2.1 introduction - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/34631/8/08_chapter2.pdf ·...

Chapter-2

SICART, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar 32

2.1 Introduction Liquid detergents provide convenience in our daily life ranging from

personal care of hand and body cleansing, hair cleaning and

conditioning, home care in dishwashing, cleaning of various

household surfaces, fabric care in laundering and fabric softening.

Compared with powdered detergents, liquid detergents dissolve more

rapidly, particularly in cold water, they generate less dust, and they

are easier to dose. So liquid detergents are becoming increasingly

popular for washing of all kinds. Liquid detergents are also convenient

for pretreating stains. Moreover they can be manufactured using

relatively simple set up which does not need much investment. They

can be made from a variety of starting materials but in every case the

plant is same. A vessel made up of noncorrodible material equipped

with a slow speed stirrer positioned well under the surface of the

liquid to avoid foaming, is all that is required1.

2.1.1 Light-duty liquid detergents

On a truly commercial scale, the age of liquid detergents can be said

to have begun in the late 1940s when the first liquid detergent for

manual dishwashing was introduced. This liquid consisted essentially

of a nonionic surfactant, alkylphenol ethoxylate. It produced only a

moderate amount of foam when in use. In 1950, liquid detergents

containing anionic surfactant were made. Generally, light-duty liquid

compositions are relatively nonirritating to skin. A number of

nontraditional ingredients have been introduced to light-duty liquid

detergent formulations. These include some novel surfactants,

antimicrobial agents, special polymers, and enzymes. Novel

surfactants such as mid-chain branched ethoxy sulfates, ethylene

diaminetriacetate, ethoxylated/propoxylated nonionic surfactants,

Gemini surfactant, bridged polyhydroxy fatty acid amides, and the

amphoteric surfactant sultaine are used for enhancement of cleaning

or foaming performance.

Chapter-2


Many polymers are used in light-duty liquid detergents to give

various benefits. For example, polyoxyethylene diamine is used to

increase grease cleaning, polyacrylate to aggregate and suspend

particles, amino acid copolymer to tackle resistant soiling,

polyethylene glycol to increase solubility, and ethylene oxide –

propylene oxide copolymer to increase solubility, grease cleaning, or

foam stability, or to improve mildness.

2.1.2 Heavy-duty liquid detergents

Once light-duty liquid products had established an attractive market

position, the development of heavy-duty liquids could not be far

behind. The first commercially important heavy-duty liquid was

introduced into the U.S. market in 1958. Although the first major

commercial heavy-duty liquid composition was formulated with a

builder system, the concentrations of builders and surfactants it

delivered into the washing solution were lower than those provided by

conventional detergent powders. As a liquid, however, the product

possessed a unique convenience in use, particularly for full-strength

application to specific soiled areas of garments. Convenience was

accompanied by effectiveness, because the concentration of individual

ingredients in the neat form approached that of a nonaqueous system.

This is illustrated by the following consideration. Recommended

washing product use directions lead to washing solutions with a

concentration of about 0.15% of the total product. At a surfactant

level of about 15% in the product, the final concentration of surfactant

in the wash solution is about 0.0225%. The efficacy of surfactants in

providing observable cleaning at such a low concentration attests to

the power of the interfacial phenomena that underlie the action of

surfactants.

By contrast, a heavy-duty liquid containing 20% surfactant,

applied full strength, leads to a surfactant concentration of 20%, some

three orders of magnitude larger than in the case discussed above. At

these (almost nonaqueous) concentrations solution phenomena, such

Chapter-2


as those occurring in nonaqueous dry cleaning, are likely to be

responsible for cleaning efficacy. The popularity of heavy-duty liquids

for pretreating stains was thus based not only on convenience but

also on real performance. As the whole-wash performance differential

between powders and liquids narrowed, the usage of heavy-duty

liquids for the whole wash expanded, markedly in areas where

phosphate had been banned. With the exception of a few products

based on surfactants only, most heavy-duty liquids are formulated

with a mixture of anionic and nonionic surfactants, with anionic

predominating. In the U.S. heavy-duty liquids have grown at about 3%

volume share of market a year in the last decade replacing powder

laundry detergents that have dominated the market for years. By

1998 liquids had surpassed powders for the first time, and by 2001

liquid products accounted for 72% volume share of the U.S. laundry

detergent market while powder laundry detergents declined to only

28%2. In Canada the heavy-duty liquid detergent volume share of the

market grew from 15% in 1997 to 35% in 20012. In other parts of the

world the volume share of heavy-duty liquid detergents grew at

varying degrees.

