3. barnard, c. i. (1938-1968). the functions of the executive (30th anniversary ed.)

8/20/2019 3. Barnard, C. I. (1938-1968). the Functions of the Executive (30th Anniversary Ed.)

1/11

.

CHAPTER

XV

TTIE

EXECUT'IVE

FUNCTIONS

¡frHE

c


2/11

216

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

executive

work

they

do. This

i¡te¡mütu¡e of

fu¡ctions

is a

maüc¡ of

conveniencc and

often

of

econom¡ because of üe

scarcity

of

abilities;

or

there may bc other

rcasons

for it.

As

a

¡csult

of the

combination

of cxecutive with ¡on-c¡ccutive

functions,

however, it is

di6cult

in

practicc

mercly by

compari

son

of

titles o¡

of nominal

fu¡ctions

to

determine the com-

parativc

methods

of

executive

wo¡k

in

dific¡cnt

olganizations.

If

we mean

by

executive

functions the spccialized work of

maintaining

systems

of

codperative

effort, ]re

rDay bcst

plc

ceed

for

general purposes

to 6nd

out

what

work

has

to bc

dooe,

and thco,

whcn

desirablc,

to tracc out

who

arc

doing

that

work

in

a

panicular

organization,

This

is especially

true

bccause

executivc

wo¡k is

itself

oftcn

complcxly

organizcd.

In an organization of

modc¡¿te

size

therc may be a hundred

pcrsons

who

arc engagcd

part

of thc

ti6e

in

cxccutive

work;

and some

of

them,

for

examplc

clcrLs

or stenog¡aphels, arc

not

cxccutivcs in any

ordinary scnrc.

Ncverüeless,

the activitics of thcsc pcrsons constitutc

thc

cxccu-

tivc

orga¡izatiol.

It

is

to

thc functions

of

this organization as

a

spccial

unit that

our attcntioo should be given

primaril¡

thc

distribution

oI

work

bctwccn pcrsom

or

positions

being

for

gencral purposcs quite

of secondary importance.

This

chaptcr

will

be devotcd

to

thc

functions

of the executivc organization

as

a

whole

which

cxists

exclusively

for

the c


3/11

2T8

FLINCTIONS

OF ORGANIZATIONS

in established organizations,

thc

positions will exist to be 6llcd

in

the cvent of

vacancies.

In

oüer words, communication

position

and the

"locating"

of

the

se¡vices

of

a

persofl are complementary phascs

of

the

seme

thing.

The

cente¡

of

communication

is

thc

organization

sefvice of

a

pe¡son

et

a

place.

Persons without

positions cannot

function ¡s executives, they

mean

nothing but

potentiality.

Conversel¡ positions vacant a¡e

as defunct

as

dead

¡erve

ccn-

ters.

This is why

executives,

when functioning strict\

as

executives, are unable to appraise

men in the

abst¡act, in

a¡

olgadzatio¡

vacuum,

es

it

we¡e,

Men

are neither good nor

bad, but only

good

or bad

in

this or that position. This

is

why

thcy

not infrequcntly

"change

the organization," the arrange-

ment

of positions, if

me¡ suitable to 6ll them a¡c not available,

In fact,

"cxccutive

organization"

in

practicc

cannot be divo¡ced

from

"exccutive

personncl";

and

"exccutive

pc¡sonncl"

is with-

out impo¡tant

meaning except in conjunction

with a

spcciÁc

arrangemcnt

of

positions.

Therefore, the

problem

of the establishment and

maintcnance

of

thc

systcm of communication,

that

is, the

primary

task of

thc executivc organization, is

pcrpctually

that

of

obtaining the

coalescencc

of the two

phascs,

exccutive person¡el

and executivc

positions.

Each

phase

in

turn is the st¡ategic

facto¡

of

the

executivc

p¡obleú-first

onej

thefi

the

other

phase,

must

be

adjustcd.

This

is

the central problem

of the cxecutive functions.

Its solution is not in itself sufrcient

to

accomplish

thc work

of

all these

functions; but no

othcrs can be accomplished

without

it,

and

none

well unless

it is

well

donc.

Although

this communication

fu¡ction has ¡ro

phases,

it is

trsually

necessary

in

practice

to

deal with onc phase

at

a

time,

and

thc

problcms

of

each

phasc

are

of

quite

difie¡cnt ki¡ds.

The

problcms

of positions

¡ e

those of location

and

the gco-

gaphical,

ternporal,

social, and

functional

specializations

of

THE

EXECUTIVE

FI¡ICTIONS

udt and

group

organizations, Thc

personncl problems

arc

a

spccial

case

of

grncral

personncl

problems

-.

tbc

recruitilg of

cont¡ibutols

who

hav€ app¡opriatc qualifications, and the de-

velopmcnt of thc inducements,

i[centrves) persuasion, and objec-

tive

authority

that

can makc

thosc

quali6cations

efiective

c¡ecutivc

services

in thc organization.

