repository.um.edu.myrepository.um.edu.my/24425/1/mural 2.2.pdf · 3 before islam sharifzadeh also...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 2
********
The History About Techniques of Mural in Iran During the Eras
Katayoun Moghadam
Sabzali Musa Kahn
Jaffri Hanafi
Nik Nairan Abdullah
Introduction
In this chapter different approaches to technique in various eras are briefly
discussed to show how artists are influenced by the aesthetics of their time and
the materials available to them to create murals. On the one hand artists had to
follow the commissioners’ tastes and on the other they had to satisfy their own
creativity and artistic tendencies as well and both of these factors influenced
technique. Both also changed with the change of times as briefly reviewed in
this chapter. Siqueiros’s theories about murals and the emphasis he puts on
technique and on outdoor mural as a public art are also reviewed in this chapter.
In the section on previous studies, the seminal researches done in this area are
introduced and gaps in previous studies which this dissertation aims to fill are
also pointed out.
Prehistoric Times
The oldest extant murals from prehistoric times in Iran were found in Lorestan.
Hamid Izadpanah writes in Ancient and Historical Artifacts of Lorestan:
“In mountains around Kouhdasht red and black motifs are seen
on the walls of some caves. [. . .] Most of the murals show
hunting or battle scenes” (p.342).
2
Professor Mc Bourni, the lecturer of archaeology in Cambridge University,
describes these motifs as “similar to the ones discovered in the east of Spain”
(Quoted in Sharifzadeh p.15). According to Gardner, the Spanish motifs belong
to 3500 B.C. (Neolithic age) (p.15). We might be able to say that a resemblance
also exists from a technical point of view.
Abdolmajid Sharifzadeh (2011) mentions that from the Neolithic age the painted
building of Zagheh remains in Iran which was perhaps used as a temple or a
place of gathering for certain social functions. The interior walls of the living
room are covered with pieces of painted pottery. In some cases, the coated
surfaces of the walls are painted with a solution of ochre clay or other mineral
paints, using red, yellow, white and black colors.
Figure 2.1: Cave Painting, Dusheh in Lorestan,
The Neolithic Age.
3
Before Islam
Sharifzadeh also writes that in the second millennium B.C. from the Ilami era,
Zigurat in Haft Tappeh remains which a huge monument is built of mud-brick.
Halls and rooms have a roughcast coating with motifs of red, blue, gray, yellow
and black. According to Sharifzadeh in Iranian Murals, during the Achamenid
reign, people chose scenes of the sonnets about Zeria and Uda to create murals
on the walls of houses and palaces. Even though at this time most of art works
were created as engravings and reliefs, murals done as fresco were also frequent
and artists travelled to different countries to learn this technique.
In Parthian time we see integrated arts influenced by Helenic style, because in
Seleucid times Greek language and art were extended to the western Asia and
had a deep influence on art. Grishman writes in L’ Art de L’ Iran that mural in
Parthian times has followed western arts and has developed a lot. This type of
painting combined with stucco.
Figure 2.2: The Head of Man, Mural Painting Combined
With Stucco, 1 A.D
4
The mural known as Kunun in Dura-Europos from the first century A.D. is one
of the most famous art works of this era, showing religious ceremonies carried
out by two clergymen.(See fig 11). The preliminary design was made by
watercolor combined with glue-containing materials. The shape was drawn in
simple lines. Dura art is fully dependent on Iranian styles, in spite of
Mesopotamian trends (Ghirishman, p. 47).
Maybe the Iranian style mentioned above is to point out that Iranian art is
subjective or to use Pakbaz’s word, it is “stylized” (p.54) and is not trying to be
realistic. Pakbaz mentions that with the beginning of Sassanid reign, stylization
and symbolism still overpowered realism. Although few murals remain, there is
no doubt that this art was extremely important at that age.
Figure 2.3: Kunun Ritual Sacrifice, Watercolor
Combined With Glue-Containing Materials.
5
Examples include Karkheh Veranda, Hajiabad in Fars, Hessar in Damghan,
sketch-like pictures in Persepolis and the remnants of murals in Dura-Europos in
Susa. Pakbaz writes, “Many of the Sassanid reliefs are inspired by these murals,
for instance Taq Bostan reliefs in Kermanshah” (p. 28). Susa mural from fourth
century A.D. shows a hunting scene. The artist is not after a realistic depiction of
happenings, but creating an idealistic image. The scene is drawn in strong black
lines and colorful flat surfaces. The background is blue and the hunter’s clothes
are pink, while the horses and other animals are in Madder red and ochre.
Figure 2.4: Susa, Mural Water Color Painting on Mud-Brick.
Hunting Scene, the Fourth Century A.D
Ghirishman says that on this mud-brick wall which has a thick coat of mud-
straw mix there are water color paintings (p.182). As the prophet Mani who
advanced his ideas with painting became more influential, murals became
especially important. Idikut is one of the towns in Gobi desert and the walls of
this town are embellished with Manickaean murals. Gold and silver were vastly
used in order to create a polished and sparkling look. Manickaean artists are the
founders of Iranian painting after the advent of Islam. Pakbaz writes that
Manickaean close relations with Buddhists led to the influence of elements in
Buddhist art on Manichaean art. As a result, we see the following aspects
6
showing up in Manickaean art: large head, short figure, the almond shapes of
eyes and the halo around the head. On the other hand the art of Central Asia was
influenced by Persian art like extant Murals at Bamiyan in Afghanistan. (See fig
13). (Pakbaz, p. 45).