There has also been a continuous effort to find novel polymers

that reduce dye transfer in the wash or rinse. Polymers have been

employed to modify the rheology of various liquid formulations for

improving product aesthetics through suspension of visual cues.

2.1.3 Polymeric additives based liquid detergent

India has large number of alkyd resin plants producing resins for

coating industries. Such plants with little modification like having the

vessel lined with glass-fiber reinforced plastics can be utilized for

making liquid detergents. In the Era of 1960-1990, a large number of

industrial products like detergents, lubricants, paints and cosmetics

were based on petroleum products. Both the heavy and light duty

liquid detergents are made from petroleum based active matters such

as linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS) and alpha olefin

Chapter-2


sulphonate3 (AOS). As we know the price and availability of petroleum

products is souring every year, we must think of alternative vegetable

products. So formulatory trials are necessary for achieving cost

effective, acceptable and easily biodegradable product from polymeric

surfactants derivable from natural materials.

The use of polymeric additives in liquid and powder detergents

has been reported earlier4-7. Novel polymeric surfactants based on

vegetable products like vegetable oils8, rosin9, starch10 and sorbitol10

have been formulated in past. The Polymeric surfactants based on

vegetable oils enable, phosphate free detergent formulations which are

ecofriendly and biodegradable.

Chapter-2


2.2 Present Work Liquid detergents are becoming increasingly popular for washing of all

kinds because of their convenience, ease of dispensation and

dispersion in water.

Most of the detergents are made from petroleum based materials such

as Linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS), Alkyl ether phosphate.

But it creates several environmental problems. It is well documented

that surfactants make up a large percentage of refractory chemical

oxygen demand (COD) in municipal waste water treatment and in

traditional septic-tile bed system effluents. Other problems that are a

results of surfactants pollution includes the ability of surfactants to

increase the solubility of other toxic organic compounds in soil and

when adsorbed to sludge that can have negative impact on sludge

dewatering characteristics at municipal water treatment plants. Two

suggestions for reducing surfactant pollution include dispensing only

the quantity required of the major components for a particular wash

cycle or using environmentally friendly detergents.

So here we attempt to impart value addition to the acid oil and

ORSBE – by-products of oil processing industry. The use of polymeric

surfactant got popularity in the last 25 years12.

In the present study, different Alkyd resins were synthesized from acid

oil and ORSBE - plentiful and also cheap by-products of oil processing

industry. These resultant alkyd resins reacted with rosin and then

used with sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) as mixed active matter in

liquid detergent formulation with a view to replace the conventional

active matter, linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS). The foaming

power, surface tension and percent detergency of resultant eco-

friendly liquid detergents have determined and compared with

commercial liquid detergent.

Chapter-2


2.3 Literature Survey

B.B. Gogte and R.S. Agrawal4 synthesized starch-sorbitol based

co-polymer and used it for the formulation of liquid detergents.

When compared with linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS) based

liquid detergent formulation for performance characteristics, liquid

detergents formulated from starch-sorbitol based co-polymer were

quite matching and could be used as substitute of LABS.

S.K. Kharkate, V.Y. Karadbhajne and B.B. Gogte13 synthesized an

ecofriendly alkyd resin polymer based on soybean oil and rosin.

The resultant alkyd resin used with sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS)

instead of linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS) for liquid

detergent formulation.

R.S. Agrawal and B.B.Gogte3 conducted a study on formulation of

detergent by artificial nural network. The detergents based on

starch – sorbitol co- polymer, acid slurry, sodium lauryl ether

sulphate (SLES), sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) and polymeric

surfactant synthesized and tested for their suitability as

replacement of LABS.

B.B. Gogte and A.M. Bhagawat6 prepared a novel liquid stain

remover cum detergent from rosinated alkyd polymer used as

active matter and concluded that it could be used as active matter

substitute for LABS.

B.B. Gogte and R.S. Agrawal5 formulated detergent powder from

sorbitol based polymeric surfactant as active matter and tested it

relative to LABS based detergent powder. Satisfactory results were

found.