I. TI¡E SCHEMT

O

ORGAN¡ZATION

Lct us

call

the first

phase

of thc

function

-

thc deFnition

of organization

positions

-

the

"schüne

of o¡ganization." This

is

thc

aspcct

of

organization

which

reccivcs

¡clatively

cxcessivc

fo¡mal attention

because

it

can

apparently bc reduccd to

organ-

ization

charts, specifications

of

dutics, and dcscriptions

of divi.

sions of labor,

etc.

It rests upon or rep¡escnts a

cdi¡dination

chicfly

of thc work

to

be done

by

the orgedizetion,

that

is, its

purporcs

broken

up into subsidiary

purposes,

specializations,

tasks, etc.,

which will

bc

discussed

in

Scction

III

of

this chaptcr;

thc kind and

quanrity

of lclaiccJ of

pefionnel

that

ca¡ bc ob-

tained; thc

Lind

and

qúeDtiLty

on

?cftottr

thet must bc includcd

in the coóperativc systcm

for

this

purposc;

the inducemcnts

that arc

rcquircd;

and

the

places at

which

and the

times when

thcsc factors can be combined,

which

will not

bc

specifically

discusscd

ircre.t

It

is

cvident

that

thcse

ale mutually

depcndcnr

factors, and

thac

they

all

involvc othc¡

executive

functions

which

we

shall

di¡cuss latc¡, So far as

¡he

¡clcmc

of

o¡ganization

is sepalatcly

attackcd, it is

always

on the assumption that it is

thcn

the

stratcgic

factor,

the

othe¡

factors of o¡ganization

remai¡ing

6xcd fo¡

thc timc

being;

but

since the

underlying purpose

of

any changc in a

scheme of

organization is to afiect

these

othe¡

facto¡s

as

a

whole favorably, any schcme of organization

at any

'S.c

Chaptc

X,

"Thc

Bash

¡rd

Kitds

of

Spc.ializatiors,"

¡¡d S..tion

III

of

thc

pr6.dt

chaptt¡.

2t9


4/11

22O

FUNCTIONS

OF

ORGANIZATIONS

given

time ¡eprescnts

n€cessarily a result

of

prcvious

successivc

approximations

th-rough a period

of

time.

It

has always

neces-

sarily

to

be ¿ttacked

on

the basis of the prescnt situation.

If.

PERSONNEL

The schcme

of organization is depende¡t

¡ot

only upon the

general

factors

of

the

organization

as a

wholc, but likewise, as

we havc

indicated, on the availability

of

various ki¡ds

of sc¡v-

iccs fo¡ the crecutive positions.

This becomes

in its

tur¡ the

stratcgic

factor.

In

gcneral,

the

pdnciples

of the economy of

incentives

apply hcre

as

well

as

to

other more

gene¡al

person-

ncl

p¡oblcms.

The

balancc

of facto¡s a¡d

the

tcchnical protl

lcms

of

this special

class,

howevc¡, ar€

¡ot

only

difierent from

those

generally

to

bc

found in other spheres

of organiza-

tio¡ cconomy

but

a¡c highly

spccial in diderent

types of

o¡ganizations.

The

rnost impo¡tant singlc conuiburion

rcqtri¡cd

of the

exec-

utivc, cc¡tainly

thc

¡¡ost

univc¡sel quali6cation,

is loyalty,

domination

by

the

organization pclsomlity.

This

is the

6¡st

¡cccssity

bccausc

thc

lin€s of communication cannot

function

at

all unlcss

thc

pcrsonal

cont¡ibutions

of

cxecutivcs

will

be

prcscnt

at

thc

rcquired positions,

at the times

necess¿ry,

with-

out

default

fo¡ ordina¡y

pcrsonal

rcasons.

This,

as

a

pcrsonal

qualiñcation,

is

known

in sccular organizations

as

rhe

quality

of

"responsibility";

in

political

organizations as

"regularity";

in

governmental

organizations as fealty

or loyalty;

in rcligious

orga¡rizatio[s as

"complete

submission"

to

the

faith

and to thc

hicrarchy of objcctivc

rcligious

auüority.

The contribution

of

pcrsonal

loyalty and

submission is lcast

susccptiblc to tangible

inducer¡cnts.

It

cannot

be

bought cithcr

by material

inducements

or

by

other

positive

inccnrivcs,

cxcept

all other

things be

equal. This is

as rrue

of

industrial orgal-

izations,

I

bclicvc,

as of any othets. It

is rather gencrally

under-

stood that

although money or

othe¡ Eraterial

i¡duccments must

THE

EXECUTIVE

FUNCTIONS

22t

usually be paid to rcsponsible persons, respo¡¡sibility itself

does

not

arisc

f¡oo

such induc€rocnts.

However,

lovc of prestige

is, in

general, a much

eo¡€

impor-

tar¡t

induccmcDt

in the

c¡se of executives

than

with the rest

of

thc

personftl. Inte¡est

in

work

and

pride in

o¡ganization

a¡c

othe¡ incentivcs

that

usually must be

present.

