross from one skill to another. Hokusai, however,

mastered all the skills. In 1831, he published the landscape series Thirty-six Views

of Mount Fuji, using the Zen Hokusai Iitsu name. In 1833, three major print series

were published: A Tour of Japanese Waterfalls; Imagery of the Poets; and his Nature

series, which included flowers, birds, and insects. In 1834, Rare Views of Famous

Bridges, a series of 11 prints, was published.

Hokusai had endless energy, a tremendous ego, a restless imagination, and

extraordinary talent. In fact, he produced most of his masterpieces after the age

of 70. On his deathbed he begged for ten more years of life so that he could

become a true artist.


In A.D. 784, Japan entered its goldenage of art. During this period, Japaneseartists developed a painting style calledYamato-e (yah-mah-toh-ay), or “picturesin the Japanese manner.” Paintings donein this style were the first examples ofpure Japanese art, meaning that they didnot show the influence of other Asiancultures. Yamato-e screen paintingswere often made in sections and wereused to brighten the dimly lit interiors oftemples and homes as a temporary wallto divide a room.

Another new Japanese style of artwas called Ukiyo-e (oo-kee-yoh-ay),meaning “pictures of the floatingworld,” which depict different aspects of the pleasures of life. The demand forartworks in this new style was great. Tomeet this demand, artists turned to anew technique, woodblock printing.This is making prints by carving images inblocks of wood. Using this technique,artists could produce many inexpensiveprints of one image (Figure 12.15).

� FIGURE 12.15 Thegust of wind blows away the papers and clothing ofthe human figures. MountFuji stands white and stable,unmoved by the wind or the human drama.

Katsushika Hokusai. Ejiri inSuruga Province, from Thirty-sixViews of Mt. Fuji. 24.6 � 37.9 cm(92�3 � 15�). Honolulu Academyof Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii. JamesA. Michener Collection, 1991.

MEET THE ARTISTKATSUSHIKA

HOKUSAI

Japanese, 1760–1849

Attributed to Hokusai. Portrait ofHokusai as an Old Man. HonoluluAcademy of Arts, Honolulu, Hawaii.


Art of IslamIn A.D. 570, an event took place that

had a major effect on both the religiousbeliefs and the art of the Middle Eastand much of Asia. Muhammad wasborn in Mecca. He grew up and becamea merchant, following the tradition ofhis family. However, he believed hereceived personal revelations that chal-lenged him to change the religion of hispeople, the Arabs, who worshiped manyidols. Muhammad taught that there wasonly one god, called Allah. After hisdeath, his teachings were assembled intothe Koran, a holy scripture. Islam wasthe name given to the religious faith ofpeople who followed Muhammad. Wor-shippers are called Muslims.

Islamic art (art of the Muslim world)was characterized by the use of ornateline, shape, and pattern. The interior ofmosques, Muslim places of worship,were decorated with calligraphy, geo-metric patterns, and stylized plants andflowers. Art depicting people or ani-mals was not permitted in mosques.Such art was prohibited early in thehistory of the Islamic religion and wasmeant to prevent Muslims from wor-shiping images when they shouldinstead be worshiping the idea of Allah.

� FIGURE 12.16This building wasdesigned to be in harmony withthe surroundinggarden and pools.Notice the balanceand symmetry ofall the elements.What feeling doesthe building evoke?

Taj Mahal, gardenand pools. 1632–43.Agra, India.


1. What is a stupa?2. What medium did the Chinese often

paint on that could be hung on wallsor read like a book?

3. Compare and contrast the historicalstyles in Figure 12.12 on page 328and Figure 12.15 on page 330. Identify the general trends in art.

Book illustrators, however, were notlimited by the same restrictions. Theydepicted people and animals in everydayscenes. They filled their illustrations withbeautiful decorative patterns.

The religion of Islam, and its influ-ence on art, also spread to the East.Muslims conquered Delhi in India andconverted many Indians to Islam. Fig-ure 12.16 shows a famous building, theTaj Mahal, which was built by an IndianMuslim leader as a memorial to his wife.The building is an outstanding exampleof Islamic architecture and is consideredone of the most beautiful structures inthe world. The building emphasizes for-mal balance and harmony with its sur-roundings. Its cool marble walls andplacid lake evoke a response of serenityand tranquility in those who visit.

� FIGURE 12.17 The vertical lines on the face of thisfigure probably represent ornamental scars made to indicateancestry and to enhance physical beauty. How did the artistuse the principles of art in creating this portrait of a king?

