Instructor's Guide

Two Approaches to Solving Community Concerns: Problem-Solving vs. Appreciative Inquiry

Capacity Inventory of Individuals

Community Participation and Leadership Inventory

Inventory of Local Institutions Worksheet

Group Skills of Volunteer Organization Members

PowerPoint Presentation

Asset Mapping Database

Lionel J. Beaulieu, Southern Rural Development Center

IntroductionIn many communities across the country, it

is not uncommon for local leaders and citi-zens to assemble together to try to make theircommunity an even better place in which tolive. Unfortunately, the beginning point forthese discussions usually is focused on the var-ious problems and concerns existing in thecommunity. In some cases, these communitygroups seek the advice of friends and neigh-bors as to what they feel are the major prob-lems. In other instances, elaborate community-wide surveys are conducted of local residentsseeking their input on various topics.

In the end, what is produced is a laundrylist of all the problems being experienced byresidents of these communities. The list mightinclude concerns with the local school system,the lack of health services, transportationproblems, inadequate child care services, limit-ed availability of jobs that pay a decent wage,or the lack of good recreation programs forchildren. No matter what community you aretalking about, or how big or small the com-munity might be in terms of population, com-munity groups that begin taking a hard lookat their community by first documenting allof its “problems,” are already starting thingsoff on the wrong foot.

That’s not to suggest that communitiesshould try to sweep all their problems underthe rug. What it does indicate is the best wayto effectively address the challenges that facecommunities is to have a good knowledge ofthe resources available to work on local issues.So, an important beginning point involvesmapping the assets of the community — theskills and talents of local residents, as well asthe capabilities available or possible throughlocal organizations and institutions. Collect-ively, these resources offer the wherewithal toaddress the host of important issues impactingthe community.

In this brief article, a procedure for mappingthe assets of a community is described. Theapproach is one that has been developed byJohn P. Kretzmann and John L. McKnight intheir book, Building Communities From theInside Out: A Path Toward Finding andMobilizing a Community’s Assets [4]. It is aprocess that can be used in any community,and offers an effective strategy for involving avariety of people and organizations in helpingbring about improvements in a communities.

While this document embraces many of thekey concepts advanced in the Kretzmann andMcKnight volume, we seek to extend theirwork in two important ways. First, we offer a

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Mapping theAssets of Your

Community: A Key component

for Building LocalCapacity

Lionel J. Beaulieu, Southern Rural Development Center

creative strategy foruncovering the poolof individuals whohave the ingredientsfor taking on greatercommunity leader-ship responsibilities.Second, we discussthe role that com-munity asset map-ping can play inpromoting the typeof community development that is concernedwith engaging local people in communityenhancement efforts.

Before moving into a more in-depth treat-ment of asset mapping, we wish to offer anoverview of the needs assessment process. Wedescribe this approach and contrast its key fea-tures with those associated with communityasset mapping. While brief, our discussion isintended to illustrate that local ownership ofthe needs assessment effort is less likely tooccur if not preceded with a sound communi-ty asset mapping activity.

Major Features of theNeeds Assessment andAsset Mapping Approaches

It was not that many years ago that mostpeople involved in community developmentactivities felt that one of the critical first stepsin carrying out any community improvementefforts was to uncover the set of problems orconcerns existing in a community. In manyrespects, this appeared to be a logical step.

Most communitieshave finite resources— be they human,physical, or finan-cial — and as such,communities musttake a hard look atwhat problems existin their community.In its simplest form,what needs assess-ment does is pro-

vide a formal tool for identifying local needs,placing needs in order of priority, and targetingresources to help resolve local problemsdeemed to be of critical importance to the wel-fare of the community.

One of the unfortunate by-products of start-ing a community development initiative withthe use of a needs assessment tool is that ittransmits to local people the impression theircommunity has many shortcomings. Thisshould not be surprising in light of how“needs” are defined. The commonly accepteddefinition of a “need” is that it represents agap or discrepancy between an existing state ofaffairs (the what is) and a desired or preferredresult (the what should be) [1]. Just imaginehow communities feel when at the end oftheir needs assessment project, they find them-selves confronted with a laundry list of all thethings that are wrong with their local areas.Rather, it suggests that community develop-ment should begin with a systematic assess-ment of the assets that exist in the communi-ty. There are three major arenas that serve asfocal point for uncovering community assets:

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In its simplest form, what needsassessment does is provide a

formal tool for identifying localneeds, placing needs in order of

priority importance, and targeting resources to help

resolve local problems deemed to be of critical importance to the

welfare of the community.