These facts

are

much obscu¡ed as

¡cspccts

cohme¡cial organizations, wherc

úaterial induccments appca¡ to be the edectivc

factors partly

bccause such

inducemcnts

e¡e

mole

readily ofic¡ed

i¡ such

org¿nizarions and

partly

bccausc,

sincc the othe¡ incentives

e¡e

oftcn

cqual

as

between such

organizations,

material

inducc-

mcnh

a¡e thc only evailable difie¡cntial

facto¡.

It

also becomes

an

i.mportant secoridary

facto¡

to

individuals

in

many

cascs,

bccausc

prcstige and oficial

responsibilities impose heavy ma-

tcrial burdcns oA thcm. Hence

neithe¡

chu¡ches

no¡ social-

istic

states have

been

ablc

to

escape

the necessity of direct o¡

indi¡ect

mare¡ial inducements for high dignitaries

or oÉcials.

But

this is

probably

incidcntal and supcr6cial in all organize-

tions. It appears

to bc

t¡uc

that

io all

of

them adequatc

incen-

tivcs

to

exccutivc se¡viccs are

di6cult to oflcr.

Those most

availablc

in

the prcscot

age arc tangible,

ñaterialistic; but

on

thc wholc

they arc

both insuficient

and

oftcn

abortive.2

Following

loyalty,

responsibility,

and

capacity

to

be domi-

nated by

organization

personality,

come

the more

speci6c

pe¡-

sonal abilities.

They

arc

roughly

divided

into two

classes:

rclativcly

general

abilitics,

involving

general alertness, compre-

'Aftd

much

cxpoicncc,I

am convin.cd t¡.t thc most inclcctirc srliccs

in

a

co¡tinuins cfiort

dc

in

onc

scnsc

thosc

of

volu¡tcds, o. of

schi-voluntcds;

lor dámplc, h¿llpáy workds.

Whát

áppcárs to

bc

incxpctuivc is

in

fact

vcry cxpc¡3ivc, bccaus.

non

matc¡ial inccntilcs-such

¿s

prcstis.,

tol.ration

o¡

te

gr.at pdional

irtdBt in thc work

wiü it

accompanyi¡g fads

and

"pcf'p¡ojcct,

ü.

yiclding

to

cxaggdat d con.cptions óf individuál importancc

-ec

caus.s of

i¡tcr¡al

f¡ictioq and

many ot¡cr undcsirablc

consqucnccs.

Yct

in

hany .Eúgmcy situations, and i¡ ¿ la.gc

párt

of

loliücal,

charitablc,

civic, cducatio¡al, ¡¡d

rclisious

orsárization work, oftcn i¡dispcnsablc

a.rvice

car¡ot

bc ohai¡.d

by matÚial inccntivG.


5/11

FTINCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS

hensiveness

of intercst, flexibilit¡ faculty of adjustmc¡t,

poise,

coürage, ctc.; and specialized abilities

based

on

panicular

apti-

tudes

and

acquir€d

techniques. The

fust

kind

is

relatively

dificult

to

appraisc

because

it depends upoo innatc cha¡actcrie

tics developed

through

general

expe¡ience. It is not greatly

susceptible

of immediate inculcation. The secold kind

may

bc

less ¡a¡e because the

divisiol

of

labor,

that

is, org¡¡ization

itscq

fosters it automatically, and because it

is

susccptible to develop

ment

(¿t

a

cost) by

t¡aining

and

cducatio¡.

We dcliberatcly

and more end more

turn

out specialists; but

we do

not

develop

general

executives

well

by

speci6c

efio¡rs,

and

we know

very

litde about how to do it.

Thc

higher

the

positions

in the

line

of

autho¡ity,

the

ñorc

gencral

the abilities

required.

The scarcity

of

such abilities, to-

gether

with

thc

necessity for keeping

thc

lines of authority as

short as feasible, cootrols

thc

organization of exccr¡tive

work.

It

leads

to

the ¡eduction

of

the

numbcr of

formally

cxccutivc

positions

to the

minimum,

a

measute madc

possible

by creating

about the exccutives

in

many cases

stafis

of

specialists

who

supplement

üem in

timc,

cnergy, and

technical capacities.

This

is

made

feasible

by

elaborate a¡d often delicate

arrange-

ments to co¡¡ect

cüor

¡esulting

from

the faults of ovcr-special-

ization and the paucity

of

linc

exccutives.

