20th century psychology

8/20/2019 20th Century Psychology

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Contemporary Psychology


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The lack of history…

Regarding the homage (or lack thereof) to 19 th century psychology andprior:

“o introductory course in psychology and certainly no concentrationor !ma"or# in psychological studies is considered complete or e$enrespecta%le unless the great old names are periodically trotted out&dusted off& congratulated for ha$ing seen farther than most& and thengently returned to their crypts as psychology gets on 'ith morepressing matters *$en the history classes al'ays %egin 'ith the +reeks& may spend a %it

'ith ,-uinas and ,ugustine& mo$e on to the modern era 'ith paid respectsto .escartes and /ocke& then the !real# study of psychology can %egin.

“This approach to the foundations of the discipline $irtually guarantees

to each generation of psychologists the pri$ilege of redisco$eringsome of the more compelling ideas in the history of thought 0t alsoconfers on psychology that state of perpetual youth 'hich isproclaimed %y most of its spokesmen in all of its ages .aniel Ro%inson& The Intellectual History of Psychology


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Recent times

2unctionalism

3eha$iorism

+estalt PsychologyPsychoanalysis

4umanistic Psychology

Cogniti$e PsychologyToday5


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2unctionalism

6ffshoot of the pragmatic thought of .e'ey& 7ames andPeirce *arly philosophy and psychology in the 8:

tage one& moral and mental philosophy: Psychology included topics such as ethics& di$inity& and

philosophy To learn psychology 'as to learn the accepted theology of the

day

tage t'o& intellectual philosophy Psychology %ecame a separate discipline and %ecame primarily

influenced %y the cottish common sense $ie's (Reid andothers)


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2unctionalism

tage three& the 8 Renaissance Psychology %ecomes an empirical science The late 1;#s sa' the pu%lishing of 7ohn .e'ey#s

te


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2unctionalism

e$er a 'ell>defined school 'ith one recogni=ed leader and an agreed>onmethodology

Common themes& ho'e$er& ran through the 'ork of 'hose callingthemsel$es functionalists: 6pposed the elementarism of structuralism ?anted to understand the function of the mind& not a description of its contents

The function 'as to aid the organism in adapting to its en$ironment ?anted to %e a practical science& apply findings to the impro$ement of the

human condition 8rged that research include animals& children& and a%normal humans as

su%"ects They also urged the use of any methodology that 'as useful

Concern for the “'hy of mental processes led directly to an interest in

moti$ation ,ccepted %oth mental processes and %eha$ior as legitimate interests for

psychology @ore interested in indi$idual differences among organisms than similarities 0nfluenced %y .ar'in#s theory of e$olution


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Aey 2igures in 2unctionalism

4ar$ard ?illiam 7ames7ames 4ugo @unster%erg @ary ?hiton Calkins + tanley 4all

2rancis umner Aenneth Clark

Chicago 7ohn .e'ey 7ames ,ngell 4ar$ey Carr

Colum%ia 7ames Cattell Ro%ert ?ood'orth *d'ard / Thorndike


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3eha$iorism

The =eitgeist of the time resulted in the de$eloping ofthe philosophy and psychology of %eha$iorism

Objective psychology 'as already esta%lished inRussia and se$eral functionalists 'ere discussing

openly many ideas later emphasi=ed %y 7ohn ?atson The strain %et'een those using introspection

(structuralism and many functionalists) and thoseproposing a strict o%"ecti$e science of psychologycreated the atmosphere 'hich ultimately led to the“%eha$iorist re$olution


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Aey 2igures in 3eha$iorism

Russian o%"ecti$e psychology 0$an echeno$ 0$an Pa$lo$ Bladimir 3echtere$

,merican 3eha$iorism ?atson

Psychology is a purely o%"ecti$e e


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eo%eha$iorism

0deas and concepts preceding de$elopment ofneo%eha$iorism:

Positi$ism in $arious forms had %een acti$e forcenturies

*ssentially& positi$ism argues that 'hat constitutes appropriate dataare o%ser$ations that are pu%lic domain ,lso& it is important to a$oid or at least& minimi=e theoretical

speculation from the data

/ogical positi$ism (de$eloped %y the Bienna Circle)di$ided science into t'o parts the empirical and the

theoretical 0n turn& it 'edded the t'o together& %y adding theory as apart of empirical science

,%stract theoretical terms 'ere allo'ed only if such termscould %e logically tied to empirical o%ser$ations


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eo%eha$iorism

6perationism the insistence that all a%stract scientific terms %eoperationally defined

,n operational definition is the defining of an a%stract& theoretical concept%y the procedures used to measure it 0n other 'ords& operational definitions tie theoretical terms to o%ser$a%le

phenomena

Thus& there is no am%iguity a%out the definition of the theoretical term 6nce operationism 'as presented most psychologists agreed 'ith the

logical positi$ists that unless a concept can %e operationally defined it isscientifically meaningless