What Is?What Should

Be?A B

A Need“Gap Between A & B”

for uncovering community assets: residents, formal institutions, and informal organizations located within the community.

Once we know the full breadth of people, organizational, and institutional resources that exist in a community, we can then move in the direction of undertaking a needs assessment. Thus, as priori-ty “needs” are uncovered, we have excellent information about the rich pool of people and groups who have the type of skills and interests needed to tackle these difficult issues.

Table 1 briefly describes the distinguishing features of a community development pro-cess that begins with “needs” versus “assets.” As noted earlier, when “needs assessment” is employed as the first strategy for determining which issues communities should be working on, a long list of local deficiencies are typically uncovered. Because the number of concerns are so voluminous, it is not uncommon for these concerns to be simply passed on to those insti-tutions typically responsible for addressing such problems. So, education issues are given to the school board, social services to the human ser-vices agencies, economic development concerns to the chamber of commerce or economic development authority, land use issues to local government officials, and safety concerns to law enforcement agencies.

This type of divvying up of local problems has some serious shortcomings. For one, it tends to result in a fragmentation in response to local concerns given that only a limited number of people and organizations are involved in addressing local needs. Second, it does not allow local people and groups to explore links that might exist among these concerns. For example, successful economic development activities often are dependent upon the availability of a skilled and educated work force, as well as the availability of good community services.

Unless all the people and organizations who are involved in these various sectors of the community are working together, it is quite possible that one sector could embrace strate-gies that will have negative impacts on the other sectors. Third, local agencies charged with the responsibility of addressing these issues generally respond by establishing new programs or policies. As such, the people being targeted with these programs or policies end up being “consumers” of such activities. In essence, they become dependent on those organizations and agencies that have imple-mented services to address certain local needs. Finally, the needs approach often denies com-munity residents an opportunity to have a voice in determining how local concerns can best be addressed.

In comparison, asset mapping begins with the philosophy that all local residents, regard-less of age, gender, race, ethnic background, place of residence, or other characteristics, can play an effective role in addressing important local matters. Local people and organizations are encouraged to explore how problems might be interrelated, and to respond to these issues in a coordinated, collaborative fashion. Furthermore, they are asked to give of their time and talents in implementing the strategies they have had a voice in devising. Through it all, local people and groups feel a sense of empowerment because they have been part of

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Table 1: Contrasting the “Needs” vs. “Assets” Approach to Community Enhancement.

Needs Assets

Focusesondeficiencies Focusesoneffectiveness

Resultsinfragmentationof Buildsinterdependenciesresponsestolocalneeds

Makespeopleconsumersof Identifieswaysthatpeopleservices;buildsdependence cangiveoftheirtalents

Residentshavelittlevoiceindecidinghowtoaddress Seekstoempowerpeoplelocalconcerns

Sources:KretzmannandMcKnight[4]andFiscusandFlora[2].

Defining CommunityDevelopment

We hear a good deal about communitydevelopment. But not everyone has the sameview of what community development means.Some believe it refers to “development IN thecommunity,” while others view it as “develop-ment OF the community.” Believe it or not,there is a big difference between the words“IN” and “OF” when speaking of communitydevelopment. Development “IN” the commu-nity suggests the major interest is on attractingnew businesses, new facilities or new servicesto the community. It represents efforts to doall that can be done to add to the physical,service and economic infrastructure of a com-munity. This is sometimes referred to as the“bricks and mortar” approach to communitydevelopment.

Development “OF” the community, howev-er, does not have the physical, service and eco-nomic infrastructure as its major focus, at leastnot at first. Rather, it seeks to uncover andexpand the knowledge and skills of people inthe community. The belief is that community-wide improvements (be they physical, serviceor economic infrastructure) cannot be fullyrealized unless people representing all parts ofthe community are involved in deciding thefuture of their community. So, the emphasis ison finding the talents that exist in the com-munity and locating people with the potentialto be community leaders [5]. Building on theskills that people already have serves as thebest foundation for dealing with the variety ofconcerns that exist in the community. Assuch, asset mapping represents an essentialstep in promoting the development “OF” thecommunity.