Portrait of a King. Ife, Nigeria. Copper alloy. Eleventh–fifteenth century. H: 36.2 cm (141�4�). Museum of Mankind, London, England.

Throughout Africa, in both the past and the present—even within thecontext of modern nation-states—the visual arts are well integrated with

other art forms, including music, dance, and drama. The art of Africa was anintegral part of the daily lives and religious rituals of the people.

The Role of Art in African CulturesThe huge continent of Africa has a population of

millions that is sub-divided into about 1,000 culturalgroups. The peoples of Africa have long-established,highly developed cultures that have been producingsophisticated art forms for centuries. The arts are asvaried as the peoples.

Everything is made with great care, whether forrituals or everyday use. Art addresses not onlythe concerns of the living, their ancestors, andthose yet to be born, but also those of thespirits of nature. A great deal of African artemphasizes important events of life andforces of nature that influence the lives ofindividuals and communities.

Dominant themes in African artinclude birth and death; the roles ofmen, women, and children; coming ofage; sickness and healing; the importanceof food and water; and the human rela-tionship with nature. Artworks are oftenlinked to celebrations and rituals, bothnonreligious and sacred. Westerners arefascinated with objects from these cul-tures and have put them in museums. It isimportant to understand the original contextin which these objects were made and used.

LESSON 3

The Art of AfricaVocabulary

griots


These figures reveal proud profiles, with jutting chins and heads held highatop sturdy necks. Their bodies appearstraight and tall whether shown standing or seated upright on stallions(Figure 12.18). The figures representmembers of the well-outfitted and well-organized army described in an epic thatrecounts Sundiata’s life history.

LESSON 3 The Art of Africa 333

Ancient IfeFor the Yoruba (yaw-ruh-buh)people

of Nigeria, the city of Ife (ee-feh) is theplace where life and civilization began.Yoruba cities developed between theyears A.D. 800 and 1000. By A.D. 1100,artists of Ife had developed a highlyrefined, lifelike sculptural style to createportraits of the first Yoruba kings andqueens. The display of royal portraits,with their composed, balanced facialfeatures, added a sense of stability inperiods of political transition betweenrulers, or following the death of a ruler(Figure 12.17).

According to Yoruba beliefs, the worldconsists of two realms: the real worldthat can be seen and touched; and thesupernatural world of ancestors, godsand goddesses, and spirits. Works of artcreated for the real, or visible, worldtend to be realistic, whereas works of artcreated for the supernatural, or invisible,world tend to be more abstract.

As memorial portraits of Yoruba roy-alty, these sculptures celebrate the livesand accomplishments of individuals.Like Yoruba poems, which record familyhistory and personal deeds, theserefined works of art encourage livinggenerations to strive for perfection.They encourage the living to match orsurpass the cultural accomplishments ofprevious generations.

The Empire of MaliWorks of art made centuries ago in Ife

and elsewhere in West Africa documentthe rise of city-states throughout theregion. The terra-cotta sculptures ofcavalrymen and foot soldiers from theInland Niger Delta, near the ancient cityof Jenne, date back to the early thir-teenth century, when the empire ofMali was founded by a powerful mili-tary leader and king named Sundiata.

� FIGURE 12.18 Because wet clay is soft, artists can easily addtexture to the overall forms of clay sculptures. How many differentkinds of texture can you identify in this work?

Inland Delta Region, Mali. Equestrian figure. c. thirteenth century. Ceramic.70.5 cm (273⁄4�). National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution,Washington, D.C. Museum purchase, 86-12-2.


The strength of Sundiata’s great cav-alry and army of foot soldiers enabledhim to gain political power. Under hisleadership, the empire of Mali becameone of the largest and wealthiest king-doms the world has ever known. Theepic story of the rise of Sundiata ispassed on by griots (gree-oh), oral his-torians who are also musicians and perform-ers, throughout West Africa to this day.

The city of Jenne is the oldest city insub-Saharan Africa. In the art and archi-tecture from this city there is an empha-sis on vertical elements (Figure 12.19).This can be seen in the corner pinnaclesof house facades, which are made talland straight.

The sculpture shown in Figure 12.20,made by the Dogon (doh-gahn) peopleof Mali, conveys a sense of harmony andbalance. As images of the first man andwoman described in Dogon myths ofcreation, this sculpture serves as aninspiration to living generations. Thesefigures are seated on a stool with a circu-lar support that symbolizes the linkbetween the earth below and the spiritworld above. Carved from a single pieceof wood, the interlocking forms effec-tively convey Dogon ideas regarding theinterdependence of men and womenand their complementary social roles.