P.A. Dhakite, B.B. Gogte, B.W. Phate14 prepared novel polymers

based on maize starch, sorbitol and maleic anhydride & used as

ingredients in powder detergent formulations. The variation in mole

ratios, reaction temperature, type of catalyst and the time of

heating were studied. Thus powder detergent free from acid slurry

Chapter-2


& containing sodium lauryl sulphate and polymer as active

ingredients was formulated.

A.D. Deshpande, B.B. Gogte, B.W. Phate15 synthesized novel

polymers based on sorbitol, sugar, and maleic anhydride. Various

parameters such as time of reaction, temperature, and mole ratio

were studied. Selected novel compositions of polymers were used in

powder detergent formulations as active ingredients.

J.R. Dontulwar and B.B. Gogte16 made esters of carbohydrates

using white dextrin, sorbitol, maleic anhydride. This resin showed

favourable data for detergent synthesis. Prepared detergent showed

appreciable reduction of surface tension of water at different

concentrations.

K.M. Chen and C.C. Tsal17 synthesized maleic anhydride-

polyethylene glycol- phthalic anhydride co-polymer based

polymeric surfactants.

Chapter-2


2.4 Materials By-products of oil processing (ORSBE and Acid oil) employed in the

present work have been reported in chapter 1.

ORSBE and Acid oil were procured from Ashwin Vanaspti Ltd,

Samlaya, India. Glycerine, calcium octoate ( 3% Ca), litharge, rosin,

benzoic acid, phthalic anhydride, maleic anhydride, alpha olefin

sulphonate (AOS), sorbitol, sodium lauryl sulphate, EDTA, urea,

NaOH and poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) used were of laboratory grade.

2.5 Experimental

1. Synthesis of alkyd resin18

Oil (133 g), glycerine (67 g), Calcium octoate (0.7 g) and litharge

(0.025 g) were charged and heated together slowly to 250°C in a

vessel fitted with stirrer and thermometer. The temperature was

maintained between 250-260°C for monoglyceride formation

indicated by solubility of the reaction mass in methanol (1:3

ratios). The temperature was reduced to 150°C and glycerin (60

g) was added. The temperature was maintained between 150-

160°C for 15 min, then reduced to 100°C and rosin (300 g),

benzoic acid (20 g), phthalic anhydride (105 g) and maleic

anhydride (20 g) were added. The temperature was increased to

135-160°C in 30 min and then to 250°C. The temperature was

maintained at 250°C untill the viscosity of reaction mass (50%

solid in mineral turpentine oil) increased to G-H gardner (50 to

60 sec in ford cup IV).

2. Neutralization and Water Dispersion of Alkyd Resin7

In a beaker, the resultant alkyd resin (100 g) was melted and then

cooled to 80ºC. Required amount of 30% NaOH solution

was added to alkyd resin with constant stirring so as to get slightly

alkaline solution of polymer with pH 7.5.

Chapter-2


3. Manufacture Of detergent19 Five liquid detergent samples (Table 4) were prepared using

different concentrations of alkyd resin with sodium lauryl sulphate

(SLS), alpha olefin sulphonate, poly vinyl alcohol, sorbitol, EDTA,

urea and NaOH in a beaker and stirring was continued for 30

minutes. A clear solution of liquid detergent was obtained. The

surface tensions of liquid detergents were measured using

stalagnometer. Foam was measured using mechanical agitation in

a closed vessel method.

2.6 Analysis and Testing of Liquid detergent

1. Determination of foaming power20 20 ml liquid detergent solution was taken in 100 ml measuring

cylinder provided with stopper. The solution was vigorously shaken

for 20 sec and foam volume was measured immediately and after

five minutes.

2. Determination of surface tension21 The liquid was drawn into the stalagnometer and allowed to run

out. The numbers of drops that fall between the two graduations

were counted while the liquid was allowed to flow out. The rate of

fall should be about one drop per second. If the rate was too rapid,

the length of the capillary was extended. Determination was

conducted in duplicatation against the distilled water at the

same temperature. Finally the surface tension was calculated using

following formula,

Surface tension of liquid detergent = (ηw/ ηLD) × νw×ρ

Where, ηw = no. of drops of distilled water.

ηLD = no. of drops of liquid detergent.

νw = surface tension of distilled water.

ρ = specific gravity of liquid detergent with reference to

distilled water.

