2.1

Topic 2

INFORMATION GATHERINGFOR INFORMATION

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

IMS9001 - Systems Analysis and Design

2.2

Systems analysis

Systems analysis: to determine what information and processing services are required to support selected objectives and functions of an information system

Systems analysis involves:

Requirements determination/acquisition/capture

Requirements modelling/structuring/specification

Deliverable is the requirements specification

2.3

Data gathering in systems development: systems analysis

Data gathering is a major task of systems analysis.Systems analysis involves:

Understanding and describing how the current system functions

Determining what users would like their new system to do (requirements)

Need to collect information:current and future situations, problems,

opportunities, constraints

2.4

Data gathering

What data? Sources of data? What data gathering methods? What strategy for gathering data

is needed? How will the data gathered be

analysed?

2.5

The business or organisation The business environment The system’s environment The users of the system The system: current and future Constraints: e.g. cost, technical,

What data to gather?

2.6

What data to gather?

The business or organisation: The nature of the business and its market and

business environment Business goals and objectives that drive what

and how work is done Organisational structure: major functions,

departments etc Major business subsystems and how they

interact Business policies and guidelines

2.7

Users of the system:

Roles and responsibilities Reporting structures Job specifications and actual tasks

performed Information needed to do their jobs Formal and informal communication and

workflow channels

What data to gather?

2.8

The existing system: Tasks and workflow: functions, processes,

sequence of processes, methods and procedures, inputs, outputs

The data (definition, volumes, size etc.) Interactions with other systems Work volumes and processing cycles Performance standards and criteria Control mechanisms: e.g security, accuracy Problems: e.g. efficiency, information

What data to gather?

2.9

The new system: System requirement: a need or desire to

be met by a proposed system Both functional requirements (processes

and functionality) and non-functional requirements

(security, performance, service etc.) Constraints e.g. existing technology Interactions with other systems Relationship to existing system

What data to gather?

2.10

Sources of data

Users and other stakeholders Documents about the system Documents about the organisation Documents and data used within

the existing system Transactions within existing system External sources

2.11

Users System sponsor/owner: overall project

objectives Managers: high level, broad view of

existing system and requirements End-users: detailed, operational level view

of existing system and requirements Technical staff: technology capaabilities,

limitations etc. External stakeholders: e.g. customers

Sources of data

2.12

Documents about the system and organisation: Organisation charts Policy manuals Business reports: financial, annual etc. Jobs, procedure, operations manuals Training manuals Existing system documentation Internal reports relating to the system

Sources of data

2.13

Documents and data used within the existing system: Files, databases, programs, forms, reports Informal: Memos, bulletin boards, files

External sources: Other organisations’ systems Hardware & software vendors Business & industry publications

Sources of data

2.14

Interviews

Questionnaires

Observation

Sampling documents and transactions

Research and site visits

What data gathering methods?

2.15

Interviews

Generally the most important and widely-used method for data gathering

May be formal/structured (specific questions) or informal/unstructured (general goal or purpose)

Need an interview strategy for the entire interviewing process

Need an interview plan or guide for each interview

2.16

The interview strategy

Identify the users to interview: Do this after you have an initial understanding

of the organisation and system Establish general objectives and guidelines for

the entire interviewing process: e.g. information to be obtained, sources,

formats, documenting, analysis Ensure all key people are included

2.17

Determine the sequence of interviews: E.g. management first: broad overview of system operations gain support and co-operation help to identify who to interview next Then system users: obtain information about detailed operations

Co-ordinate the interviewing process: Compare results, select follow ups etc.

The interview strategy

2.18

The interview strategy

Need individual interview plans: Initial interviews to meet users Fact gathering interviews Follow up interviews

Interview plans: Decide on interview structure Determine content of questions Decide on question types

2.19

Interviews

Need to consider:

Who has the information you need? Where to conduct the interview? When is the best time to interview? How should the interview progress?

2.20

The individual interview

Before the interview: Arrange time and place, necessary materials,

inform interviewee of interview purpose

Conduct the interview After the interview:

Write an interview report Review this with the interviewee at a follow up

interview

2.21

The interview structure

Preliminaries: Introduction, purpose, environment and procedures e.g.

permission to tape “Body”:

Define what you already believe to be true and confirm this, explore points & issues further, new areas (questions)

Conclusion: Summarise and confirm your findings Schedule a follow up interview

2.22

Interviews: types of questions

Closed: how many transactions per day? Limits available responses Open: tell me about ….. Leaves options open for interviewee Probe: tell me more about the problem with

the …. To clarify and expand Mirror: From what you said, I understand

that…. To confirm what was said etc.

2.23

Interviews: types of questions

Avoid long, complex, or double-barrelled questions:

what decisions are made during this process and how do you make them?

Avoid leading questions; you don’t need the customer number on this

report, do you? Avoid loaded questions: when did you first discover the mistake? i.e. how long have you known and done nothing?