Physicalism the desire for the unification of and a common $oca%ularyamong the sciences including psychology

6ne outcome of logical positi$ism 'as that all sciences 'ere $ie'ed asessentially the same follo'ing the same principles& 'ith the sameassumptions and all attempting to e


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eo%eha$iorism

eo%eha$iorism The com%ination of %eha$iorism and logicalpositi$ism

Though there 'ere ma"or differences among the neo%eha$iorists&they all tended to agree on a fe' important issues

0f theories are used& they must %e used in 'ays demanded %y logicalpositi$ism

,ll theoretical terms must %e operationally defined onhuman animals should %e used as research su%"ects for t'o

reasons: Rele$ant $aria%les are easier to control in animals than 'hen using

human su%"ects Perceptual and learning processes in nonhuman animals differ only in

degree from those processes in humans the information gained fromresearch 'ith nonhuman animals can %e generali=ed to humans

/earning processes are of prime importance %ecause learning isthe primary mechanism %y 'hich organisms ad"ust to a changingen$ironment


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Aey 2igures in eo%eha$iorism

*d'ard C Tolman

Clark / 4ull

*d'in R +uthrie 3 2 kinner


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tatus of 3eha$iorism Today

kinner remains the most influential of all the%eha$iorists ,s e$idence of his influence& in a sur$ey (in 1991) of historians

of psychology and chairpersons of graduate programs inpsychology 'ere asked to rank the most importantpsychologists of all time and the 1; most importantcontemporary psychologists 6n the “all time list historians ranked ?undt first and kinner

eighth& chairpersons ranked kinner first and ?undt si


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+estalt Psychology

,ntecedents of +estalt psychology e$eral +erman psychologists took issue 'ith

?undt#s elementism arguing that consciousnesscould not %e reduced to elements 'ithout distorting

the true meaning of conscious e


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+estalt Psychology

PhilosophersEantecedent $ie's 0mmanuel Aant %elie$ed that consciousness cannot %e reduced to sensory

stimulation& and conscious e


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Aey 2igures in +estalt Psychology

2ounding of +estalt psychology @a< ?ertheimer proposed that our perceptions are different

than the sensations that comprise them The phi phenomenon& a perception of apparent mo$ement 'hen the

elements of the e


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3asic principles of +estalt psychology

2ield theory +estaltists propose that the %rain contains structural fields of

electrochemical forces 8pon entering a field& sensory data %oth modify the structure of the field and

are modified %y the field 6ur e


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/a' of PrFgnan= the psychological organi=ation 'ill al'ays %e as good as

conditions allo' %ecause fields of %rain acti$ity 'ill al'aysdistri%ute themsel$es in the simplest 'ay possi%le under thepre$ailing conditions

The la' assets that all cogniti$e e


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Principles of perceptual organi=ation 2igure>ground the perceptual field can %e di$ided into t'o

parts& the figure and the ground Continuity stimuli that ha$e continuity 'ith one another

(intrinsic togetherness& seem to go together) 'ill %e

e


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Psychoanalysis

,ntecedent ideas , case can %e made that all components of the theory e


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,ntecedents of Psychoanalysis

iet=sche also sa' humans as engaged in aperpetual %attle %et'een the irrational and therational

4elmholt=#s concept of the conser$ation ofenergy 'ithin humans influenced 2reud topostulate a use of psychic energy to %edistri%uted in $arious 'ays

0t may %e said that 2reud#s theory 'as asynthesi=ing of his philosophical heritage and aproduct of the =eitgeist of his time


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*arly direct influences on the

de$elopment of psychoanalysis

7osef 3reuer 2reud 'orked 'ith 3reuer 'ith the famous case of ,nna 6 8sing hypnosis as his therapeutic method 3reuer found that disco$ering the

origin of physical symptoms& 'hich 'ere usually a traumatic e


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Aey 2igures in Psychoanalysis

That one dudeTheory of Personality and Consciousness

0d& *go uperego

.efense mechanisms u%limation& reaction formation etc

.ream interpretation

Psychose


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Contri%utions of Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis (o%$iously) created a ne'&uni-ue 'ay to deal 'ith mental disorders

*


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Common criticisms of Psychoanalysis

@ethod of data collection no control .efinition of terms not clear& not operationally defined .ogmatism no toleration for conflicting ideas 6$eremphasis on se< many of his follo'ers %roke 'ith him

"ust for that reason

elf>fulfilling prophesy he found 'hat he 'as looking for%ecause he 'as looking for it

/ength& cost& and limited effecti$eness of psychoanalysis takes too long and too costly for most people

/ack of falsifia%ility > a good theory must ha$e thischaracteristic

?ell… let#s "ust say it 'asn#t scientific in general %efore getting intogrand assumptions of ho' science progresses


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4umanistic (Third>force) Psychology