� FIGURE 12.19 This solidiron figure shows the strongvertical lines that characterizeMali sculpture.

Bamana peoples, Mali. Bamanairon figure. Iron, string, cowrieshells. Indiana University ArtMuseum, Bloomington, Indiana.Gift of Ernst Anspach.

� FIGURE 12.20 Notice that the proportions ofthese figures are expressive rather than realistic.

Seated Man and Woman. Dogon people, Mali. Wood. 76.2 cm(30�). Photograph © 1993 by the Barnes Foundation, MerionStation, Pennsylvania.

Here four social ranks are depicted.The king, or oba is placed in the centerand is the largest figure. The two chiefsare almost as large as the king. Twosword bearers, one a child, are evensmaller. Three tiny figures, one support-ing the king’s foot and two in the topcorners, represent the least powerfulmembers of the court.

The oba wears a patterned wrapper,or waist cloth, a six-ringed necklace,and sits side-saddle on a horse. In Benin culture, horses are symbols ofpolitical power.

The Asante KingdomThe Akan people lived in central

and coastal Ghana. In the first half ofthe eighteenth century, these peoplejoined together to form a powerful


The Kingdom of BeninThe Benin (buh-neen) kingdom, sit-

uated in what is now southern Nigeria,was a society of many class levels, withan oral tradition that goes back seven oreight centuries. The kingdom reachedthe peak of its power in the sixteenthcentury. Like earlier artists in nearby Ife,Benin artists excelled in creating metalsculptures using a copper alloy possess-ing many of the same qualities asbronze.

Among the most ambitious of theBenin castings are the high-relief sculp-tures that once covered the walls and pillars of the royal palace. One of thesecontains the figure of the oba (oh-bah),or king, flanked by two chiefs bearingshields, sword bearers, and palace atten-dants (Figure 12.21).

� FIGURE 12.21 In Benin artthe most politically powerful personis represented as the largest figure.This representation reflects thecentral organization of the kingdom.Less powerful individuals aresmaller.

Kingdom of Benin, Edo people, Nigeria.Mounted King with Attendants. c. sixteenth–

seventeenth century. Brass. 49.5 � 41.9� 11.3 cm (191⁄2 � 161⁄2 � 41⁄2�). TheMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York,New York. The Michael C. RockefellerMemorial Collection. Gift of Nelson A.Rockefeller, 1965. (1978.412.309)


� FIGURE 12.22 Works of art made using the lost-wax castingtechnique often show finely textured details. What elements of art areespecially important in this work?

Akan people, Asante Kingdom, Ghana. Necklace. Nineteenth century. Gold. 2.5 � 40 cm(1 � 153�4�). Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia. The Adolph D. andWilkins C. Williams Fund.

� FIGURE 12.23 Weavers ofKente cloth have invented manydifferent patterns. These patternsoften have names that areimmediately recognized bymembers of Akan societies. Whatelements of art have been used tocreate the patterns on this cloth?

Asante people, Ghana. Man’s cloth(Kente cloth). Rayon. L: 314 cm (1235⁄8�),W: 217 cm (857⁄16�). UCLA FowlerMuseum of Cultural History, Los Angeles,California. Anonymous gift.

confederation of states that includedmany cultural groups. The largest of thesegroups was the Asante (ah-sahn-tee).

Gold was the measure of wealth forthe Asante and their kings, who tightlycontrolled its use. Items fashionedfrom the precious metal were made tobe worn by these kings as a sign oftheir divine authority and absolutepower.

Asante necklaces, bracelets, andanklets were crafted by stringing cast-gold beads with gold nuggets, glass andstone beads, and other items. In Figure12.22, a pendant in the form of a landcrab is used. This necklace was probablydesigned for a queen mother, becausethe land crab was widely recognized bythe Asante as a symbol for a person ofthis rank.

The work of goldsmiths in Kumase,the Asante capital, was regulated by theking. He allowed people to commissionworks of art from these highly skilledcraftsmen. Items obtained through theking’s court included gold ornaments,staffs, and swords.


The Asante king also controlled theuse of special cloth. During the 1600s,weavers created the first Kente (ken-tee)cloth, a brilliantly colored and patternedfabric that became the royal cloth.Kente cloth is woven in narrow stripsthat are then stitched together to formlarge pieces with complex patterns (Figure 12.23). By the 1720s, Asanteweavers were unraveling imported silk fabrics and reweaving them intocloths featuring their own uniquedesigns. Silk cloths woven with specialsymbolic patterns were reserved exclu-sively for kings.