According to Kretzmann and McKnight,community development activities that arebased on asset mapping share three importantcharacteristics:

Asset-based: Community development

efforts begin by developing an understand-ing of what exists in the community rightnow — the abilities of local residents, asso-ciations, and institutions. It does not beginby focusing on what is wrong with thecommunity or what may be missing.

Internally Focused: Strategic planning orpriority setting focuses on assets foundwithin the community and does not relyupon the advice of outside experts or con-sultants.

Relationship Driven: Local people, infor-mal organizations and institutions workhard to connect with one another in orderto be sure they are working as a team, andnot against one another. This means thatgood communication is essential.

It Begins With IndividualsUsing “asset mapping” as a technique is

most likely to be successful if the individuals,organizations, and communities using this pro-cedure truly believe that every community —no matter how small, or how poor — has arich pool of assets. Successfully locating thetalents of individuals requires a genuine beliefin the following principles:

• Every person has talents, skills, and giftsimportant to a community.

• Each time individuals use these abilities,the community in which they live isstrengthened and these people feel asense of empowerment.

• Strong communities are places wherethe capacities of local individuals areidentified, valued, and used.

• The development “OF” the communityis built upon the talents and resourcesof its members.

Inventorying the individual assets of a com-munity involves the use of a tool called the

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Capacity Inventory of Individuals (CapacityInventory). The Capacity Inventory consists offour important parts:

• Skills Information

• Community Skills

• Enterprising Interests and Experience

• Personal Information

Each of these components are describedmore fully in Table 2. The Capacity Inventoryrepresents an effective strategy for uncoveringthe variety of talents in the community. It isessential that this valuable pool of informationbe acted upon. To do so, a well-developedplan for translating this information intoaction is important. Have a good feel for whythis information is being collected, how it isgoing to be used, what timetable you will befollowing to match the skills of local peoplewith improvement activities of the community.A detailed Capacity Inventory form, that canbe administered to community or neighbor-hood residents, is provided.

Tapping the Talents ofEmerging Leaders

In every community, there is an existingcadre of individuals who perform leadershiproles, either in visible ways or behind thescenes, within the community. These personsmay occupy formal positions of authority inthe community, such as local government orpolitical leaders. Others may be employed inimportant positions within the business, indus-trial or financial sectors of the community. Allin all, these individuals have access to impor-tant resources that can be mobilized to inf lu-ence the outcome of many local issues ofimportance to the welfare of the community.

However, there are a number of people whohave not taken on community leadership roles,but who have the ingredients that make themideal candidates to be engaged in leadershipactivities. All it takes is an opportunity to exer-cise these talents. These individuals often havehad modest involvement in community-relatedactivities. These experiences, however limitedin their nature, provide the building blocks forexpanding leadership in the community.

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Table 2: Components of Capacity Inventory of Individuals

Part I. Skills Information• Lists all the skills that the person has learned at

home, at school, in the community, or at theirplace or work.

• Identify the “priority skills” the individual feelshe/she possesses (the things they feel they arebest at).

Part III. Enterprising Interests and Experience

• Gather information on whether the person hasever considered starting a business and whetherthe individual is currently involved in running abusiness of any type.

• Document what barriers are preventing the per-son from starting his/her own business; or, if theyalready operate their own business, what couldhelp the person make his/her business evenstronger.

Part II. Community Skills• Identify the different types of community work

in which the person has participated.

• Identify the type of community work the personwould be will to take part in at some time in thefuture.

Part IV. Personal Information• Collect just a few person information items about

the individual in order to be able to follow-upwith him/her at the appropriate time.This wouldinclude name, address, and telephone number.

How might we uncover those individualswho represent prime candidates as “emerging”leaders in your locality? Certainly, the CapacityInventory serves as a good beginning point forcarrying out such an assessment (see the sec-tion that explores the “Community Skills” ofindividuals). However, if you wish to conduct amore extensive assessment of individuals whomay have the seeds of leadership in a commu-nity, we have prepared a new document titled,Community Participation and LeadershipInventory. This questionnaire delves moredeeply into the type of community-relevantactivities that individuals may have beenengaged in over the course of the past fewyears. The inventory explores local residents’involvement in the following activities:

• Political or Governmental Efforts

• Community, Civic and ServiceOrganizations

• Religious Organizations

• Social and Recreational Activities

• Patriotic and Fraternal Groups

• Education and Youth Organizations

Active involvement in one or more of theorganizations highlighted in this inventory, orworking on specific issues of importance tothe neighborhood or community, constitutethe very seeds of leadership. As John Gardner[3] notes, “tomorrow’s leaders will likely havebegun their work by being involved in morespecialized types of activities in the communi-ty.” The Community Participation andLeadership Inventory is designed to help localareas uncover the leadership potential of localresidents, including the leadership talents ofthose individuals who have been historicallyleft out of decision-making activities withinthe local community. The key is to make surethat these individuals are offered the opportu-nity to further advance their leadership skillsand to be part of a broader, more diversified

local leadership that seeks to include, ratherthan exclude, local people in important com-munity decision-making activities.

Local Institutions Can HelpBuild Community Capacity

There are certain activities that take placewhich are intended to meet the basic needs ofour society. For example, the family plays acritical role in nurturing, protecting and rais-ing their young. Every society finds a way tomeet the social needs of its people. This alsohappens to be true for many communities.When the strategies for meeting the needs of acommunity become formal, and expectationsdevelop as to who is responsible for carryingout certain activities, or how people areexpected to behave, then we have the makingsof an institution. Institutions represent pat-terned activities that are designed to meetimportant social needs of local residents.Carrying out these important functions isessential if communities are to continue exist-ing over time. They may be provided by pub-lic, private or nonprofit entities.

One of the best ways to remember whatmajor institutions exist in your community isto think of the word KEEPRA. Each letter rep-resents an institution commonly found inmost communities. They are as follows:

• Kinship (Family): The family carries outa number of important activities, such asthe care and socialization of the young,providing food, housing, and nurturingfor family members, and the biologicalreproduction of the human race.

• Economic: This involves the produc-tion, distribution, and consumption ofgoods and services in a community. Thecommunity’s economic system influ-ences the kind of work is available,where jobs are located, how much peo-ple earn, the quality of the work envi-ronment, the prospects for future jobs,

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Figure 1: The Community’s Major Institutions

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Kinship

Education

Religious Associations

Political

Economic

and the level of unemployment andunderemployment in the area.

• Education: The major function of edu-cation is to prepare youth to be success-ful, contributing members of societyupon reaching adulthood. This includespreparing them for the world of work,but also passing onto them knowledge,values, beliefs, andaccepted ways ofbehaving (what weoften call “norms”)that we believeyoung members ofour communityshould learn.

• Political (Government): The political(or governmental) institution is the arenain which power and authority is acquiredand exercised. Its major functionsinclude: (1) protecting the life, libertyand property of local residents (such asenforcing laws and providing police pro-tection); (2) regulating conflict, includingdeveloping procedures and practices forresolving disputes; and (3) planning,coordinating, and providing public facili-ties and services to local residents.

• Religious: The religious institutionplays an important role in attending tothe spiritual needs of local citizens. Inaddition, it serves as an importantsource of support for certain moral val-ues, norms, and customs. It also pro-vides residents with personal support intime of need.

• Associations: Associations refer to thecivic, service, social, fraternal, and othervoluntary organizations available for peo-ple to participate in local activities. Theyoperate with formal constitutional rulesand by-laws, and operate with a team ofofficers and/or a board of directors.

Communities vary in terms of the availabili-ty and strength of their institutions. For exam-ple, large communities have many schools andchurches and a good number of full-time paidprofessionals working for the local govern-ment. In rural areas, however, one might findonly one high school, a few churches, and alocal government managed by officials who

are paid little or no salary.

• Link the assets ofindividuals with the inter-ests and capabilities of localinstitutions. For example,individuals who are interest-ed in establishing a micro-loan program to supportthe creation of home-based

businesses could link up with a local financialinstitution and the community chamber ofcommerce, two groups who may have indicat-ed an interest in exploring innovative strategiesfor stimulating local economic developmentactivities.

• Actively work to build links betweenlocal institutions with interests and capabilitiesthat complement one another. These types ofmutually beneficial relationships are what liesat the center of asset-based development.

• Build ties between local institutions andresources existing outside the community. Thisinvolves making use of links that local institu-tions have with larger systems — links that canprovide financial, human, or physical resourcesto the community. For example, a local bankthat is part of a larger state or regional bank-ing system has access to a large pool of finan-cial capital outside the local area, which canbe re-directed to support community improve-ment activities.