Hans-Joachim Klimkeit writes in The Manichaean Art and Calligraphy that the
colors usually used in these paintings are purple red, bright red, blue, yellow,
dark green. Sometimes, bright blue was used in priming, probably derived from
lapis lazuli. The main designs were made by drawing tools. Not only were the
lines filled with color, but they were strengthened by extra and skillful brush
strokes (Klimkeit, p. 63). This book is one of the few instances which study the
history of murals from a technical point of view. We read in Manickaean Art
that the dominant technique in murals at that age was water color.
Figure 2.5: Beautiful Buddhisatva, Mural Water
Color Painting the 5–6 Century A.D
7
After Islam
Immediately after the advent of Islam, the murals that have survived to the
present day have been found in and around Neishapur. The Middle-Asian and
Sassanid styles are detected in these works of art. From the Seljuq Dynasty,
which is one of the most important periods in Islamic arts, only a few murals
remain (Pakbaz, p. 55). Seljuq art was influenced by Manickaean art. Kharghan
Towers which has an octagonal shape has valuable fresco murals under its
dome. The images seen here are pomegranate trees, peacocks and other birds
and there are also geometric motifs and flora in blue and Kufi calligraphy in
green and blue colors (Sharifzadeh, p. 84-85).
Soltanieh Dome which remains from Moghul dynasty is, as Sharifzadeh
mentions, a very beautiful octagonal monument. This monument is embellished
with bricks, stones, stucco, wood, tiles and painting. The embellishments and
motifs on the southern veranda are done in the form of Arabesque in blue, gold
and brown colors. Also, the delineation of inscription in the center of the dome
and the rosettes above it are created by the use of color. In general, all
inscriptions are written in color (Sharifzadeh, p. 91). By studying the above-
mentioned murals, one can see that although they are still influenced by pre-
Islamic art, important changes in technique such as increase in embellishments,
calligraphy and arabesque and also difference in materials are evident after
Islam.
Hossein Aghajani writes in his article that murals before Saffavids were often
created using water color. In this technique, it is customary to first prepare the
wall and execute the design on it, then start delineation, making the golden
grounding and applying red color to the proper spots. In some cases a small
amount of red ochre was added to priming liquid order to create a red surface
(p.160). The above-mentioned red layer is very thin. Priming covering the
plaster surface with a diluted solution of glue in order to prevent the absorption
8
of the liquid used for spreading colors which will be applied later by the artist. In
fact, this layer works as the foundation. Afterwards, the design is executed on
the wall together with the gold work and the well-ground colors that have been
tried for spreading are applied in a flat, physical color manner. Figures are done
with delineation in a darker color. After the work is finished, a protective layer
which was a combination of tragacanth (a kind of gum) and sugar was spread on
the surface (Aghakhani 172). Thus it can be seen how muralists in this period
altered previous techniques to achieve aesthetic standards of their own time.
Shah Ismail the Saffavid took the famous artists of Heart along with
Kammaluddin Behzad Harati to Tabriz. Thereby Tabriz became an artistic
capital. Unfortunately not many of the murals of this era remain. Sharifzadeh
writes that in Venetians Book of Travels, it is mentioned that inside the palace of
Sultan Hassan Beig there was a mural on the ceiling of the great hall showing
scenes of battles and hauntings (Q’ted in Sharifzadeh, p. 100). When Qazvin
became the capital of the Saffavids, the royal palaces were embellished with
many murals. However, only Chehel Sotoon Monument survives now and the
murals in this monument show scenes of banquets and musical performances.
These are mostly painted inside racks and the upper parts of the walls, showing
whole female figures clad in scarves and holding goblets (Sharifzadeh, p. 102).
Sharifzadeh writes that Iranian artists were most probably familiar with oil color
from the beginning of the Saffavid dynasty. It is very likely that some of the
murals in Qazvin at the time of it being the capital city were performed with oil
color technique (Sharifzadeh, p.159). But (The oil color technique appeared
probably at the time that Europan painters came to Chehel Sotoon.) (Aghajani,
p. 168). One of the artists in Shah Tahmasp’s court who was very influential in
creating murals in Chehel Sotoon in Qazvin was Mozaffar Ali. This artist was
completely familiar with oil color. As the relations between Iran and the West
grew, Iranian artists felt the tendency to adopt naturalism in their works.
9
When the Saffavid capital was transferred from Qazvin to Isfahan, the first
important monument covered in murals was Alli Qappoo Palace. The murals
showed flora, fauna and abstract motifs. On the sixth floor of the palace, there
were murals of banquets and 70 miniatures. Pakbaz explains that the palace of
Chehel Sotoon in Isfahan is one of the important Saffavid monuments and also
very significant as far as murals are concerned. The technique of older murals is
physical water color and the technique of later murals is oil color. (See fig 15.
The subjects of these murals are banquets, battles, hunting, and male and female
portraits. The style of these murals is integrated and the influence of western art
is very much pronounced in them (Pakbaz, p. 126-129).
Figure 2.6: The Girl in Nature.
Mural Alli Qappoo, 1610-1620
10
Figure 2.7: Feast in the Lap of Nature, Chehelstoon
Pakbaz says that the older murals belong to the reign of Shah Abbas II, follow in
Isfahan school. Later on, the added murals have a mixture of Iranian and
European styles. Pakbaz writes that in the eighteenth century, Isfahan was a hub
for merchants, tourists, ambassadors, preachers and foreign artists. At this time,
European art works entered Iran Church murals like Vanq Church were
influenced by European arts and Gurkani style which was in turn an Indo-
European style.
Figure 2.8: King Tahmaseb Hosts the King, Homayoon, Chehel Sotoon
11
As the Iranian artists at this era strived towards this was in turn an Indo-
European style. As the Iranian artists at this era strived towards naturalism, they
used oil color (Pakbaz, p. 134). Obviously the style and the technique should
proceed hand in hand and are directly related. Thus we see that these artists
could no longer use water color to create the new style they had in mind and had
to change their technique as well.