Thc operation of such systcms of complex

executive o¡gan-

ization rcquires

thc

highest

devclopment

of

the executive a¡ts,

Its va¡ious

fo¡ms

a¡d

techniques

are

most definitely cxcmpli6cd

in

the

a¡mies and

¡avies of

the

major

powers,

the

Postal Admin-

istrations

of several European countries, thc

Bcll Telephone

System, some

of

the great

reilway

systems,

and the

Catholic

Church;

and

perhaps

in

the

political

o¡ganization

of the British

Empire.¡

One

of

the

6¡st

limitatio¡s

of

wo¡ld-wide

or

eve¡ a

'F¡oo

r structu.al

point

of

vicw

üé orsanizatioD

of thc Unit.d

St¡t6

of

Amqi@ ¡

epccially

notdorthy, büt f¡om thc

viéwpoint

of thc

qccutivc

fu¡.tio¡s it is

inr.ndcd

to bc d.fcctivc; tl¿t is, üc systo

of

St¡t6 RishB

o

THE

EXECUTM FUNCTIONS

223

much molc

lestrictcd international

o¡gadzation

i¡ the ¡cces-

sity

for

the development

of

these

fo¡ms

alld tcchniques

fa¡

beyond

their

present

status.

Thus,

joiotly

with the

developmcnt

of

the

schemc

of

organ-

ization,

üe selectionj

proinotion,

demotion,

and

dismissal oI

men

becomes

the essencc

of

maintaining the

system

of com-

municetion

without which

no

organizetion

can

exist.

The

selection

in

part,

but

especially the

promotion,

demotion, and

dismissal of men,

depend upon

thc

exercise

of supervision or

what is

often called

"control."

Cont¡ol

relates

direcdy,

and

in

conscious

application

chiefly,

to

the wo¡k

of

the

orgenizetion

as

a

whole ¡ather

than to

the

work

of

executives

as such. But so heavily dependent

is

the

success

of co¿ipc¡ation

upon

the

functioning of th€

exccutive

organization

that

practically

the control

is

ove¡ cxecutives for

the

most

part.

If

the

work

of

an organization is not strcccssful,

if

it

is ine6cient, if

it

cannot

maintain

the

services

of

its

pc¡-

sonnel, thc conclusion

is

thet

its

"managcment"

is

w¡ong;

that

is, that

the schcme

of communication or the

associated

personnel

or

both,

that

is, the exccutive department

directly

relatcd,

are

at

fault. This is, sometimes

at

l€astr

no

true, but

oftcn

it

is,

Moreover, for the

cor¡ectio¡ of

such

faults the 6¡sr relia¡ce

is

upon cxecutive

orga¡ization, The

methods

by

which control

is excrcised a¡e,

of

cou¡se, nume¡ous and

largely

technical to

each

organizationJ and necd

¡ot

be

further

dicusscd here.

III.

IN¡ORMAL

EX¡CUII 'E

ORCANIZAAIONS

So fa¡ we havc considered

thc 6rst

executive

function

only

as

it ¡elates

to

the

form¿l

communication syfem. It has bcen

emphasized seve¡al times in üis treatise

that

i

ormal

o¡gan-

dual sovdcianty añd thc

scparation of

l.sislatjv.,

judici¿I,

¿nd

qccutivc

do

püuncnc

pr.dudc

of

authoritativc @munietion i¡

Amdiqú

sovdúcnr

ás a fo¡mal orSanizatioq.

It ¡ intcndcd

o¡

qpectcd

ü¡r

üc réquirdcn8 will

bc

hct by

inforhal

ors¡nizatio¡.


6/11

224

FTINCTIONS

OF

ORGANIZATIONS

ization

is essential to formal organizations,

pa¡ticularly

with

¡eferencc

to communication. This

is

true

not

only

of thc or-

ganization

as

a

whole,

o¡ of

its r¡ltimate

subo¡dinate units,

but

also of that

special

part which

we

call the executive organizalion.

The

communication

function

of executives

includes the main-

tenance of

info¡mal

executive

organization

as

an essential

means

of

coñmunicatio¡.

Although I

have

never

hea¡d

it stated

that this is an executivc

fu¡ction or

that

such a

thir¡g

as

an

informal

executive

orgall-

ization

exists,

in all the

good

organizations

I

have

obse¡ved the

most ca¡eful attcntion

is paid

to

it.

In

all

of

them info¡mal

o¡ganizatio¡¡s operate.

This is usually not appa¡cnt cxccpt

to

those directly concerncd.

Thc

general

ñethod of

maintaining

an

informal executivc

organization is

so to operate and

to select

arrd

promotc

exccu-

tivcs

that

a

gcneral

condicion of compatibility

of

personncl

is

maintaincd.

Perhaps often

and certainly occasionally men

can-

not bc

prorüoted

or selcctcd,

or

evcn

must

be

relievcd,

becausc

they

cannot function,

becausc

they

"do

not Át

"

whcrc the¡c

is

no

question

of

formal

competence.

This

question of

"frtncss"

involves

such

matters

as cducation, cxpericnce, age.

scx, per-

sonal distinctions,

prestige,

race, nationality,

faith,

politics,

sec-

tional antecedents;

and

such very speci6c

personal traits

as

manncrs,

spccch,

pe¡sonal appearancc,

etc.

It

gocs

by few

if

any

rules, cxccpt those based at lcast

nominally on

othe¡)

fo¡mal,

conside¡ations.