The Bwa PeopleAlthough wood is the most common

material used to carve face masks andheaddresses, African masks were con-structed in different ways using a widevariety of materials. For example, theBwa people of Burkina Faso made masksof leaves, plant fibers, porcupine quills,and feathers. Leaf masks were made atthe end of the dry season, before therains that marked the beginning of thenext agricultural cycle. The Bwa peopleconsidered leaf masks the most ancientmask form and closely associated themwith nature (Figure 12.24).

The Bwa people also produced woodenmasks that were used during village cere-monies or harvest festivals. The music offlutes, drums, and gongs accompaniedthe dancers wearing these masks, whichtook different forms—animal, human,and abstract. All were painted with black,white, and red geometric patterns. Plankmasks were among the most abstract ofall mask forms made by the Bwa people(Figure 12.25, page 338).

� FIGURE 12.24 African masks are generally more than just a facecovering. Imagine wearing a leaf mask like this one. How would you feel?

Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Boni. Detail of a leaf mask. 1985.


Constructing aMask

Demonstrating Effective Use ofMedia and Tools in Design. What happens when you cover your face with amask? Can you hide your identity fromothers? Design your own mask using thincardboard, construction paper, paint, orother media and tools. In choosing yourdesign and materials, think about whatyou want your mask to represent.


1. What beliefs are reflected in theterra-cotta and bronze sculptures ofthe Yoruba people?

2. What are griots?3. How do artists of the Benin kingdom

signify the importance of figures intheir artworks?

4. What is Kente cloth, and what is itused for?

5. Describe general characteristics ofsculptures from the Ife, Dogon, andEdo cultures of Africa.

� FIGURE 12.25 Though large and cumbersome, plank masks are made of lightweight wood. Tohelp steady the mask, the performer holds a stick between his teeth. This stick projects through rimholes at the back of the mask. What elements of art are emphasized in these masks?

Bwa people, Burkina Faso, village of Pa. Plank masks entering performance area, harvest celebration.

LESSON 4 Art of the Americas 339

Art of the Americas

Many archaeologists believe that the first visitors to North Americawere groups of Asian hunters who crossed an ancient land bridge

across the Bering Strait. They began to arrive in what is now Alaskabetween 20,000 and 40,000 years ago. Gradually these people spread out to cover all parts of North and South America. In this lesson, you will studythe contributions of Native peoples of the Americas.

Art of Mesoamerica and South AmericaThe term pre-Columbian refers to the time period before the arrival of

Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492. Art historians use the term torefer to the art of the Indian civilizations of early Mexico, Central America,and South America. However, archaeologists are discovering that many ofthese pre-Columbian civilizations were highly sophisticated and createdmagnificent works of art and architecture.

Olmec CultureOlmec (ol-mek) culture is often called

the “mother culture” of Mexico becausethe artifacts found in the region are themost ancient. The Olmec civilization datesfrom 1200 B.C. to A.D. 500. The artifactsleft by the Olmec had an influence on all the civilizations that were to follow.They carved altars, pillars, sarcophagi(sahr-kah-fuh-guy) (stone coffins), andstatues. Among the most interesting of the Olmec creations are four hugehuman heads carved from volcanic rock(Figure 12.26). These were discovered at La Venta, a center for religious cere-monies. These sculptures weigh up to 40 tons and stand 8 feet tall. Notice thechildlike features on this giant face. Thefull lips, which seem almost to be pout-ing, are typical of the Olmec style.

LESSON 4

Vocabulary

pre-Columbiantotem poles

� FIGURE 12.26 This monumental sculpturedepicts a simple, stylized face. The stone was quarriedand transported over many miles of swamplandbefore reaching its destination. What does thisindicate about the technology of the Olmec people?

Olmec. Colossal Head. 1200 B.C.–A.D. 500. Basalt. 243.8 cm(8�) high. Anthropology Museum, Veracruz, Mexico.


Mayan CultureBy around A.D. 800 the Mayan

(my-uhn) empire covered the Yucatánpeninsula, modern Belize, Guatemala,and Honduras. The Maya were giftedmathematicians. They had the mostaccurate calendar of any people in history and had developed the mostadvanced hieroglyphic writing inMesoamerica. They were also greatbuilders. The Maya erected huge tem-ples and cities with tools of wood, stone,and bone. In the late 1800s, scientistsdiscovered an ancient city in northernGuatemala. This Mayan city, Tikal (tih-kahl), is known to have covered anarea of 50 square miles. The city isthought to have been home to some55,000 people (Figure 12.27).