From the Zand Dynasty many monuments of unique architecture and tile-work
have survived, mainly in Shiraz. Karimkhan Citadel is one of the buildings in
which murals of that era have remained. The usual Zand techniques were
performed on plaster with golden background in colors such as red, violet,
green, golden. The images included flora, birds on flowers, and Lilies’ Pavilion
in Nazar Garden contain murals. The tall racks in the upper part of this building
have paintings of that era. The subjects of these paintings include classrooms,
Joseph and Potiphar’s wife and Chaldoran Battle. The ceiling is done in
Muqarnas beautifully embellished with flora images on plaster. The paintings
installed within the racks, especially those created in the shape of these racks,
are painted of exactly the same size. They are a technique of mural in
themselves. However, they fully follow the architecture of the building and the
wall and considered a mural (Sharifzadeh, p. 132).
12
Figure 2.9: Maidservants in an Open-Air Feast.
Probably Isfahan. 18th. Century.
During Zand Dynasty most of the murals are done in oil color and the colors
were in green tonality. In Qajar Dynasty, Fathalishah created conditions in
which the art of mural got to its peak. At the time of his reign, the situation was
ripe for court arts. Fathalishah gathered the most prominent artists of the time in
Tehran, the capital city of Iran. Fathalishah ordered them to paint large canvases
for the embellishment of the new palaces. Abdollah Khan one of Fathalishah’s
favorite artists specialized in drawing solo portraits. Fathalishah created huge
murals of Norooz ceremonies held by Fathalishah in the great hall of Negarestan
Palace, unfortunately not extant today. Yaghub Azhand writes that during Qajar
Dyanasty, the houses of the gentry were decorated with murals. For example,
Nassirolmolk’s house in Shiraz was embellished with murals showing the
portraits of European women. These portraits could also be seen on the wooden
ceiling. Painting on wood was a usual technique during Qajar Dyansty and the
dominant tonality was red and brown. (Azhand, p. 36)
13
Sharifzadeh quotes Ahmad Tondi’s dissertation which explains that using oil
color became very fashionable during Qajar Dynasty. This was due to the
properties specific to oil color such as the simplicity of its technique and its high
potential for covering surfaces. Oil color found a special place in painting,
especially in mural arts, because it gave the artist an ability to create art works in
larger dimensions. This technique gradually became more dominant, so much so
that most of the art works during Qajar time were created in oil color, whether
on canvas or on walls. To facilitate the job, the large canvases or woods were
created in a shape which was in accordance with the architecture. When the
painting was finished, the canvas or woods would be installed in its place such
as the paintings on racks (Sharifzadeh, p. 159). In Qajar period, murals were
created by applying oil color to the wood or canvas and fixing the resultant art
work on the walls. This difference in technique and material created a
completely different effect compared to the previous periods.
Ruyan explains that during Pahlavi Dynasty mural continued to thrive in
different forms. In palaces and monuments murals took a formal and courtly
style, whereas in more modern buildings artists tried to use various techniques
such as mosaic, metal, pottery, concrete, wood and plaster. It had different
functions such as decorative, identity-expressing and advertising. (Ruyan, p.
106).
At this time technique and its relationship with architecture became very
important. Since modern architecture in Iran was rapidly developing at this time,
the artists were both concerned with creating works compatible with this
architecture and also determined to keep the Iranian identity of the murals in
these modern spaces. Some of the high-quality art works created in this era
included Arabshahi’s murals.
14
Figure 2.10: Ghavam’s Narenjestan, Shiraz, Oil color
on Wood Fixed on Ceiling.
Figure 2.11: Technique: Carving on Plaster,
When the Islamic Revolution started in Iran in 1979, all efforts were focused on
changing the government. During this political and social upheaval, mural took a
special form. In an article entitled “Street Painting (Murals as Media),” graffiti
in critical times become a protesting tool for the opposition. One of the
important and influential media in the 1979 mural was graffiti, exciting the
15
public against the Shah and his reign. Graffiti conveyed its message by using
either negative forms such as “Down with the Shah” or positive forms such as
“Long live Khomeini.” After the revolution succeeded in overthrowing Shah’s
regime, graffiti gave place to mural with aestheticism gaining more importance.
However, this trend ended in political propaganda becoming the most dominant
element in murals in Iran.
Figure 2.12: The Slogan “Death to the Shah”
The Revolution of Iran 1979
Ruyan interviewed Kazem Hassanvand for her dissertation which was abstracted
and published in an article. Hassanvand said in this interview that, “The Islamic
Revolution gave a cohesive direction to murals.” She also interviewed Eskandari
who said, “The murals created in public view were based on a mentality
stemming from the revolution” (Ruyan, p. 106-107).
Murals remnant from the time of the Islamic Revolution took the form of mottos
against Pahlavi Dynasty and the Shah’s regime and also portraits and images
created with stencils. Technique was not important in these works; ordinary
people made them on the walls using color sprays, magic markers, scratching. in
order to convey their messages. This was in fact a form of exchanging ideas and
16
starting a revolutionary movement and the hurried forms of these graffiti
reflected the dangerous and stressful conditions in which they were created. In
an article entitled “The Art of Protesting, the Art of Revolution” Morteza Assadi
writes that “Artists also supported this movement but using their own methods.
For example Niloofar Qaderinejad was one of the artists who preferred drawing.
During the protests, whenever she found a plaster-covered wall she would start
sketching people’s combats and the way they carried the injured and the martyrs
using pieces of coal” (Assadi, p. 55).
Eskandari writes in an article entitled “The Movement of Iranian Revolutionary
Art in 1979” that, “The Revolution in 1979 started a political and social change
which took the artists back to their national and religious traditions.