It

reprcscnts in

its best

scnse

the

political

aspccts

of

personal relationship in

formal

organizatiori,

I

suspect it

to

be most

highly

developed

in

political, labor, church, and uni-

versity organizations, for

the very

¡eason that

the

intangible

typcs of

persoflal

services are

relativcly

more

important

in

them

then in most oth€r, especially industrial, organizations.

But

it

is

certainly of

major

importance

in all

organizacions.

This

compatibility is

promoted

by

educational requircmcnts

(armies,

navics, churches, schools);

by

requiremcnt

of ccrtain

THE

EXECUTIVE

FTINCTIONS

background

(European

armies,

navies,

labor unions, Soviet and

Fascist

governments, political parties); by confe¡ences and con-

veDtions;

by

speci6cally social

activities;

by

class

distinctio¡s

connectcd with

privileges

and

"authority"

(in

armies, fiavies,

churchcs,

universities).

A ce¡tain

conformity

is

required

by

unw¡itten

unde¡standing that can sometimes be formally en-

forced,

expressed

for its

negative

aspect

by

the

phrase

"conduct

unbecoming

a

gentleman and an o6ce¡," There arc, however,

innumerablc other processcs, many of which

are

not consciously

employed

for

this

purpose.

It

must

not

be understood

that the

desired degree

of

com-

patibility

is

always

thc

same

o¡

is the

maximum

possible.

On

the contrary it seems

to mc

to be

often

the case

that

cxcessive

coñparibility

or harmony

is delererious,

resulting

in

"single

t¡ack

minds"

and excessively

crystallized

attitudes

and

in

the

dcstruction

of

pcrsonal responsibility; but

I know

from experi-

ence

in operating with ncw eme¡gency o¡ga¡izations,

in

which

thcre was

no

timc and little immediate basis

for

the

growü

of

an

informal

organization properly codrdinated

with

formal

organization that it is

elmost

impossible to

secu¡e

edective and

c6ciertt

coópe¡ation

without

it.

Thc functions

of

informal cxecutive orgariizations are the

communication

of

intangible facts, opinions,

suSgestions, suspi-

cions,

that cannot

pass through

formal

channels

without

raising

issues

calling

for

decisions,

without

dissipating

dignity

and

objcctivc

authority,

and without overloading executive

posi

tions;

also to

minimize

excessive cliques of political

types

arising

from too

great

divergence o( inte¡ests and views;

to

promote

self-discipline

of

the

group; and to make possible the develop

ment of important

personal

ineuences

in the

organization.

There

are

probably other fu¡ctions.

I shall comment on only

two functions

of

info¡mal

executive

organization.

The necessity

for avoiding

lormal

issues,

that

is,

for

avoiding

the

issuance oI

nume¡ous

fo¡mal

orders

except

225


7/11

2ú

FUNCTIONS

OF ORGANIZ ATIONS

ori

loutinc Eratters

end

exc€pt

1fI eme¡ge[cies,

is

impo¡tant.'

I Lnow of major cxccutives who

issue

en

order or

judgment

sct-

tlirig

an important

issue

¡ather seldom, although

they

are

func-

tioning

all

the time.

The

obvious desire

of

politicians

to avoid

important

issues

(and

to

impose üem

on thei¡

opponents)

is

based upon a thorough sense

of organization. Neither authority

nor coóperative dispositioo

(largcly

the

same

things) will stand

much

overt

division

o¡

formal

issues

in the

present

stage

of

human development,

Hence most laws, executive orde¡s, d€ci-

sio¡rs,

etc., e¡e iri

efect

formal

¡otice

that

all

is well

-

there is

agreement,

auüority

is

not

questioned.

The

question

of

pe¡sonal

influencc is very subtle. Probably

most

good

organizations have somewhe¡c

a Colonel House; and

ma[y

men

not oDly exercise bcncficcnt

influence

far

beyond

that implied

by

their

formal

statusr but most of them,

at

thc

timc,

would lose their influence

if

they

had

cor¡cspondinS

fo¡mel status.

The

reason

may be that many men have personal

qualifications

of

high

order

üat will not opelatc

under

üc

stress

of

commensurate

o6cial

responsibility. By analogy

I

may

mcntio¡ the

golfers

of frrst

class

skill

who

canlot

"stand

¡¡p"

in

public

tournaments.

To

summarize:

the 6¡st erccutive

function

is to devclop and

maintain

¿ system

of communication.

This

involves

jointly

a

scheme

of

o¡ganizatiol

and an executive p€¡sonnel,

Thc

proc-

esses

by which

th€ letter

is

accomplishcd

include

chiefly

thc

sclection

of

men and the

ofiering

of inceDtives;

techniqucs of

cont¡ol pe¡mitting

effectiveness

in

promoting,

demoting,

and

¡whcn

writing thcsé lin¿s

I

tricd

to

¡.ell an

import¡nt

gcnqal

d.cision

mádc

by mc

on

my

initiativc

as

a tclcphonc

qcdtivc

wiüin

teo

y@s.

