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Page 1: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly

Immunity and How Vaccines Work

Kevin ConnollyKevin ConnollyWaterford, Aug. 25, 2016

Page 2: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly

Definitions

Antibody: immunoglobulin (Ig) produced mainly by plasma cells, which identifies and neutralises thpathogens

Antigen:  Anti(body) gen(erator):substance that can provoke an immune response

Epitope:. the specific piece of the antigen to which anEpitope:.  the specific piece of the antigen to which an antibody binds. 

H l l ti t fl idHumoral: relating to fluids

Immunity: resistance to infection (immunis = exempt, t t d)protected)

Innate – present from birth

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Immune System Overview

•Hematopoietic •Vasculature•Lymphatic

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Innate ‐ Surface Defenses

Skin: physical barrier to microbeskeratin resistant to bacterial enzymes & toxinssecretions are acidic Mucosa: physical barrierproduces a variety of protective chemicals

iGastric mucosa: physical barriervery acidic & produces proteolytic enzymes

Saliva tearsSaliva, tears contain lysozyme

Mucoustraps, moves bacteria away from epithelial surface

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Primary lymphoid organs:Where lymphocytes destined to become B and T cells 

maturematureBone marrow ‐ B cells mature Thymus ‐ T cells mature, migrate to secondaryThymus T cells mature, migrate to secondary 

lymphoid organs

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Secondary lymphoid organs: Sites where lymphocytes gather to encounter antigens 

Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoidsappendixpp

Situated to allow for initiation of immune response from nearly any place in bodyresponse from nearly any place in body

Page 8: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
Page 9: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
Page 10: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
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Inflammation

Figure 16.9a, b

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Inflammation

Figure 16.9c, d

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Phagocytosis

Figure 16.8a

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Page 16: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
Page 17: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
Page 18: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly
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Physical barriers Cellular responses Humoral responses(proteins, etc.)

Innate Immunity

Skin

MucosaeCytokine production

Epithelial cells Complement

Cytokines

(p , )

Gastric acid, Gut motility,Mucus, Sebum

Physical featuresy p

reactive oxygen/nitrogenFluid secretion

Antigen-presenting cells

FeverMalaise

Kupffer cellsLangerhans Cells

Dendritic CellsMacrophagesp g

PMNsMast Cells

Granulocytes

AdaptiveMast CellsEosinophils

Lymphocytes

Adaptive Immunity

NK cellsNK T cells

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Adaptive Immune System  

• Adaptive: responds to specific foreign substances

• Innate and adaptive mechanisms work togethertogether

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Types of Adaptive Immunity

Page 22: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly

Adaptive Immunity

Immune system adapts to previously unseen molecules

Induction by infection, vaccination 

Immune system mounts response 

Immune response must:Immune response must: 

Recognise micro‐organism as foreign 

Respond by producing specific antibodies, lymphocytes 

Mediate elimination of organismsg

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Innate Immunity Adaptive ImmunityPathogen recognized by receptors encoded in the germline Pathogen recognized by receptors generated randomly

Receptors have broad specificity, i.e., recognize many related molecular structures called PAMPs (pathogen‐associatedmolecular patterns)

Receptors have very narrow specificity; i.e., recognize a particular epitope of antigen

PAMPs are  polysaccharides and polynucleotides that differ little from one pathogen to another but are not found in the host.

Most epitopes are derived from polypeptides (proteins) and arespecific to each pathogenp g p p g

Receptors are PRRs (pattern recognition receptors) The receptors are B‐cell (BCR) and T‐cell (TCR) receptors for antigen

Immediate response Slow (3–5 days) response (need clones of responding cells to develop

Little or no memory of prior exposure Memory of prior exposure 

Occurs in all multicellular animals Occurs in vertebrates only

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Active Humoral Immunity

Naturally acquired: natural exposure to antigen (i.e. infection)

Artificially acquired: vaccines li d li (kill d f dlive attenuated, non‐live (killed or fragmented pathogen injected to elicit an immune response

Primary response (immunity without disease)Secondary response (boosters) intensifySecondary response (boosters) ‐ intensify 

response

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Specific Memory and Adaptive ResponseSpecific Memory and Adaptive Response

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Adaptive Defenses: ComponentsAdaptive Defenses: Components

Humoral Immunity: provided by antibodies in b d fl idbody fluids

Cell mediated immunity: lymphocytes directly attack specific invaders by lysis or indirectlyattack specific invaders by lysis or indirectly by initiating inflammation and activating other lymphocytes and macrophages

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Adaptive System: Cells

Lymphocytes: initially uncommittedT‐cells: sorted in the Thymusy

manage the immune response B‐cells: sorted in the marrow

Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)

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Functions of TH CellsH

Orchestrate immune responsep• Recognize antigen presented by APC• If TH cell recognizes antigen, cytokines are deliveredC t ki ti t APC t d t ti• Cytokines activate APC to destroy antigen

Activate B cellActivate B cell

• If TH cell encounters B cell bearing antigenll d k• TH cell produces cytokines

• Cytokines activate B cell• B cell proliferatesB cell proliferates • Drives formation of B memory cells

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Adaptive Humoral Response 

B‐cells: Antigen challenge to naïve B‐cell

Antigen binds to B‐cell receptors Antigen ingested by B‐cellB cell presents antigen to T cellB cell presents antigen to T‐cellB cell produces antibody

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Adaptive Immune System: Cells

Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)Macrophages & B lymphocytesMacrophages & B lymphocytesIngest foreign materialPresent antigenic fragments on their cellPresent antigenic fragments on their cellFragments recognised by T‐cells.