Revolutionary and religious features substituted the official art of Pahlavi time”
(p. 50). Ruyan studies mural after the Islamic Revolution in the following
categories: a) after the revolution, b) wartime and c) after the war. She mentions
that after the revolution, artists worked in agreement with revolutionary actions
and answered the needs of the society aesthetically by painting on large canvases
and walls in the cities. Hannibal Alkhas and his students were such artists. One
of the most famous murals of this time as described by Ruyan is the occupied
American Embassy painted by Hannibal Alkhas and Adham Zarqam. Bahram
Dabiri and Manoochehr Safarzadeh created another famous mural in the
Southern Bus Terminal showing scenes of the daily lives of ordinary people.
17
Figure 2.13: Nilufar Qhaderinezhad.
Technique: Sketching. Revolution 1979
Figure 2.14: The Wall of USA Embassy. Hanibal Alkhas,
Adham Zargham. Taleghani Street. Oil Color on Wall.1980
Iran-Iraq war influenced all social and political aspects. Hassanvand says in his
interview with Samira Ruyan that, “Mural was one of the arts that successfully
reflected the conditions of war”. Kafshchian explained in another interview with
Ruyan that Art Unviersities and Colleges played a major role in this era. (See fig
23). These institutes created many murals in war zones and towns outside these
zones (p. 107). In an interviewed with Ruyan, Mostafa Goodarzi said that
18
amateurs also had a big part in mural creation at this time. They drew copies of
the posters made by professional artists on the walls (p.108). These murals were
more about content than form. Compatibility with architecture and technical
issues were unimportant in their creation. The most important styles used at this
time included realism, symbolism, subjective realism. Plastic colors and oil
colors were vastly used. These works have gradually deteriorated.
Figure 2.15: Iraj Eskandari, Oil Color on Wall,
Palestine Square
As the war ended, the time came for reconstruction and the country moved
towards flourishing and a compensation of war losses. At that period, murals
usually depicted war martyrs in order to endear their memories. Values such as
bravery and sacrifice were shown by symbols such as red tulips, cedar tree and
identification tags accompanied with martyrs’ icons and messages showing the
name of the martyrs and cherishing words. The techniques used for these murals
were plastic color and oil color. Several years after the end of Iran-Iraq war,
many factors caused a change in the form and content of murals. These factors
included urban development, the steep increase in population, denser traffic and
audio and visual pollutions. Such situations required murals that would help with
19
beautifying and pacifying the urban environment while also awakening hope and
high spirits in the population.
Figure 2.16: Martyrs (Hosein, Reza, Mehdi Borhani)
Komeil Street
Figure 2.17: Mural by Mahmood Shoeibi (2005),
Acrylic Technique on Wall
20
The Organization for Urban Beautifying and Urban Graphic intended to give
discipline and direction to murals so that they would follow the above-
mentioned goals. They focused on improving the technique and form instead of
giving priority only to the content and the message conveyed. Although the
social and decorative functions and that of improving the visual space were still
very important, the need for good technique was also brought up just as strongly.
The Organization for Urban Beautifying and Urban Graphic intended to give
discipline and direction to murals so that they would follow the above-
mentioned goals. They focused on improving the technique and form instead of
giving priority only to the content and the message conveyed. Although the
social and decorative functions and that of improving the visual space were still
very important, the need for good technique was also brought up just as strongly.
Techniques were divided into the two categories of enduring and semi-enduring
depending on the endurance of the buildings in question. (Personal Interview
with Arbaboon 2011)
By studying the works of previous murals, we can see why Siqueiros believed
that technique is always developing. We also see how mankind has used
different techniques in different eras based on the aestheticism and the artistic
taste of the era. Also, depending on the function of the art work, artists have
used various styles. For instance in the Qajar Dynasty, depth-processing became
very fashionable so artists used the technique of oil color because it dried slowly
and gave the artist the opportunity to add details.
There is a permanent link between function, content, style, form and technique
and they are constantly affecting each other. As technology develops, the
materials used in art and their availability change. It can be said that technique,
like everything else, is always being discovered and improved by human being.
All these have been formed by using previous experiences, finding new
solutions and making use of latest inventions. Thus materials and their
21
application in art work are influenced by the mentioned procedure of combining
past and present knowledge. For example, in a certain period a certain color was
used that distinguished the color harmony of that period from that of the
previous ones. For instance, for a special kind of azure or red the artist had to
use a special kind of material.
Figure 2.18: Self Portrait of Siqueiros
Siqueiros Theories About Mural
David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896–1974) was born in Chihuahua, Mexico. Siqueiros
is part of “Los Tres Grandes” which means the “Big Three Muralists”. Siqueiros
was the youngest of the three, the other two being Diego Rivera and Jose
Orozco. These three artists were the leaders of the Mexican Mural Movement.
(Hsanvand, p.62-66). Siqueiros trained Jackson Pollack in an experimental
workshop that Siqueiros had started in 1936. (Siqueiros, P. 35). According to
Philip Stein (Siqueiros’s assistant in 1948-58), the writer of Siqueiros: Life and
22
Works, “Alfaro inspired monumental art in the midst of social action and
turmoil. Siqueiros won the top award at the XXV Venice Biennale Exhibition
and unsurpassed as a modern portrait painter, Siqueiros became the muralist
champion of modern realism, who brought his public art forms into direct
relation with the viewer” (Steinp, P.215).
Jennifer Henry writes that Siqueiros, like Rivera and Orozco, believed that
mural as a real art can educate people, make ideal for them and show the people
believed. They wanted to comment in social issue and created a common
national identity to illustrate hope for future by art works (Henry 2). Hassanvand
writes that Siqueiros emphasized content as well as technical experiments.
Siqueiros developed a dynamic and structural art. His language had roots in the
modern aesthetics of cubism and futurism (p.67). In the following sections, we
shall investigate aspects of Siqueiros’s ideas and art. All the citations, unless
otherwise stated, refer to Art and Revolution by David Alfaro Siqueiros.