I

could

rccall

noDc,

althóugh on ¡cvicwins

thc rccord

I

found

scvdal. On

thc

othc¡ h¿¡d,

I

@n

sdll

r.c¡ll wiüout

¿¡y

¡cco¡d

ma¡y

major

deisio¡s

mad.

by mc "out

of

hand

wh.r

I wa a Rcücf

AdnrnRtr¿tor.

I

probably

avq¡8.d

¿t

lu:t

ñvc a

day for ci8htccn monlhs. ln

r¡.

hLrcr cr( I

worlcd

wirh

a

vdy

nobl.

group

but a

v..y

poor

info.mal

orsanizarion

undcr

ddaÉncy

.o -

THE

EXECUTIVE

FUNCTIONS

dismissing

rnen;

and

finally

the sccuring

of an

informal

organ-

ization

in which the esscntial

property

is

compatibility

of

personnel.

The chief

funcrions of this

informal organization

are

expansion of

the

means

of communication

with

reduction

in the

necessity

for

formal

dccisions,

the

minimizing

of undesi¡able

infltrcnces, and

the

promotion

of desi¡able

influences

conco¡dant

with üe scheme

of

formal

responsibiliries.

II.

Tr¡E

SEctnNc o¡ EsSEN¡¡AL

SER 'rcEs

¡nov

h¡orvou¡¡s

The second

funcrion

of

the execurivc organization

is

lo

pro-

mote

the

securiog

of

the

personal

se¡vices

that co¡stitute

the

material

of organizations.

The wo¡k

divides

into

two main divisions: (r)

the

bringing

of

persons

into

ccitperarive

relarionship

wirh

the organization;

(n)

thc

eliciting

of the services

aftcr

such

persons

have

bcen

brought into

that relationship.

¡

The

characteristic

fact

of thc

fi¡st

division

is thar the organ-

ization is acting

upon

persons

who are irr

every sense outsidc

it.

Such action is

neccssary

not

mercly

to securc

thc

pcrsonncl

of

ncw organizations,

or

to supply

the material

fo¡ the

g¡owth

of

cxisting

organizations,

but

also

to

replace

the

losses

(hat

con-

tinually

take placc

by

¡eason

of death, rcsignation, "backslid-

ing,"

emigration,

discharge,

cxcommunication,

ostracism.

These

factors

of growth

or replacemcnt

of cont¡ibutors

require bring-

ing persons

by organization

efiort

within range

of the

con-

sideratio¡

of the

incentives available

in

orde¡

to induce some of

these

persons

to attach

themselvcs to

the organization.

Acco¡d-

ingly

the task involves

two

parts:

(a)

bringing

persons

within

reach

of

speciÉc

efio¡r

ro

secu¡e

services,

and

(á)

the applica-

tion of

that

eÍIo¡t

when they

have been

brought

near enough,

Oftc¡

both

parts

of

the

task occupy

thc

edo¡ts

of

thc

same

penons

or parts of an

organization; but

they

arc clearly

distinct

227


8/11

228

FUNCTIONS

OF

ORGANIZATIONS

ele¡aents

end conside¡able

specializatioo

is

foünd

with ¡espect

to them.

(a) Bringing

pcrsons within

reach

of

¡ccn¡iting or

prosel¡-

ing influence

is

a task

which

di-ders

in

practical emphasis among

organizations

in

respcct

both

to

scope and to meüod.

Some

religious

organizations

-

espccially

the

Catholic

Church,

sev-

c¡al P¡otcsta¡t

Chu¡ches, the

Mormon

Church, for

cxamplc

-

havc

as ideal

goals

the

attachment

of

all

persons

to

thcir

organizations,

and

the

wide

world

is

the ñeld of

prosclyting

propaganda. During

many

decades

the Unitcd

States of

Ami¡ica

invited

all

who

could

¡each

its

sho¡es

to

become

Ame¡ican

citizens.

Othcr

organizations,

having

limits

on

thc

volume of thei¡

activitics,

rcstrict the 6eld

of

propaganda. Thus

roa¡y

netions in cffect

now

¡est¡ict

subfantial

growth to thorc

who

acquirc a

natio¡al

status

by birth;

thc Amcrican

Lcgion

¡cst¡icts

its

membcrship

to thosc

who have

acquircd a

status

by

a ccrtain typc

of

previous scrvicc,

etc.

Others rest¡ict

thei¡

6clds

practically on the

basis

of

proportions.

Thus

universitics

"in

principlc"

arc open to

all or to all with

cducational

and

character

qualiñcations

but

may

restrict

thcir appeals

to

geo

graphical, racial,

and

cla$

proportions,

so

as to

prese¡ve

thc

cosmopolitan

character

of their bodies,

or to

Prcscrvc

plc_

do¡ninancc

of

nationals,

ctc.

Industlial

aod

commcrcial

organ_

izations are thcoretically

limited

usually

by

considcrarions

of

social

compatibility

and

additionally by thc

costs of

propaganda.