The surviving works of Mayan civi-lization range from the smallest objectsto great temples covered with reliefcarvings. Among the smallest artworksof the Maya are many beautifullydesigned clay figures only a few incheshigh. However, most of the Mayansculpture that has survived consists ofrelief carvings on buildings and monu-ments. In the early stages of the Mayancivilization, these carvings were mostlysimple and realistic. In some later tem-ples, a more complex, geometric stylecame to be the rule.

Aztec CultureThe largest of the cultures of ancient

Mexico and Central America was theAztec. This civilization emerged sometimebetween A.D 1200 and 1325. The Aztecswere a warlike people. Like other pre-Columbian peoples, they were very reli-gious. When their god told them to leavetheir comfortable homeland and settlewhere they saw an eagle perched on acactus, they obeyed. There, they built amagnificent city, which they calledTenochtitlán (tay-noch-teet-lahn). A col-lection of tiny islands, this Aztec city wasconnected by a network of canals. In thefifteenth century, the Aztecs embarkedon an aggressive military campaign toforce other groups in Mexico to pay themtribute. They reached the height of theirpower and domination less than a cen-tury before the arrival of the Spanish. Bythe time Spanish conquerors arrived in1519, their island city covered over 25square miles. Today we know the city,which is no longer surrounded by water,as Mexico City.

The Aztecs adopted many of the waysof making art from the people they con-quered. They created a type of paintedbook called a codex. Such painted bookstold the stories of mythological or his-torical events. Like Mayan art, Aztec artwas greatly influenced by religion.

� FIGURE 12.27The Mayan cityTikal includedtemples and otherstone and stuccostructures. Thepyramids here are230 feet high.

Maya. Great Plaza ofTikal, general view.A.D. 150–700. Tikal,Guatemala. Vanni/ArtResource, New York.

The Incas were masters of shapingand fitting stone. They were also highlyskilled urban planners. Proof of both tal-ents can be found in the walled city ofMachu-Picchu (mahch-oo peek-choo)(Figure 12.28). The stones of its build-ings were so carefully matched that aknife blade cannot be slipped betweenany two.

Native American ArtWhen Christopher Columbus reached

North America in 1492, he thought hisship had landed on the east coast ofIndia. He referred to the natives hefound living there as Indians. Todaythese first settlers are called NativeAmericans.

Some groups became hunters whileothers turned to growing crops as a wayto survive. Artifacts found in theseregions show that all of these peoplecreated art of some kind. These workshave given us insight into the culturesof these peoples. Native American artand traditions are still being practicedtoday by these cultural groups.


The Aztecs also built temples andshrines, some carved directly into themountains. Highly stylized and elabo-rately ornamented sculptures depictedgods and religious symbols in bold, dramatic style.

Inca EmpireThe Inca civilization flourished

between the thirteenth and fifteenthcenturies, and their empire stretchedmore than 2,500 miles from north tosouth. It included present-day Peru plusparts of Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, andBolivia. In acquiring such a large terri-tory, the Inca Empire absorbed manycultural and religious influences fromneighboring groups and from civiliza-tions that had flourished before it.Although governing such an immenseterritory required a vast administrationand bureaucracy, the Incas managed togovern without the benefit of a writtenlanguage. They made calculations andkept records using pieces of knottedstring of different colors, called quipu(kee-poo). The Incas’ ability with numbers is reflected in their art. Incaartifacts were made with great mathe-matical precision.

� FIGURE 12.28Machu-Picchu was built on amountainside todiscourage would-be attackers. Thecity has withstoodfive centuries ofearthquakes.

Machu-Picchu, Peru.


The Arctic RegionThe Inuit (in-yuh-wuht) people

inhabited present-day Canada andAlaska from the earliest times. Althoughthey are often called Eskimos, they referto themselves as the Inuit.

Inuit society is loosely organized intofamily groups that rely on hunting andfishing for survival. The images createdby Inuit artists reveal the importanceattached to the animals they relied onfor food—seal, walrus, fish, whale, andcaribou. Other animals such as the fox,wolf, and bear were also represented intheir art. The human figure was shownin the masks and dolls that they created.