Chapter-2


3. Detergency Test a) Soil Medium In pestle and mortar, coconut oil (35.8 g) was slowly added to a

mixture of carbon black (28.4 g), lauric acid (17.9 g) and mineral

oil (17.9 g) to form thick paste. The components were ground in

pestle mortal for 1-2 h to get fine powder and smooth filling. The

paste was mixed well with carbon tetrachloride (500 ml) and used

for soiling of cloths.

b) Fabric Soiling The white cotton fabrics (10 × 10 cm) were taken and dipped in the

above medium for 10 min. These soiled fabrics were kept for drying

in open-air for 2 days.

c) Washing The washing was done using Terg – O – Tometer (US Testing

Company) as follows: speed, 100 rpm; washing solution, 1000 ml;

washing time, 15 min; rinsing time, 10 min; temp, 50ºC; and water

hardness, 250 ppm. Different concentrations (0.1, 0.25 and 0.5%)

of liquid detergents were used for washing. Same concentrations

were tried with commercial liquid detergent. After washing, the

detergency (%) was calculated using Lambert and Sanders

formula22.

Detergency % = (Rw − Rs) × 100/ (Ro −Rs)

Where, Rw, Rs and Ro are the reflectance measured on washed

fabrics, soiled fabrics (before washing), and unsoiled fabrics

respectively.

Chapter-2


2.7 Results

Table 1.

Receipe for alkyd resin

Ingredients Weight (g)

Oil 133

Glycerin 127

Rosin 300

Maleic anhydride 20

Benzoic acid 20

Phthalic anhydride 105

Litharge 0.025

Calcium octoate (3%

Ca)

0.7

Chapter-2


Table 2.

Composition of liquid detergents (% wt)

Ingredients LD1 LD2 LD3 LD4 LD5

SLS 7.0000 6.0000 5.0000 4.0000 3.0000

AOS 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696

Alkyd resin of

ORSBE

1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000

Sorbitol 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000

Urea 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000

EDTA 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000

PVA 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

Water 76.0908 75.8312 75.6116 75.3305 75.1324

NaOH 0.2396 0.4792 0.7188 0.9999 1.1980

Chapter-2


Table 3.

Foam volume, surface tension at 0.1% concentration of detergent

in water

Samples Foam volume (ml) Surface tension

Min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

LD1 30 27 26 48.805

LD2 26 24 23 48.672

LD3 25 23 23 48.432

LD4 23 22 22 47.477

LD5 22 21 21 47.411

Commercial

liquid

detergent

24

23

22

47.507

Chapter-2


Table 4.

Foam volume, surface tension at 0.25% concentration of

detergent in water


Min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

LD1 47 43 41 42.947

LD2 44 42 41 41.027

LD3 43 41 40 39.220

LD4 40 36 35 38.668

LD5 38 35 33 38.408

Commercial

liquid

detergent

40

37

36

38.400

Chapter-2


Table 5.


in water


Min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

LD1 75 69 66 40.085

LD2 69 66 63 38.731

LD3 61 56 52 38.640

LD4 50 45 41 37.429

LD5 44 42 39 37.221

Commercial

liquid

detergent

49

46

44

37.011

Chapter-2


Table 6.

Detergency (Soil removal) of liquid detergent for soiled cotton

fabric

Samples Concentration (%)

Detergency (%)

LD1

0.1 44.5

0.25 46.1

0.5 51.2

LD2

0.1 44.1

0.25 46.0

0.5 50.1

LD3

0.1 44.3

0.25 45.9

0.5 50.4

LD4

0.1 43.6

0.25 45.1

0.5 48.6

LD5

0.1 44.0

0.25 45.3

0.5 48.9

Commercial

Liquid

Detergent

0.1 47.1

0.25 51.2

0.5 53.4

Chapter-2


Table 7.

Composition of liquid detergents (% wt)

Ingredients AOLD1 AOLD2 AOLD3 AOLD4 AOLD5

SLS 7.0000 6.0000 5.0000 4.0000 3.0000

AOS 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696 5.5696

Alkyd resin of

Acid oil

1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000

Sorbitol 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000 5.6000

Urea 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000

EDTA 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000

PVA 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

Water 76.0908 75.8312 75.6116 75.3305 75.1324

NaOH 0.2396 0.4792 0.7188 0.9999 1.1980

Chapter-2


Table 8.


in water


Min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

AOLD1 28 28 27 54.837

AOLD2 26 25 25 54.782

AOLD3 25 24 23 54.670

AOLD4 24 23 22 54.502

AOLD5 22 21 20 53.421

Commercial

liquid

detergent

23

22

21

54.020

Chapter-2


Table 9.