Thcy

usually attcmpt

no appcal whcn

thc

gcograPhic rcmoteness

makcs

it incfiectivc.

Although

thc

scope of

the

ñcld

of

ptopaganda

is

fo¡

¡oost

o¡ganizations

not clea¡ly

conccivcd

or

stated

and as a

problem

only

rcquirce activc

considc¡atio[

at

intcrals

usually

long, thc

qucstio.

is

ncvertheless

fundamcntal. Thir

is best indicatcd by

thc mcthods

p¡acticálly cmploycd

in connectroo

with

it. In

chu¡chcs

thc organization

of mission rrork

and its

te¡rito¡ial

scopc arc

thc

best indications of

its importalcc.

In

most

gov'

THE EXECUTTVE FUNCTIONS

e rmc¡rts, at present,

the acc¡etio¡

of

members taLes

the fo¡m

of stimulating

reproduction by ective promorional

efforts, as

in

France

and Ital¡ for cxample,

or

by

the easc

of

acquiring

citi-

zenship and free

land as

until

recently

in üe Unired States.

In

many

industrial

organizations foreign

recruiting

was once

an

important

aspect

of their work,

and

dirccdy

or indirecly

the

appeal

for

contributors of

capital or credit

has bee¡ fundame¡-

tally

international

in

scopc until ¡ecent

exchange

¡cst¡ictions,

In

fact,

the most

unive¡sal

aspect

of

indr.rstrial

organization

appcal

has

becn

in

rcspect

to

this typc

of contribub¡

-

fo¡

many

practical

purposes

he

is

not

usually regarded

as

the

material

of

organization, though

il

thc

prescnt

study

he is.

(D)

The edort to induce

specidc

persons

who by the general

appcal are brought

into

conract

with an organization

actually

to

becomc identi6ed

with

ir

constirutes

thc

more regular

and

loutine

work

of

secu¡ing

contributors.

This

involvcs in

its

gcocral

aspects

the

method

of

pcrsuasion

which

has alrcady

bccn dcscribcd,

thc establishmcnr

of

inducemenh

and

ince¡-

tivcs,

and

di¡cct

ncgotiation.

The

methods

rcquircd

arc

in-

dcfinitely largc

in numbcr

and

of

very

wide variety.ó

It

would

¡ot be

useful

hc¡e

to

add

to what has

al¡cadv bcen said in

Chaptcr

XI

on

üe economy

of

incentivcs. I[

is

only

nccessary

to

cmphasizc again that

fundamentally

most

pcrsons

poten-

tially

availablc are

nor

susceptible

at

any given

timc

of

being

induced

to

give

scrvicc

to any

pa¡ticular

olgadzatiori,

la¡ge

o¡

small.

¡¡

Although the

work

of

recruiting

is

important in

most

or-

ganizations,

and

especially so

in thosc

which

are

ncw

or rapidly

I must rcp@t

tha¡ althoush

rhc .mphesis

is

or rhc cúptoyc group

of

co¡-

dibutoú,

so

fá.

as

industrial

ors¡¡izetions a.c

concd'cd,

r*c;ú.rcs

.t"e

t9mús" rc

cqually

includcd,

Thc

principlcs

broadly

disu$cd

húc rclarc

to

salBmanship

es wclla @ployins

pcsons.

Scc

lasc

75.


9/11

230

FI.INCTIONS

OF

ORGANIZATIONS

THE

EXECUTIVE

FUNCTIONS

23r

e{pending

or which

have

high

"turnover,"

¡revc¡thcless

in

csublished

and

enduring

organizations

the

elicitiilg oI

the

quantity

a¡d

quality of

eflorts

from

their

adherents

is usually

morc

important

and

occuPies

the

greater

Part

of

person¡cl

cffort.

Because

of

the

more

tangible

character

of

"membership,"

being

an

"employce,"

elc..

recruiüg

is

apt

to

rcccive mote

attentio¡r

es a ficld

of

personnel work

than the

business of

p¡omoting

the

actual

output

of

effo¡ts

and

inlluenccs,

which

are the ¡eal

matcrial

of organization.t

Membcrship, nominal

adherence,

is merely

the

starti¡g

point;

and the minioum

con-

t¡ibutio¡s which

can

be

conceived

as

enabling

¡€tentio[

of

such

con¡ection

would

generally be insuÍücicnt

fo¡ the su¡vival

of

activ€

o¡

productive

organization.

Hence every

church, evcry

govefnmenr, every

ol¡ef importent

organization. bas lo

i¡-

tcnsify

or multiply

the

contributions

which its mcmbe¡s will

make

above

the lcvel o¡

volumc

which

would

occur

if ¡o

¡uch

cffort we¡e

made.

Thus

chu¡chcs

must stlengthe¡ the

faith,

secüre compliance

by

public and

private acknowlcdgmcnts

of

faith

o¡

dcvotion,

and

secu¡e

matcrial

contributions

f¡om

thci¡

mcmbc¡s.