Figure 2.19: “Art Now and Then.” David Alfaro Siqueiros Mural
Siqueiros and Technique
In Siqueiros’s opinion which he expresses in Art and Revolution, Technique is
of special importance. Siqueiros considers technique, materials and tools so
important in creating art works that even to achieve his ideal realism through
23
expressing forms, he cannot imagine any other way but new technique and
technology. His reason is that this technology incorporates using materials and
tools by science and also through all the complicated mental issues. Old
technique can only create old forms and feelings (Siqueiros, p. 169)”.
Siqueiros also writes that the fact that:
“Tools and materials are of utmost importance, is a fixed
artistic rule. Tools and matter each bring forward their own
fruit. Old matter specifies things created before and each
society with its own industrial aspects relate to a special kind of
matter in a special era. In public art where dimensions are large,
we need to take various factors into consideration. One such
factor is the humidity resulting in saltpeter, natural cracks and
what relates to building subsidence. We must understand that
great scientific, technical and industrial advancements play a
major role in the visual technique and the poetic spirit of our
world. I believe that we have to upgrade our old technique to
the technique of our contemporary industry. This is of course
not gained without prior experience or all of a sudden. Rather it
is the resultant of a slow and error-ridden functional process
from which man always learns.” (p.201)
Siqueiros believed that when it came to the personal experiment of the artist
with technique, tools and matter, experiment and practicality have the highest
priority. Siqueiros pointed out that he himself had never put theory before
action. In Siqueiros’s opinion, artists had to understand the spirit, potentials and
needs of their time. He maintained that,
“Materials and tools are of vital value and this is an immutable
artistic principle. Materials and tools bear their own special fruit
in arts. Each era reflects its own industrial language and
technical status. This is an eternal law. None of my objective
theories about the composition of mural results from an
intellectual idea conceived before experimenting. All of my
theories are the natural products of a chain of logical incidents
which were corrected step by step. The same goes for
materials.” (p.195)
New tools and materials necessitate a new artistic expression which is partly
why different techniques are seen in different periods. For example, Siqueiros
24
used the following modern tools in creating his works: airbrush, camera and
projector.
All this, however, does not mean that the artist is enslaved by the tools and
materials Siqueiros uses. Siqueiros believes that the artist should follow his
creativity while listening to his tools and materials as well. The chain of
incidents that Siqueiros mentioned in explaining how Siqueiros constructed his
theories gains significance here. Siqueiros instructs artists to find the right
texture by experimenting with tools and materials and following their creativity,
but at the same time by welcoming incidents. For Siqueiros, even the smallest
technical details were important. For example, scaffold was something that he
paid a lot of attention to. Siqueiros said that:
“A scaffold should be complete in order to enable the artist to
draw the main lines in a way he called “interspatial harmonious
relations”. The scaffold should also be light and mechanic so
that it can be installed and removed quickly and also make it
possible for the artist to reach any spot on the wall. It should be
portable and revolving in all directions.” (p.201)
Even a tool such as scaffold can play an important role in creative art. Each tool
introduces its own potentials, opening new channels for artists’ creativity.
Form and Style in Siqueiros’s Opinion
Siqueiros found form and style very important in all artistic expressions,
especially in visual arts which are physical, forms and styles and finally
aesthetic principles that derive from them are all a result of conclusive functions
and similar techniques. Siqueiros mentions that:
“Conclusive function of the art means that art in all its eras had
a conclusive quality. In other words, a single art existed that
was exhibited in architecture, sculpture, painting and color
printing. This visual unity and cohesion was a result of the
unity of function; a function that was born of loyalty to
geographical and local conditions and working with techniques,
materials and tools that complied with each other historically.
This conclusive function was also committed to the social-
aesthetic goals of its time.” (p. 303)
25
All elements should work together so as to establish a harmony and create this
conclusive function. In this way, an organic art work will result that appeals to
the society. Siqueiros states that:
“New methods for materials require new methods for forms.
This relates to new methods, composition and perspective,
because old methods are very fixed, rigid, mechanical and
stagnant in the philosophical sense of the word, not suitable for
the dynamic spaces and dynamic architecture.” (p.174-175)
In dynamic architecture, rectangles, squares, circles and other shapes are not
fixed shapes anymore, but can change into all imaginable geometric shapes. In
the dynamic, new composition and perspective, the spectator is no longer treated
as fixed but considered a mobile subject that can move in innumerable
directions. Siqueiros says about style that it should not be chosen before starting
the work. The decision about style should be made during working. When the
beginning is wrong, i.e. when the style is decided upon beforehand, the work
will finish wrong too. Style is not the startup of artistic dynamism but its result.
Siqueiros believes that muralists should visit the location of the mural and take
into consideration environment, spectator and architecture and then keep
function in mind to reach a form and style as their work progresses. Form and
style cannot be determined beforehand, otherwise they will fall into isolation and
the art work will not be organic. Siqueiros writes:
“The fact is that the contemporary world thinks style to be not
the end and peak of aesthetic and practical functions, but both
cause and effect. In murals, style is determined by architectural
factors and if the place is to have a decorative function, the
style is also influenced by spatial and cultural factors. If you
start a work by determining the style beforehand, you have
destroyed everything before you have begun. In our group work
we saw that individualist artists not only began their work with
a predetermined style, but each tried to execute their own
special style. They worked like good artists on canvas,
completely forgot about the spatial sense of composition and
each painted a separate area.” (p.183)
26
Therefore, unlike the belief of many artists who think that form and style are the
first elements to be decided in murals, the first step should be visiting the
location and considering the wall, function and environment.