Figures are also found on the engrav-ings done on walrus ivory. In theseengravings, Inuit artists used a kind ofpictorial writing that described variousactivities and events associated with

everyday life. In one such engraving onan ivory pipestem, a series of livelydrawings record the activities associatedwith the daily quest for food. Since thesurface of this pipestem is less than oneinch wide, the engraving takes the formof tiny, decorative circles and miniaturefigures. Despite their small size, theartist still managed to present an easy-to-read account of the hunt. To accentthe engraved lines used in works likethis, artists filled them in with color ormade them dark with soot.

Frequently, Inuit art was created toserve the religious needs of the people.The mask representing a moon goddessin Figure 12.29 is an example. An Inuitshaman, or medicine man, wore such amask during ceremonial dances. Whiledancing, he would go into a trance andact as a messenger between the world ofthe living and the mysterious world ofspirits.

The Northwest Coast RegionThe Northwest Coast Region refers to

an area rich in natural resources thatruns from southern Alaska to northernCalifornia. Native cultural groups in thisregion, including the Haida (high-duh),Tlingit, and the Kwakiutl (kwa-kee-yoo-tul), developed a complex culturein which art played a prominent role.

Like other people, the Kwakiutl heldannual rituals to initiate new members,reinforce the status of old members, and

� FIGURE 12.29 A mask of this kind was wornonly by a shaman during ceremonial dances. Howdo you think the purpose of this mask is reflectedin its design? What feelings do you think the maskevoked in viewers?

Inuit. Mask of Moon Goddess. Lower Yukon or NorthwestBering Sea. Before 1900. 64.1 cm (251�4�) high. HearstMuseum of Anthropology, The University of California atBerkeley, Berkeley, California.


demonstrate their magical powers. Cer-emonial masks and dramatic costumeswere created for these rituals. Look atthe Secret Society Mask pictured in Fig-ure 10.27 on page 273. It is composed ofseveral hinged pieces that moved. Thismovement was intended to add surpriseand drama to the ritual. Often after aKwakiutl ceremony, or to celebrateanother important event, people gath-ered to enjoy a potlatch. This eventenabled the members of one clan tohonor those of another, while adding totheir own prestige.

Native Americans of the NorthwestCoast lived in large family groups. Eachfamily group traced descent from amythological animal or human-animal,from which they took their name. Inorder to symbolize their association withthis mythic ancestor, they carved totempoles. Totem poles are tall posts carvedand painted with a series of animal symbolsassociated with a particular family or clan(Figure 12.30).

The Southwest RegionThe Native American groups of the

southwestern United States include thePueblo (pweb-loh) and the Navajo(nav-uh-hoh). Early Spanish explorersused the term pueblo, meaning village, todescribe groups of people living in large,highly organized settlements. AncientPueblo dwellings were built with adobe,or sun-dried clay, walls.

The Pueblo were especially skillful increating painted pottery. Each communitydeveloped its own distinctive shapes andpainted designs. In the Rio Grande Valleyof New Mexico, for example, Pueblo pot-ters used black outlines and geometricshapes to create bold designs over acream-colored base (Figure 12.31).

� FIGURE 12.30 Totem poles aresimilar to a European family’s coat ofarms and were erected in front of adwelling as a means of identificationand a sign of prestige.

Haida totem pole. Prince of Wales Island. c.1870. Originally 16.2 m (53�) high. TaylorMuseum of the Colorado Springs Fine ArtsCenter, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

� FIGURE 12.31 The materialsand techniques used in this waterjar identify it as a Pueblo work.What elements of art can youidentify in this design?

Water jar. Santo Domingo Pueblo, NewMexico. 1910. Ceramic. 24.1 cm (91⁄2�)high � 24.45 cm (95⁄8�) diameter. DenverArt Museum, Denver, Colorado.


The Navajo, another Southwesterncultural group, learned the art of weavingfrom the Pueblo. Male Pueblo weaverstaught the Navajo weavers, who werewomen, to make cloth with looms at thebeginning of the eighteenth century. AsSpanish and Mexican settlers moved intothe Southwest, they introduced newdesigns and patterns, which the Navajoadopted. By the first half of the nine-teenth century, the Navajo were usingEuropean dyes and Spanish wool to create weavings that matched the workproduced by the best looms in Europe. A blanket once owned by the Civil Wargeneral Philip Sheridan (Figure 12.32)exhibits many of the qualities associatedwith the finest Navajo weavings. Theseinclude the closeness of the weave, rich,vibrant colors, and bold design.