Informal Organizations:Another Vital Link

The third dimension of the asset mapping

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Informal organizationscan be key players in helping promote the

betterment of any community or

neighborhood.

process involves carrying out an inventory ofthe various informal organizations found in acommunity. Such informal groups tend toinvolve people who share a common interest,such as hunting, youth sports leagues, bowl-ing, crime prevention, religious, or politicalinterests. These groups, while successful inusing the skills and talents of many individu-als, are quite informal in their structure. Thus,they have no constitution or by-laws, have noformal slate of officers/board of directors ormembers, and tend to gather only when theneed arises. One example of an informalorganization is the neighborhood crime pre-vention group that meets on an “as needed”basis to discuss ways to reduce crime in theirneighborhoods.

Informal organizations can be key players inhelping promote the betterment of any com-munity or neighborhood. In many respects,this is because many local people tend to con-tribute their talents to local activities that aresponsored by such informal groups. It isthrough these informal entities that local resi-dents tend to feel empowered.

Examples of informal organizations likely tobe found in most communities include:

• Church Groups: prayer groups, steward-ship committee, youth group, servicegroup

• Community Celebrations Committees:Annual Fair Committee, Arts and CraftsFestival Committee, July 4th ParadeCommittee

• Neighborhood Groups: crime watch,homeowner’s association

• Sports Leagues: bowling, basketball,baseball, fishing, hunting clubs

Doing An Inventory ofLocal InformalOrganizations

There are at least three ways in which an

inventory of local informal organizations canbe undertaken:

Step 1: EXAMINE PRINTED MATERIALS

The following sources can prove invaluablein identifying some of the informal groupsexisting in a community:

• Newspapers and local magazines thatmight highlight the work of local infor-mal organizations

• Community directories that list bothformal and informal service organiza-tions in the community

Step 2: CONTACT LOCAL FORMALINSTITUTIONS

Many of the more formal organizations maybe aware of informal groups that have beenorganized in a community or neighborhood.It is not unusual for such groups to use thefollowing institutions as a gathering place fortheir meetings.

• Libraries

• Parks and Recreational Facilities

• Churches

• Schools

Step 3: CONTACT LOCAL INDIVIDUALS

If time and resources are available, try sur-veying a sample of people living in variouscommunity neighborhoods. Ask those beingsurveyed to what groups they belong.Questions to pose to these individuals include:

• Can you name any organizations thatyou have participated in or have heardabout? Does it meet in your communityor neighborhood?

• Is there a local community or neighbor-hood improvement organization in yourarea?

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• Is there any church or religious organi-zation that you are involved in? If yes,do they have different clubs or groupsof which you are aware?

• Do you get together in an informal waywith your neighbors to address commonissues of concern?

• How else do you feel a part of the com-munity? How else do you get involvedin your neighborhood?

As the list of informal organizations beginsto take shape, it is important to collect infor-mation on the goals and activities of theseorganizations. This offers a community awealth of data on the capabilities that alreadyexist among groups in the community. Butremember, many of these groups — if asked —are likely to be willing to do more in supportof their community or its neighborhoods. So,the list can also serve as a beginning point inmobilizing various informal groups that canwork together to promote the long-term well-being of the community.

Applying the Asset MappingModel: Community EconomicDevelopment as an Example

In most rural areas, a major task is to createjobs that can offer local residents a chance toearn a decent living and to be positive, produc-tive contributors to the community. Kretzmannand McKnight demonstrate how an effectiveeconomic development plan for a communitycan be shaped using the community asset map-ping model. The strategy involves mobilizingthe assets of the entire community around aneconomic development vision and a plan. Itentails five important steps:

Step 1: MAP THE ASSETS

The beginning point involves an effort tomap the community’s assets. Once begun, it isimportant the process of locating and makinginventories of the gifts, talents, and abilities of

individuals, associations, and institutions be car-ried out on an ongoing basis. Use the followinglist as a check of whether the full scope of thecommunity’s assets have been considered:

Have we done an inventory of:

_____ The talents of local residents (includ-ing new people who have moved to the com-munity)?

_____ The “emerging leaders” that can befound in the community?

_____ Local institutions, including theirphysical, human, and financial assets?

_____ Informal community and neighbor-hood organizations?

_____ Existing community leaders who arecommitted to using the gifts and talents oflocal people, institutions and informal organi-zations to build a stronger, more vibrant com-munity?