Siqueiros emphasized that in murals, more than other types of painting, the artist
must go from general to particular. In murals the main focus should be on major
volumes which are the base of later details. Depending on the distance from
which the image is to be observed, the redundant elements of the image must be
eliminated, for example facial lines and all anatomical details. In great
observation distances, these elements do nothing but weaken the structure of the
image (p. 203). The reason that the artist should go from general to particular is
that the mural should be in harmony with the whole ambience and this is why it
is best to comply with Siqueiros’s advice and move from general to particular.
The Features of Murals in Outdoor Environment
Siqueiros says that:
“Murals in outdoor environment cannot be left entirely flat and
artists must use sculpture-like reliefs. When flat forms are
observed outdoors, they will lose objective power in
competition with the three-dimensional forms of trees, houses
and other surrounding things .” (p.304-305)
Siqueiros developed his sculpture-like painting style with regard to the above
issue. In the outdoors, because of the sunlight and the effect of light and shadow
on volumes, the value of volume becomes more than surfaces. This is why
Siqueiros emphasizes that sculpture and relief should be used in murals and
artists should not use only flat techniques. Siqueiros explained that:
“Outdoors murals are often observed by spectators riding in a
car. This type of observation creates new issues in relation to
the composition. The focal radius of such spectators is a lot
bigger and more complex than an indoor spectator of murals.
27
Since the spectator looks at the work from the longest angle, a
multi-angular collection is needed.” (304-5)
This is even truer today because of highways and high speeds of the spectators.
So muralists should note this and establish the rhythm of the lines and forms so
that they conform to the time that the mural is seen by the spectator on the move.
Siqueiros had worked on this issue and was pleased with his achievements.
Siqueiros believed that in such murals, the sculpture-like reliefs should not be
static as before because such stasis would be in conflict with the new
composition based on the moving spectator. It would also be in conflict with the
role of these reliefs in increasing the three-dimensional effect of the mural. The
forms that take the shape of sculptures must be capable of being pulled and
tightened just like paintings. One of the most important issues in outdoors
murals is size. Siqueiros criticizes those who think that body shapes, big subjects
and even big spaces diminish the eternity of the building. Siqueiros said that:
“Using the big image of body when this image had to be
observed from afar was inevitable. The spectator made a mental
comparison to his own body and thus the scale of the building
seemed even bigger to him.” (306)
Siqueiros also supported a big size for outdoor murals because mural is a public,
social art. According to Siqueiros:
“Direct sunlight with extremely varying intensity complicates
outdoor murals even further. For example, absolute whiteness
in indoor mural enhances brightness. However, whiteness in
open air and in relation to other colors reflects light and looks
like a hole. (p.305).
As Siqueiros points out muralists should experiment with colors in the light of
outdoors to practically see which colors are more suitable with the conditions in
which the murals are to be created.
28
The Relationship of the Spectator and Mural
The spectator is a mobile creature that can observe the art work from
innumerable angles. Each of these angles in turn changes the optic surface of the
art work in indefinite numbers of ways. In fact, the spectator is not a statue but a
person who walks on a flat surface and his movement moves all the geometric
shapes around him.Siqueiros suggests using a multi-angular method which is a
necessity in the art of mural, since it addresses the many angles from which a
spectator can look at the mural. A separate composition and arrangement is
made for each angle and then the compositions of each angle must be juxtaposed
in a manner that the spectator imagines them as real from whatever point of view
that he might have.
Public art Theories
The theories of Siqueiros led later to what has been called ‘public art’. Murals
nowadays are a branch of public art. In an article entitled “Public Art and Its
Combination with Urban Space,” Salman Moradi writes:
“Urban planners and designers all over the world see public art
-the art that is in the public sphere, dealing with the public
space of the cities, parks, streets, public buildings and all the
spaces used by people -- as a strong and influential element that
can bring about the social, economic and cultural growth and
improvement of cities and public spaces. Public art is formed
based on the social structure of art. Public art is not a new
concept. The city has always been a carrier for cultural and
social effects, accommodating diverse branches of permanent
art (monuments, special buildings, memorials, landscape
decorations and urban furniture) and per formative art (events,
activities, dramatic performances and musical performances).
The characteristics of public art include being communal,
beneficial, supportive, democratic and meaningful.” (p.81-90)
Siavash Armajani, an Iranian artist and theorist, has some interesting ideas about
public art:
“Public art wants to make art public and the artist one of the
public. Public art is committed to carry out its duty. Public art is
29
a cultural and social product, stemming from public cultural
and social needs.” (p.10-11).
As a public art that benefits every member of the society is one of the arts in the
public art category and therefore what Armajani says apply to mural as well.
“In a research conducted by the Department of Education,
Employment and Workplace Relations in Australia, it is written
that “Public art work may consist of work which is devised by
an individual artist, the outcome of a community development
process or the result of collaboration between artists.” (p.8).
In the same research, we read that public art work include murals, architectural
forms, light work, sculpture while techniques used in public art include
ceramics, digital, photography, electronic art, drawing, painting, fiber/textile
work, light, laser, sound. This research states that materials used in public art
can be wood, glass, film, fiber, plantings, water and oil based paints, marine
paints, clay and metals among the rest while tools and equipment may include
computer, engravers, polishing equipment, camera, looms, protective clothing,
scaffold, crane.
Malcolm Miles explains that art has several impacts on public spaces. It creates
passion and emotion in the place. It creates a sense of commitment in the people
who use the place and involves them with the place. It also helps to regenerate
the urban space. Dani Karavan as an artist who designs and makes sculptures for
public spaces claims that the goal of public art is to invite people to socialize and
relate to the environment, materials, memories and in short to themselves. Not
all art created in the public space is public art. Karavan enumerates the following
factors that are in common between all public art works:
(i) Commissioned by private and public institutions.