in water

Samples Foam volume (ml) Surface

tension

Min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

AOLD1 50 46 44 52.825

AOLD2 46 43 42 52.704

AOLD3 44 42 41 52.573

AOLD4 42 40 37 51.557

AOLD5 39 37 35 50.470

Commercial

liquid

detergent

41

38

36

51.501

Chapter-2


Table 10.


in water


min Dyne /cm

0 5 10

AOLD1 78 72 69 48.514

AOLD2 71 68 65 47.637

AOLD3 64 58 54 45.833

AOLD4 54 49 44 44.408

AOLD5 46 43 40 44.221

Commercial

liquid

detergent

52

48

43

44.315

Chapter-2


Table 11.

Detergency (Soil removal) of liquid detergent for soiled cotton

fabric

Samples Concentration (%)

Detergency (%)

AOLD1

0.1 49.4

0.25 51.7

0.5 53.2

AOLD2

0.1 46.6

0.25 48.4

0.5 50.6

AOLD3

0.1 49.3

0.25 51.6

0.5 53.2

AOLD4

0.1 46.5

0.25 48.5

0.5 50.4

AOLD5

0.1 45.6

0.25 47.7

0.5 49.4

Commercial

Liquid

Detergent

0.1 47.1

0.25 51.2

0.5 53.4

Chapter-2


2.8 Discussion Alkyd resin polymeric compositions were prepared. The amount of

rosin in polymer was quite high (42.50%). The amount of oil was

maintained at lower level (18.84%). Normally, in case the oil is

reduced to below 30 %, it is very difficult to prepare alkyd resin

polymer due to gelation. But a short oil rosinated alkyd resin polymer

was prepared, due to use of chain stoppers benzoic acid and rosin.

Rosin helps the smooth progress of polymerization without gelation

and water reducibility. Two types of liquid detergents were made using

alkyd resin of ORSBE and alkyd resin of acid oil. Liquid detergents

based on different combinations of SLS and AOS with alkyd resin were

formulated (Table 2&7). The formulations also contained usual

ingredients such as poly vinyl alcohol, urea, sorbitol, NaOH and

EDTA. SLS was used as foaming agent. EDTA was used as water

softener and AOS was used as fabric softener. Since the prepared

liquid detergent compositions were made without phosphates (which

are banned for use in many parts of the world), they are easily

biodegradable and environmental friendly, unlike phosphate

containing liquid detergents which cause problem of eutrophication.

All the prepared compositions of liquid detergents were evaluated for

foam volume, surface tension and percent detergency and compared

with commercial samples (Table 3-6 & 8-11). All the tests were

conducted as indicated in the Indian standard23,24.

2.8.1 Liquid Detergent made from ORSBE

In case of liquid detergents made from alkyd resin of ORSBE LD1, LD2

and LD3 gave higher foam volume compared to commercial sample

while LD4 and LD5 generated lower foam volume. As the percentage of

alkyd resin is increased in the composition of liquid detergents,

foaming characteristics are decreased and this property of alkyd resin

can be utilized to develop a foamless detergent for washing machines.

The percent detergency of all the prepared samples matches fairly

Chapter-2


with commercial sample. The surface tension values of prepared

samples are close to that of commercial sample.

2.8.2 Liquid Detergent made from Acid Oil

In case of liquid detergents made from alkyd resin of acid oil AOLD1,

AOLD2, AOLD3 and AOLD4 gave higher foam volume compared to

commercial liquid detergent while AOLD5 gave lower foam volume.

Here also as the percentage of alkyd resin is increased in the

composition of liquid detergents, foaming characteristics are

decreased and this property of alkyd resin can be used to develop a

foamless detergent for washing machines. The percent detergency of

all the prepared samples matches fairly with commercial sample,

infect AOLD1 and AOLD3 at 0.1% & 0.25% concentration gave good

results compared to commercial liquid detergent (Table 11).The

surface tension values of prepared samples are close to that of

commercial liquid detergent.

2.8.3 Comparison of Liquid Detergents made from two oils

By comparing the data of all liquid detergents prepared from alkyd

resin of ORSBE and alkyd resin of acid oil, one can say that all liquid

detergents made from alkyd resin of acid oil gave higher percent

detergency than that of liquid detergents prepared from alkyd resin of

ORSBE. So in terms of Percent detergency, liquid detergents made

from alkyd resin of acid oil are better.