Gove¡nments

arc concelned with

increasing thc

quality of the

citizenry

-

promoting national solidarity,

loyalty,

patriotism.

disciplinc.

and competcncc. Other

organizations

are

similarly occupicd

in

sccuring

loyalty, reliabilit¡ rcsponsibility,

cnthusiasm,

quality

of

efforts,

outPut.

In

short,

every

organiza-

tion

to su¡vivc

must delibe¡ately

attend to the roaintenatrce

and

growth of its

authority to do the

things

necessary for

cciirdina-

tion,

effectiv€ness,

and eficiency. This,

as

we

havc scen,

de-

pends upon its

appcal to

persons

who

are

already related to the

organization.

The methods,

thc inducemcnts

and incentives, by

which

this

is done

have already

been in

general

indicated in

ou¡ discussio¡

'As

ad

instanc., notc

t¡c

grcat

attcntion

in

civil sdvic

reeulátioB,

¿¡d

¡lso

in

poütical

¿ppointmcdti,

to

obtainins ¡nd

rct¡inins

mploymcnt, ánd

thc

rclátivcly small ancntion

to sdvicB.

of i¡ce¡rtivcs and

autho¡ity.

As

executive functions

they may

be

distinguished as

the maintenancc of morale,

the maintena¡ce

of

the

scheme

of

induccments, the

maintcnance

of

schemcs

of

dcterrents, supervision

a¡d control, inspectio¡r,

educatiol

and

training.

IlI. T¡¡¡

Fonwurr¡o:,¡

o¡

Pu¡pos¡

^ND

OrJEdinEs

The

third executive

function

is

to formulate

and de6ne the

purposes,

objectives, ends,

of

the

organization.

It has

already

been

made

clear that, stricdy speaking purpose

is de6ncd

mo¡e

nearly

by

the

aggregate

of

action

taken

than

by

a¡y fo¡mulation

in words;

but that that agg¡egate

of action is a residuum

of the

dccisions relative

to

purposc

and the

environmcntr

¡e¡ulting

in

closer

and

close¡ approximalions

to

the

conc¡ete

acts.

It

has

also bcen emphasized

thar

purpose

is

something

that

must bc

accepted

by all the contributors

to the system

of c6orts. Again,

it has bcen statcd

that

pl¡¡pose

must be broken

into

f¡agments,

speci6c

objectives, not

only order€d

iri timc so that detailed pur-

posc

and

detailed

actio¡ follow

in thc se¡ies

of

p¡ogre$ive

codperation,

but also

o¡de¡ed contemporaneously

into

the spe-

cializations

-

gcographical,

social, aod fu¡ctio¡al

-

that cach

unit

o¡ganizetion

implics.

It is more apparcnt

here than

with

olhcr cxccutive functions

rhar

il

js

an entire executive

org¿niza-

tion

that formulatcs,

rcdefnes,

breaks

into

details, and

decides

o¡

the innumcrablc

simuhancous

and

progressive

actions that

are the

strcam

of

synthe¡cs

constitüting purpose

or

action,

No

single

exccutive

can

unde¡ any

conditions

accomplish

this

function

alone, but

only that

part

of

it

which rclates

to his

position

in the

executivc organization.

Hence the critical

aspect

of

this f¡inctio[

is thc assignment

of

responsibility

-

üe

delegation

of

objective

authority.

Thus

in

onc

scnse

this

fu¡ction

is that

of

thc

scheme

of positions,

the

systcm of communication,

already

discussed.

That

is its poten-

tiel

aspect, Its othcr

aspect

is the actual

decisions

and

co¡duct


10/11

232

FUNCTIONS OF ORCANIZATIONS

which

make the

scheme

a

working

system.

Accordingly, the

general

executive

states that

"this

is

the

pupose,

this

the

otu

jective,

this the

directio$ in

general

terms, i¡ which we

wish to

move,

before

next

year."

His department

heads, or the

heads

of his main

territorial

divisions, say to

thei¡ departments or

suborganizations:

"This

mca¡s for

us these things

now,

then

othcrs next month, then

others let€r, to be

better defined afte¡

experience."

Their

subdepa¡tmcnt

or division hcads say:

"This

means for us such

and

such operations

now at

these

places,

such

others at those

places,

something today

hcre, others tomorrow

the¡e." Then dist¡ict

o¡

bu¡eau chiefs

in

turn

become

mole

and

mo¡e spcci6c,

thei¡

sub


11/11

2y

FIJNCTIONS OF

ORCANZATIONS

in

thc following

chaptcr.

Second

thc

combination equally

dcpcnds

upon

the mai¡tenance

of

thc vitaüty

of

action

-

thc

wiil

to cfort.

This is thc

ooral

aspcct, thc

clcncnt

of

morelc,

the ultimatc

¡cáson

fo¡

cciipcratron,

to

which

Chapter

XVII

will

bc

givcn,

3. barnard, c. i. (1938-1968). the functions of the executive (30th anniversary ed.)

Documents