Great Plains RegionThe Native Americans of the Great

Plains followed the huge herds of bisonthat roamed the broad grasslands ofcentral North America. The differentcultural groups of the Plains—includingBlackfeet, Crow, Cheyenne (shy-ann),and Sioux (soo)—were highly skilled inthe preparation of skins used for cloth-ing, footwear, shields, and various kindsof containers. These were then paintedor embroidered with porcupine quillsand, later, glass beads.

Because they were nomadic hunters,they created the tepee (tee-pee). Thiswas a portable shelter made of buffalohide stretched over poles that werelashed together in an upright position.The hides were covered with designssymbolizing the forces of nature andtelling stories of heroic events. At itsbase, a tepee could range anywherefrom 12 to 30 feet in diameter. A largetepee contained about as much space asa standard living room of today.

These artisans also created ceremonialheaddresses for chieftains, which wereworn during ritual dances. The elaborateheaddress shown in Figure 12.33 wascreated with natural materials found inthe surrounding environment.

� FIGURE 12.32 This saddle blanket, created foreveryday use, is now on display in a museum. Howare the principles of harmony and variety used inthis design? How is rhythm suggested?

Saddle blanket. Navajo weaving. c. 1890. Wool. 129.5 �83.8 cm (51 � 33�). Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado.


Sketching anEvent

Applying Your Skills. Native Americansof the Great Plains painted tales of theirbattles on skins. Look through a news-paper or magazine for coverage of animportant event in your city or in theworld. On a sheet of paper, sketch thestory behind the event.


1. What does the term pre-Columbianrefer to?

2. Which culture created huge headscarved from volcanic rock?

3. Which culture created the walled cityof Machu–Picchu?

4. What were totem poles used for?

� FIGURE 12.33 This feather bonnet was created for a ceremonialdance. Does the use of natural materialsseem to fit with the function?

Northwestern Plains people. Feather Bonnet. c.1890. Rooster hackles, wood rods, porcupinehair, ermine skins, horsehair, buckskin, glassbeads. 83.8 � 68.6 cm (33 � 27�). Buffalo BillHistorical Center, Cody, Wyoming. Chandler-Pohrt Collection.

Woodlands RegionThe Woodlands made up the largest

cultural group of Native Americans eastof the Mississippi River. The Woodlandspeople combined hunting and gatheringwith simple farming. The Iroquois (ear-uh-kwoi), made up of six differentWoodlands groups, combined to formthe highly organized Iroquois nation.

Expert wood carvers, the Iroquoiscreated wooden masks that were usu-ally painted and decorated with horsehair. The best known masks were cre-ated for a society of healers known asthe False Faces because of the masksthey wore. These False Face masks werethought to be sacred and representedthe spirits who gave healers the magicthey needed to treat illnesses. Becausethey were considered to be so powerful,these masks were hidden away whennot in use so they would not cause acci-dental injuries. The masks were consid-ered sacred and were not intended to beseen by nonbelievers.


� FIGURE 12.34

Jessie Oonark. Untitled. c. 1973. Duffle wool, felt, embroidery floss, and thread. 186 � 181 cm (731�4 � 711�4”). National Galleryof Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Gift of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 1989.

1 DESCRIBE What do you see?This is a clue collecting step.

What media were used to create this work? What is thesize of the work?

What objects and figures are shown in the work?

2 ANALYZE How is this work organized?In this step you will form conclusions about the formal qualities in this artwork.

What pattern emerges in the use of colors chosen forthis work?

What kind of balance has the artist used to organizethe hanging?

Describe the use of proportion.

How has the artist used harmony and variety to unifythis large work?

3 INTERPRET What is the artist trying tocommunicate?Combine the clues you have collected to form a creative interpretation of the work.

Do the people in this work appear to be inhabitants ofa large, modern city? If not, how would you describethem? Explain your reaction.

Why do you think the artist used proportion as she did?

The artist left this work untitled. Give it a title that fitsyour interpretation.

4 JUDGE What do you think of the work?Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgmentof the work.

Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why orwhy not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theories todefend your decision.

Jessie Oonark was bornnorthwest of Hudson Bay to anInuit family. She was taught tradi-tional Inuit beliefs and essentialskills: childcare, preparing skins,and making clothing. Afterbecoming a widow at age 40,Oonark fell on hard times.Thenext 19 years were filled withmany hardships. After being res-cued from near-starvation, shewas taken to a hospital at BakerLake. It was there that she dis-covered art. Her works aremostly wall hangings and printsbased on memories of her earlierlife. Her use of bold, flat areas ofcolor makes her style unique.