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Innate Immunity can Trigger Adaptive Immunity

• Macrophages and dendritic cells "present" antigens to T cells

• This triggers cell‐ and humoral ‐mediated adaptive immune responses

• Interaction of PAMPs and TLRs on dendritic cells→ secrete cytokines → produc on of T cells

• B cells are also antigen‐presenting cells 

• Pathogens coated with C3 bind more strongly to B cells→ an body produc on occurs at• Pathogens coated with C3 bind more strongly to B cells → an body produc on occurs at doses of antigen far lower than would otherwise be needed

Note: Several vaccine adjuvants contain PAMPs→ s mulate innate immune systemNote: Several vaccine adjuvants contain PAMPs → s mulate innate immune system → enhances response of the adaptive immune system to the vaccine

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Antigen Presenting Cell

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Innate and Adaptive Immunity Work Together

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What is a Vaccine?What is a Vaccine?

• Biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease

• Contains antigen(s) that resembles a pathogeng ( ) p g

• Stimulates immune system to recognise antigen as foreign,

d d " b "destroy it, and "remember" it

• Pathogens later encountered cause memory response

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Live Attenuated Vaccines

Att t d " ild" i b t i• Attenuated "wild" virus or bacterium• Can replicate – immune response is similar to natural infection• Usually effective with one dose• Severe reactions possible• Can revert to a wild‐type pathogen • Fragile – must be stored carefully 

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Non‐live Vaccines

N h f ti li th• No chance of recreating live pathogen• Less interference from circulating antibody than 

live vaccineslive vaccines• Cannot replicate, thus generally not as effective as 

live vaccineslive vaccines• Usually require 3‐5 doses• Immune response mostly antibody basedImmune response mostly antibody based

Page 39: 3 Immunity and How Vaccines Work KConnolly - hse.ie · Immunity and How Vaccines Work Kevin Connolly Waterford, Aug. 25, 2016. Definitions Antibody:immunoglobulin(Ig) produced mainly

How Vaccines WorkHow Vaccines Work

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BP  Primary and Memory Response and Antibody ResponseResponse

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Reported Cases of VPDs, Europep , p

Available from: http://apps.who.int/immunization_monitoring/globalsummary [cited 28 November 2014]. 

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Vaccines Work European DataVaccines Work‐European Data

JAMA 2007 298(18)2156‐2163( )

MMWR August 22, 2008 903‐913

42

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Innate Internal Defenses Inflammatory ResponseInflammatory Response

Macrophages “clean up” pathogensActivation of the complement cascade occurs and 

elements of adaptive  immunity join the processprocess

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Innate Internal Defenses

Antiviral proteins: 

Interferon: some cells produce & release interferons (IFNs) when invaded by virus

IFNs stimulate nearby cells to produce proteins that f h l linterfere with viral replication

Complement: plasma proteins activated in the presence of foreign substances

Complement activation:enhances and amplifies inflammationenhances innate and adaptive defensesenhances innate and adaptive defensescauses lysis of bacteria

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Innate Internal Defenses

Complement activation pathways

Classical pathway: requires antibodies• Antibodies bind to target (antigen)

C l t t i C1 bi d t th tib d• Complement protein C1 binds to the antibody‐antigen complex (complement fixation)

Alternative pathway: complement factors interact with microorganism surfaceinteract with microorganism surface carbohydrates

• Both lead to a cascade of protein activation, leading to activation of C3

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Innate Internal DefensesInflammatory ResponseInflammatory Response

Phagocyte mobilisation: infiltration of damaged area by neutrophils and  macrophages

Leucocytosis: leukocytosis‐inducing factors released by injured cells j

promote rapid release of WBCs from marrow

Margination: increased vascular permeability causes decreased fluid in vessels; blood flow slows, neutrophils cling to vessel margins 

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Innate DefensesInflammatory ResponseInflammatory Response

Diapedesis: neutrophils migrate through capillary walls

Chemotaxis: inflammatory chemicals attract neutrophils to move up the chemical concentration gradientconcentration gradientAs the process continues, monocytes move into the area and become macrophages. 

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Innate Defenses 

Innate: structural defenses; respond to nonspecific foreign substances

• First line: external surface epithelium and membranes

S d li i fl t• Second line: inflammatory processes –antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, etc.