The conventional commercial detergents contain LABS as active

ingredient. It is a petroleum product and causes environmental

problems. In our finding, the total replacement of LABS by alkyd resin

polymer and SLS (all vegetable in origin) is carried out. Hence, the

prepared detergents are ecofriendly as compared to commercial

detergent, which are synthetic and petroleum based. In experimental

liquid detergents, active matter is less (8%) than other available

detergents (10- 15%). So it decreases the cost of detergent.

Chapter-2


2.9 Conclusion With a view to utilize and impart value addition to acid oil and Oil

recovered from spent bleaching earth (ORSBE), a by-product of oil

refining, alkyd resin, a polymeric surfactant was synthesized to assess

the feasibility of its use for liquid detergent formulation in association

with SLS instead of using LABS. Polymeric surfactants had

demonstrated their utility as an active ingredient of detergent. All the

prepared compositions of liquid detergents have comparable

performance to commercial one with respect to detergency percentage

and surface tension. Foaming property gets decreased with increase in

amount of polymer. All liquid detergents made from alkyd resin of acid

oil gave higher percent detergency than that of liquid detergents

prepared from alkyd resin of ORSBE. So in terms of Percent

detergency, liquid detergents made from alkyd resin of acid oil are

better. Main ingredients of polymer liquid detergents are natural in

origin hence, prepared liquid detergent compositions are economic

and ecofriendly.

Chapter-2


2.10 References

1. Davidsohn A. & Milwidsky B.M., Synthetic detergents, 6th edition,

John Wiley & sons, New York, 1978.

2. Lai Kuo-Yann, Liquid Detergent, 2nd Edition, Colgate-Palmolive

Company Piscataway, Taylor & francis Publication, New Jersey,

2006.

3. Parasuram K.S., Soaps and detergents, Tata McGraw-Hill

publishing company Limited, New Delhi, 1995.

4. Gogte B.B. & Agrawal R.S., J. Chem. Engg. World, 38 (2003) 78.

5. Gogte B.B. & Agrawal R.S., J. Soaps Deter. Toilet Rev. 34 (2003)

25.


19.

7. Gogte B.B. & Bhagawat A.M., J. Soaps Deter. Toilet Rev. 36 (2004)

20.

8. N.I.I.R. Board, Modern Technology of Paints, varnishes and

liquors, Asia Specific Business Press Inc., Publications, New

Delhi, pp.19.

9. Fulzele S.V., Satturwar P.M., Gogte B.B. & Dorle A.K., "Rosin and

its Derivatives pharmaceutical applications”. Email-

[email protected].


28.

11. Schwartz A.M. & Perry J.W., Surface active agents, their

chemistry and technology, Intersciences Publisher, New York,

1949.

12. Palolo Zini, Polymeric additives for high performing

detergents. Tecnomic Publication, U.S.A. 1995.

13. Kharkate S.K., Karadbhajne V.Y. & Gogte B.B., Journal of

Scientific and Indian Research, 64, (2005) 752.

14. Dhakite P.A., Gogte B.B. & Phate B.W., International Journal

of Chem. Tech. Research, 2 (4) (2010) 1975.

Chapter-2


15. Deshpande A.D., Gogte B.B. & Phate B.W., International

Journal of Chem. Tech. Research, 2 (4) (2010) 2009.

16. Dontulwar J.R. & Gogte B.B., Asian journal of chemistry, 16

(3-4) (2004) 1385.

17. Chen K.M. & Tsal C.C., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65(8) (1988)

1346.

18. Payne H.F., Organic Coatings Technology, vol. I, John Wiley &

Sons, New York, 1961.

19. Harris J.C., Detergency Evalution and Testing, Intersciences

Publisher, New York, 1954.

20. BIS:5785 (Part-III), Methods for performance tests for surface

active agents, (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi)1970.

21. Milwidsky B.M. & Gabriel D.M., Detergent analysis, George

Godwin, London, 1982.

22. Mozaffer Z., Weete J.D. & Dute R., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 71

(1994) 71.

23. IS: 5785, (Part – IV), Methods for surface-active agents, (Indian

standers, New Delhi)1976.

24. BIS: 4955, Methods for the test of detergency for house hold

detergents, (Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi) 2000.

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