Critiquing the Artwork

Art Criticism in Action 347

Jessie Oonark(1906–1986)


Africa’s treasures are prized by collectors all over the world,but this popularity isn’t all good news.

or at least 2,000 years, various cultures in Africa have been creatingsculptures, busts, and masks from ivory, terra-cotta, soapstone, and

metals. The continent’s rich artistic output has long influenced Western artists including Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and Georges Braque.

African art is prized by collectors and museums for its intrinsic beauty andartistic merit. In fact, the art has become so valued that thieves have beenstealing grave markers, pottery, masks, and sculptures. Some of these itemsare being dug up from ancient burial sites in villages in East and WestAfrica. Other works are stolen from African museums. All are sold illegally to collectors in Europe and the United States. The pricetagfor the illegal African art trade: about $45 million each year.

Fighting BackNow Africans are fighting back. “These objects of art are the

relics of our history—why must we lose them?” asks OmotosoEluyemi, director general of Nigeria’s National Commission for Museums and Monuments. His group is in charge of maintaining Nigeria’s museums and landmarks.

Nigeria and other African countries, including Benin, Mali,and Kenya, are cutting down on the looting of an importantpart of Africa’s heritage. Now art dealers from around theworld are asking questions if someone is selling a piece ofancient African art. Villagers and police are on the lookoutfor thieves who are digging up art treasures. Governmentsare using the Internet to track down missingpieces of art. This has helped reduce the looting.That’s good news for the many Africans whowant to hold on to their art and cultural history.

TIME to Connect

Look at a map of Africa, choose one nation, and research a traditionalart form, dance form, type of music, or storytelling tradition. Use yourschool’s media center or the Internet for background information.

• Write a report reflecting the cultural importance of the art formto the tribe or the nation as a whole. Be sure to include the originsof the form, symbolism (if any), and how the form has evolvedover time.

• Share your report with the class. Are there any similarities ordifferences in the traditional forms of music, art, dance, andstorytelling from nation to nation? How can you explain thesesimilarities or differences?

A sixteenth-cen-tury bust of QueenIdia is one of the mostfamous images in African art.

SH

ER

IDE

N/A

AA

CO

LLE

CT

IONF

Chapter 12 Review 349

Building Vocabulary

On a separate sheet of paper, write the termthat best matches each definition given below.

1. Large monuments created from huge stoneslabs.

2. The Sumerian writing system made up ofwedge-shaped characters.

3. Stepped mountains made of brick-coveredearth.

4. Egyptian rulers who were worshiped asgods and held complete authority over thekingdom.

5. A period of time during which a singlefamily provided a succession of rulers.

6. Beehive-shaped domed places of worship.

7. A tower several stories high with roofscurving slightly upward at the edges.

8. Muslim places of worship.

9. Tall posts carved and painted with a seriesof animal symbols associated with a partic-ular family or clan.

Reviewing Art Facts

Answer the following questions using com-plete sentences.

10. During what time period did people beginto build structures of stone?

11. Describe the rules that Egyptian artistswere required to follow when painting orsculpting a relief figure.

12. What influenced the style of Chinese“picture painting”?

13. What art technique did Japanese artistsperfect to meet the demand for artworks?

14. Describe the differences between the artused in Islamic mosques and the art usedin Islamic book illustration.

15. What do the images created by Inuit artistsreveal about what they valued as a culture?

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW

Explore the classical and folktraditions of Korean musicand dance on page 424 of thePerforming Arts Handbook.

Understanding andappreciating the artsfrom many culturaltraditions enriches the

work of all artists. Art directors for film andtelevision often do extensive research into thecultural artifacts and art of the time periodand people being depicted in movies andshows.Visit art.glencoe.com to compareand contrast career opportunities in art.

ART

Linking to thePerforming Arts

Thinking Critically About Art

16. Explain. For what reasons did people ofAfrican and Native American cultures cre-ate art? How does this differ from morerecent European or American art that youfind in a museum?

17. Analyze. Visit art museums online or inyour community. Select and analyzeexhibitions of non-Western cultures toform conclusions about formal qualities,historical and cultural contexts, intents,and meanings.

18. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Reviewthe Meet the Artist feature on page 330.Compare Hokusai’s print in Figure 12.15to Figure 4.32 on page 92 by Hiroshige.Hiroshige was inspired by the work ofHokusai. By examining both works,determine one of the general trends inart during this historical time period.

318 chapter 12 art traditions from around the world · 318 chapter 12 art traditions from around...

Documents