(ii) The exact position can be either in a city or in nature.
(iii) At the time of commissioning it must be determined if the work is just for
a limited period related to a known event or is to be permanent. Also, it must
30
be determined how long the artist needs for preparing and creating the art
work.
(iv) The goal of the commission and the most appropriate use for the art work
must be known.
(v) The financial means available to the artist must be known.
Remesar suggests the following parameters for evaluating public art works:
Parameters to evaluate Indicators
Identity Distinctiveness,Entity,
Wholeness,
Independence from context
Structure Color Shape,Scale,Form,Materials
Meaning Functionality,Recognizability,Codi
ficability,Usefulness,Coherencebili
ty,Fitness to the Context
Table 2.1 : Remesar’s Parameters for Evaluating
Public Art Works
Tony Bovaird says that public art can have a major role in increasing the
economic level of a city. Now that we have discussed the historical and
theoretical backgrounds of the subject of this dissertation, it is time to review
some of the seminal books and articles related to this subject. Thus mural as a
public art can become a source of income for the country as long as its artistic
merits are not sacrificed for the sake of financial concerns.
31
Table 2.2: Tony Bovaird. Objectives for
Urban Regeneration
32
Now researcher discussed about historical and theoretical backgrounds of the
subject of this dissertation, it is time to review some of the seminar papers,
journals, books, and articles related to this subject.
Discussion of Previous Researches
Before starting to review the more related sources, the researcher shall briefly
look at the past studies that have touched on murals. The following three sources
are the ones used in this dissertation as reference for the historical aspect of the
research. In The Story of Art by Ernest Hans Josef Gombrich (2006) studies
murals in all eras and civilizations past and present It investigates the prehistoric
times, ancient Egypt, Christianity, ancient Iran, Mesopotamia, ancient Rome,
Greece, China, India, Africa, and Mexico in the modern times. By reading this
book which is one of the best sources in the history of arts, reader grasps the
importance of murals in different eras, their techniques and their functions.
A book entitled L’Art de L’Iran (1993) in two volumes by Ghirishman studies
the art in ancient Iran and it emphasizes on murals as the main art in the Medes,
Achaemenian and Sassanian dynasties. In books such as Persian Miniature
Painting by Laurence Binyon (2004) murals in Zand and Qajar dynasties are
briefly mentioned.In the rest of literature review, the researcher has chosen some
texts more relevant to this dissertation and they are more or less representative
of other sources. The article entitled “The Movement of Mural Arts in Mexico”
by Hassanvand summarizes the factors of mural formation as a public art.
In a book called Murals in Iran: Zand and Qajar Dynasties in Shiraz (2002),
Sharifzadeh states that architecture and murals have a close relationship and also
that the government’s predilections have affected the murals of the time.
Nevertheless, it seems that this book is more concerned with the city of Shiraz,
its development and its buildings rather than mural arts. The abundance of
selected works and their photos is valuable because some of thse works are
33
being deteriorated over time and the documentation offered by these photos is
important. But the works are not analyzed from all angles and they are treated in
a statistical or merely introducing manner.
An article entitled “Exploring the Features of Mural Arts” (2005) by Kafshchian
tries to probe influential factors in this area of arts which he considers a
multimedia art. The author believes that murals have much potential in various
structures including aesthetical, social, psychological, cultural, artistic and
political frameworks. The important characteristics he enumerates for murals
include the relationships between the mural on the one hand and the wall,
architecture, environment and spectators on the other. Kafshchian has also
investigated technique. Although the researcher agrees that murals have a strong
impact on spectators and the environment, he also maintains that the
environment and community have a reciprocal effect on the form and content of
murals.
Another source is the book by Pakbaz entitled Painting in Iran: Past and
Present (2000) which looks at Iranian paintings from ancient times to modern
times. This book includes all types of paintings, from book illustrations to wall
paintings in different eras, exploring their characteristics from the aesthetic
viewpoint. Unfortunately, contemporary wall-paintings are not included in this
study and only teahouse paintings are mentioned. This is unusual because in the
past fifty years the presence of murals among Iranian arts has been felt very
strongly.
Whether the reason behind this shortcoming is a lack of valid published sources
or that the author did not want to risk looking at artworks too close to his time or
a discontinuance that he saw between past trends of mural art and modern ones,
this is a gap in research that has to be filled by a careful study of recent murals
and the factors influential on them which this research hopes to achieve.
34
Another study will use a dissertation called “Exploring Contemporay Murals in
Tehran Before and After the Revolution” (2008) by Rooyan abstracted in Fine
Arts Journal (2009) which studies murals regarding qualitative and basic
changes. The author considers the murals created in Pahlavi era as more
decorative, in the post-revolution era as containing social and political concepts
and in the wartime as event recorder and creating symbols based on martyrdom
and bravery. Rooyan’s dissertation is written with great attention to details, but
even here there is no reference to social changes and the governments’ policies
or how these changes are reflected in the works of art and strengthen or weaken
them.
In spite of the author’s efforts, the main role played by the society and its
changes in arts, specifically mural arts, is either neglected or just transiently
touched. In other words, the extra step of relating the types of works and the
differences in technique in each era to social challenges is not taken in Rooyan’s
dissertation. This dissertation is also used in the historical section of the present
research. In an article entitled “How to Organize Murals” Kafshchian
investigates the importance of walls as the practical carrier for the execution of
murals. Kafshchian maintains that a wall can be studied from four angles: visual,
expressive, technological and demonstrative. In this article he studies only the
visual angle in more detail and under the following four topics:
(i) The general features of the wall (e.g. whether the wall is indoors or outdoors,
dependent on architecture or independent, simple or complex, regular or
irregular, vertical or horizontal).