Step 2: BUILD RELATIONSHIPS ANDBROADEN THE LOCAL LEADERSHIP

The community becomes stronger and moreself-reliant every time residents, institutions,and informal groups are linked together insolving local problems or concerns. Part of thisprocess involves expanding the opportunitiesfor emerging leaders to have an active voice ingiving shape to long-term economic develop-ment strategies for the community — strategiesthat best ref lect the talents, skills, and possibili-ties of people, institutions, and informalgroups that are an integral part of that locality.

Step 3: MOBILIZE FOR ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT

In many rural communities, an importanteconomic strategy involves building upon whatcurrently exists in a community. This involveslocating and mobilizing the skills of individu-als that can be used for economic develop-

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ment purposes, as well as looking at the roleinformal organizations and institutions canplay in promoting economic growth. Forexample, are there new markets for productsthat can be developed simply by connectingexisting institutions together? Are there goodsand services the community might be able toexport to other areas? Are there goods andservices that the community now imports thatcould be produced locally?

Step 4: CONVENE THE COMMUNITYAND DEVELOP A VISION FOR THEFUTURE

Having a shared vision and plan is critical tothe process of strengthening communities. Allmembers of the community need a voice indeciding what they value most in their com-munity, and what direction they would like tohave the community take in the next 5-10years and beyond. This dialogue is essential ifthe community is to move forward. Thisrequires active discussions, debates, and dis-agreements. In the end, however, the commu-nity must have a shared understanding ofwhich priority issues it needs to deal withright now, and which problems might be bet-ter handled in the future. Once immediateissues are decided, getting the broadest arrayof people, institutions, and informal groupsinvolved as a team helps to further build thecapacity of the community to improve thewell-being of its members.

Step 5: LEVERAGE OUTSIDERESOURCES TO SUPPORT LOCAL PRIORITY ACTIVITIES

When communities have succeeded in map-ping their local assets, and taken steps to linkthe assets of the community together in orderto address the priority needs of the communi-

ty, then it is appropriate to locate outsideresources. If a community does not have localpartnerships firmly established, it runs the riskof having outside resources dictate how thingsshould be done in the community. Strong andactive local partnerships provide the mecha-nism to ensure outside resources are used tosupport priorities, strategies, and action plansthe community itself has endorsed, and notwhat some outside individuals or institutionshave determined is best for the community.

ConclusionAsset mapping serves as an effective tool for

understanding the wealth of talent andresources that exists in each community —even those with small populations or sufferingfrom poverty and economic distress. The long-term development of a community rests on itsability to uncover and build on the strengthsand assets of its people, institutions, and infor-mal organizations. Included are creative strate-gies to identify and tap the wealth of leader-ship potential available in every community.

However, to be truly effective, asset mappingmust take the essential step of linking thesevarious talents and resources together. In isola-tion, these assets are likely to realize (at best)only modest advancements in the well-being oflocal people and their communities. Integra-tion of these assets, however, provides thefoundation for genuine improvements in thewelfare of these people and their localities. Inmany respects, it truly ref lects a commitmentto make development “OF” the community acenterpiece of local community improvementactivities — one in which local talents andskills are unleashed, treasured, and nurturedover time.

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References1. Beaulieu, Lionel J. 1995. Needs Assessment: A Framework for Identifying Community Needs.University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,Circular CD26, April.

2. Fiscus, Carolyn and Cornelia Butler Flora. No date. Mapping Spiritual and Cultural Assets forNative American Students. North Central Regional Center for Rural Development, Iowa StateUniveristy; www.ncrcrd.iastate.edu/nativeamerican/index.htm.

3. Gardner, John W. 1984. “The antileadership vaccine.” Pp. 318-25 in William E. Rosenbach andRobert L. Taylor (eds.), Contemporary Issues in Leadership. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

4. Kretzmann, John P. and John L. McKnight. 1993. Building Communities from the Inside Out:A Path Toward Finding and Mobilizing a Community’s Assets. Chicago, IL: ACTA Publications.

5. Summers, Gene F. 1986. “Rural community development.” Annual Review of Sociology,12:341-71.

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