2.24

Interviews: advantages obtain extensive, complex detailed information

get insights and opinions

discover informal procedures

flexible e.g. explore issues further or new issues

establish rapport with interviewee and understand their attitudes

reveal the ‘politics’ of the system environment

information is revealed both by the spoken word and by the interviewee’s body language

guaranteed response

2.25

Interviews: Disadvantages

Time-consuming

Costly

Danger of bias

More difficult to tabulate and analyse results e.g. to obtain an overall picture

Success in interviewing depends on the inter-personal skills of the interviewer

2.26

Questionnaires

A structured method of data gathering in which written questions/comments are provided for the participants to respond to in written form

The questionnaire can take many forms - write comments/ select from a list of possible responses/ mark on a scale

May permit either quantitative or qualitative data (mark out of 10/grade from good to bad)

Usually involves no direct contact between data gatherer and respondents

2.27

Questionnaires

Useful when small amounts of data are required from a large number of people

For geographically dispersed respondents Types of questions:

Open-ended (free format) Fill-in-the-blank Multiple choice Rating Ranking

2.28

Designing questionnaires

What facts and opinions to be collected Who to sample and sample size Types of questions and wording (precise, accurate,

unambiguous) How to administer e.g. paper, online, mail out etc. Format and layout (grouping, crosschecks etc.) Test on small sample of respondents How completed questionnaires will be returned and

collated How analysis of the data will be carried out

2.29

Questionnaires

Useful for: Obtaining simple opinions, facts Quantifying what was found in interviews Identifying issues before interviewing Determining extent of problems

Not useful for detailed or complex information or exploring issues in depth

Can supplement other methods

2.30

Questionnaires: advantages

most economical method for gathering data from large numbers of people

quick and easy to administer results can be tabulated rapidly and analysed

readily allow respondents to be anonymous gives respondents time to reflect on answers respondents complete in their own time

2.31

Questionnaires: disadvantages

difficult to construct effective questionnaires specific and limited amounts of information possible low return rates possible bias and misinterpretation cannot probe issues further (inflexible) cannot clarify vague or incomplete answers lack non-verbal communication

2.32

Observation

observing the actual processes of a system need to prepare beforehand, and report on

data collected gain first hand knowledge of current system’s

operations clarify other information collected understand complex procedures inexpensive behaviour distortions may affect reliability unrepresentative samples affect reliability

2.33

Sampling of documents and transactions

Sampling: collecting a representative sample of documents, forms, transactions

Useful for specific information e.g. transaction volumes and types, file sizes

Useful where large volumes exist Information about existing system operations Representative samples must be selected:

determine sample size, appropriate range, avoid bias

2.34

Research and site visits

Most problems not unique: learn from experiences of other organisations

Professional societies can provide contacts for site visits

Computer trade journals and magazines and the internet can be sources for research into the problem/s e.g. do appropriate software packages exist?

2.35

Other data gathering methods

Other “modern” methods used:

Discovery prototyping JAD (Joint Application

Development) sessions Focus groups

2.36

Discovery prototyping

Build a small-scale working model of the users’ requirements to discover or verify them

Develop the prototype quickly, get feedback from the users to add/change requirements

Useful for poorly understand parts/aspects of the system

Throw away prototypes: technology of prototype vs target technology platform

Prototyping is a process of discovery for users and developers

2.37

Discovery prototyping

Advantages: Improved understanding of new system Better requirements definition May speed up requirements process

Disadvantages: Users may develop unrealistic expectations Prototype may inhibit further exploration Non-functional requirements often ignored

2.38

JAD sessions Often called JRP (Joint Requirements Planning)

sessions when used for requirements

Highly structured group meeting held in special-purpose rooms involving system users, system owners and system developers who meet intensively for a period of time to analyse problems and define requirements

An effective JAD session requires extensive planning

selecting location, selecting participants, preparing an agenda

2.39

JAD sessions: participants Project sponsor or champion

top management with authority

full support for the project

encourages active participation

JAD leader/ facilitator

good communicator and negotiator

good business and organisational knowledge

impartial

2.40

Business users and managers - clear understanding of the business

IS developers - not active participants, primarily there to learn

Scribe - takes notes, need to be published and disseminated quickly

JAD sessions: participants

2.41

JAD sessions

actively involves users

improved consensus and resolution of conflicts/misunderstandings

reduces overall development time

is very expensive in

location costs

participants’ time

2.42

Focus groups

an intensive group meeting held to get further information about a particular aspect of the business

sometimes used as a follow-up to other data gathering methods e.g. to explore issues in more detail

need a facilitator and appropriate users as participants

2.43

A data gathering strategy

Data gathering must be carefully planned in order to make the most of the time and resources available: Information sources Data gathering methods Recording and documentation methods Data analysis methods Procedures for reviewing results with

management and users

2.44

A data gathering strategy

E.g. a “top down” approach:

Initial interviews with management to determine major system activities and data

Document and verify this Expand major system component descriptions into detailed

descriptions:Interview operational users, sampling, questionnaires, observation etc

Document and verify this Repeat these last two steps as necessary Review findings with management

2.45

A data gathering strategy

Consider costs: allow for time and resources required for initial and ongoing information gathering

Use the least expensive methods first Plan how to check the validity of data:

Cross checking between groups, methods Evaluate data for inconsistencies Ask further questions

Plan documentation of data e.g. records of interviews etc. data dictionary, system models

2.46

Data gathering in practice

Completeness? Accuracy? Objectivity? Biases? Stability? Representative? Finished?

2.47

References

HOFFER, J.A., GEORGE, J.F. and VALACICH (2005) Modern Systems Analysis and Design, (4th edition), Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Chapters 5,6

WHITTEN, J.L., BENTLEY, L.D. and DITTMAN, K.C. (2001) 5th ed., Systems Analysis and Design Methods, Irwin/McGraw-HilI, New York, NY. Chapter 6

DWYER, J. (1997) The Business Communication Handbook (4th

edition) Prentice-Hall, New York, N.Y. Chapter 5