(ii) Physical and quantitative features (e.g. length, width, height, depth, height
from the horizon, shape and form such as being conclave or convex)
(iii) Visual obstacles (e.g. being natural or artificial, enduring or non-enduring,
being fixed or transient like architecture, passer byes, vehicles.)
35
(iv) Geographical location in relation to the neighboring environment,
geographical directions. Kafshchian (2011) summarizes this article by saying
that:
“Murals are formed as a result of the harmonious
interaction between the wall and the environment,
architecture, cultural and historical atmosphere and the
spectator. Research must be considered a necessary stage
in the preliminary creation of murals and the artist should
achieve the subject and the visual structure of the work
by seeking to know the visual and expressive potentials
of the wall.” (p.49)
Another article reviewed here is written by Kafshchian and Alavinezhad and is
entitled, “A Research into the Materials Used in Murals.” In this article the
importance of materials is considered vital and getting familiar with materials
for the muralist is called inevitably necessary. Materials are categorized into the
following four groups: (i) Carrier (base) which is the wall. (ii) Underlying
materials (connection layer). (iii) Main materials. (iv) Fixing materials.
This research used Siqueiros’s theories, dividing materials to old (e.g. colored
powders, pottery, plaster.) and new (e.g. light, plants, gases, liquids, audio-
visual). This article studies materials quantitatively and qualitatively, taking the
following aspects into consideration: physical, chemical, mechanical and
functional properties and visual, spiritual and economic effects). The writers
summarize that in modern art there are no limitations in choosing materials.
Rather, the huge variety incites creativity. However, the artist must completely
know the requirements of the wall on the one hand and the characteristics of the
materials on the other.
The next article is “Modern Materials in Contemporary Murals” written by
Kafshchian about the value and importance of contemporary technique and
materials. Kafshchian considers the modern mural to be a multidimensional and
complex art. The artist is faced with the taste and situation of the spectator in
36
front of the wall and on the other hand he is conditioned by time, place,
technology and the other conditions under which he is creating the mural.
Since the modern architecture is constantly changing, using different materials
every day, the artist must be familiar with new techniques and materials, because
in the past architecture used local materials and each area and each tribe
captured its own religious, regional and cultural features in its traditional local
structure. However, nowadays there are no borders or limitations for materials
because of reasons pertaining to business, technology. Therefore, murals should
follow architecture and materials in transcending limits.
Kafshchian summarizes that if an artist has complete knowledge in choosing
materials, he can use the best options regarding each situation and especially the
budget. He says that expenses should be economically defendable. For example
in an outdoor work in large dimensions, it is not suitable to use fresco technique
that would be time-consuming and expensive. These three articles have each
considered murals from a different angle, each treating one of its aspects. One
studies the wall as the carrier of the work, the second studies the importance of
materials and their variety and emphasizes the importance of the artist’s
familiarity with different materials and his care in choosing the right ones. In the
third, the importance of modern materials and their compliance with modern
architecture and technology is under study. Each of these sources are related to
this dissertation in one way or another but the present dissertation investigates
technique in murals whereas none of these articles give much emphasis to this
matter.
Two important books are also quoted extensively in this dissertation. One is
Mural from Design to Restoration by Mansoor Hessami. This useful source
studies all techniques and materials used in murals and explain the various ways
they could be executed. Then it discusses the maintenance and restoration of
murals.This book investigates different issues in murals from a technical point of
37
view, familiarizing us with the method; materials and techniques used by our
predecessors and introduced materials as well. But this book only includes
traditional materials and techniques such as fresco, secco, tempera, mosaic.
Also, it only discusses technical matters and does not concern itself with
aesthetic issues.
Finally the very important book of Art and Revolution by Siqueiros must be
reviewed here. This book includes autobiography and a collection of articles and
speeches given by this great Mexican artist. In this book he studies murals in
detail and we can say that technique and its importance in murals is one of the
major themes of this book. In explaining about his works and experiments on
walls, Siqueiros talks about the relationship between technique and materials
and their importance in advancing the work. Siqueiros considers mural a social
art, because it belongs to the public. It speaks to them and exists in public places
in the reach of all classes of the society.
Siqueiros analyzes the art works created before him with scrutiny and believes
that one should use previous achievements and arts and blow the spirit of one’s
time in them. This can only be done by using modern techniques. Siqueiros
considers style to be born of technique, achieved through experimenting and
practical work, not the other way round. This book is full of important and
valuable points that look fresh even after many years and his achievements can
still be used. Siqueiros made predictions that are coming true today. Many
researches and articles still quote him vastly. Siqueiros experienced murals with
all his being.
38
Conclusion
We cannot ignore the social aspect in analyzing murals and their
functions. However, the effectiveness of such functionality depends directly on
technique. Without a strong technique, the created artwork will not be long-
lasting, it will fail in delivering its message and it will not be able to attract a
wide spectrum of spectators.
39
Bibliography
Arnold, H. (1999). The Social History of Art: Renaissance, Mannerism, and
Baroque. London: Routledge
Creswell J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative research (3rd
. Ed.).New Jersey:
Pearson Education Inc
D’ Alleva, A. (2010). How to Write Art History. (2nd
. Ed.) London: Laurence
King Publishing
Eskandari, I. (2006) . “Iranian revolutionary art movement”. (Persian text).
Visual Arts Journal. Issue 25. Tehran: Tehran University Press : 50-53.
Gombrich, E. H. (2006).The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press
Gardner, H. ( ). Art Through the Ages.
Pakbaz, R. (1999). Encyclopedia of Art. (Persian text). Tehran: Farhang Moaser
Philip, S. (1994). Siqueiros life and work. United State: International Publishers
Company
Siqueiros, D. A. (1983) . Art and Revolution.Trans. Farideh Shabanfar. Tehran:
Donyae
40