,ntecedents to humanistic psychology 4istory %y the mid>G;th century structuralism&

functionalism& and +estalt psychology had lost theirdistincti$eness as schools of thought

6nly %eha$iorism and psychoanalysis remainedinfluential

0n the 19H;s the $ie's of humans pro$ided %y%eha$iorism and psychoanalysis 'ere $ie'ed %ymany as incomplete& distorted& or %oth

@any 'ere looking for a ne' $ie'& one thatemphasi=ed the human spirit rather than strictly themind or %ody


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4umanistic psychology

0n the early 19H;s& led %y ,%raham @aslo' agroup of psychologists started a mo$ementreferred to as third>force psychology

This 'as a reaction to the shortcomings (as they

sa' them) of %eha$iorism and psychoanalysis todeal fully 'ith the human condition

?hat 'as needed 'as a model of humans thatemphasi=ed their uni-ueness and their positi$e

aspectsThis third force com%ines the philosophies of

romanticism and e


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,ntecedents to humanistic psychology

Phenomenology > focuses on cogniti$e e


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Aey 2igures in 4umanistic Psychology

,%raham @aslo' Tenets of humanistic psychology

/ittle of $alue can %e learned a%out humans %y studying animals u%"ecti$e reality is the primary guide for human %eha$ior tudying indi$iduals is more informati$e than studying 'hat groups of

indi$iduals ha$e in common , ma"or effort should %e made to disco$er those things that eactuali=ation


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Aey 2igures in 4umanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers Theory of personality

Postulated an innate human dri$e to'ard self>actuali=ation& if peopleuse this actuali=ing tendency as a frame of reference in li$ing their li$esthey are said to %e li$ing according to the organismic $aluing process

, pro%lem usually arises %ecause in childhood 'e ha$e a need forpositi$e regard %ut 'e recei$e this only if 'e act or think in certain 'ays&this sets up conditions of 'orth This stunts the organismic $aluing process

The only 'ay to a$oid imposing conditions of 'orth on people is to gi$ethem unconditional positi$e regard

6nly people 'ho recei$e unconditional positi$e regard can %ecome a

fully functioning person Rogers# person>centered psychology has %een applied to such

di$erse areas as religion& medicine& la' enforcement& ethnic andcultural relations& politics& and organi=ational de$elopment


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Criticisms and contri%utions of humanistic

psychology

Contri%utions include *


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Psycho%iology

The physiological roots of psychology are $ery

old as 'e#$e discussed 4ippocrates etc

3iological psychology attempts to e


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Aey 2igures in Psycho%iology

Aarl /ashley used the a%lation method 'ithlearning paradigms

@ass action > loss of a%ility to perform a particular learned%eha$ior follo'ing destruction of parts of the corte< is relatedmore to the amount of destruction than to the location& thecorte< appeared to 'ork as a unified 'hole

*-uipotentiality > any part of a functional area of the %raincan perform the function associated 'ith that area

/ashley spent decades searching for the engram the neurophysiological locus of memory and learning

4e e$entually conceded that it 'as not possi%le to locate theengram


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Aey 2igures in Psycho%iology

.onald 4e%% eural interconnections de$elop 'ith e%rains and hemispheric speciali=ation

The disunity of consciousness


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Psycho%iology

3eha$ioral genetics The study of genetic influence on cognition and %eha$ior

*thology the study of instincti$e animal %eha$ior 6f ma"or importance to ethologists is species>specific

%eha$ior ho' mem%ers of a species typically %eha$eunder specific en$ironmental conditions

ocio%iology attempts to e


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Cogniti$e psychology

4istorically& psychology has al'ays %een (a fe'esol$ing and thinking& among many others& refer to

hypothetical stages or aspects of cognition Cogniti$e Psychology is the domain of psychology

in$ol$ed in the scientific analysis of mental processesin order to %etter understand %eha$ior


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.e$elopment %efore 19K;

Throughout psychology#s history human cogniti$e a%ilities ha$e %eenstudied philosophically& and later e


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.e$elopment during the 19K;s

+eorge @iller argues that a symposium oninformation theory sponsored %y the @assachusetts0nstitute of Technology (@0T) marked the %eginning ofmodern cogniti$e psychology

,llen e'ell and 4er%ert imon presented papers oncomputer logic& oam Chomsky presented his $ie's onlanguage& and @iller presented his research on short>termmemory

?ith the ad$ent of computing technology& a ready

analogy 'as a$aila%le to help understand ho'humans deal 'ith and interact 'ith their en$ironment 3road%ent& Perception and Communication& (19K)


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.e$elopment after 19H;

4e%%#s ,P, Presidential address urged the use of the scientificrigor of the %eha$ioral researchers to study cogniti$eprocesses

4e noted the 'ork of 2estinger& @iller& +alanter& and Pri%ram asgood starts to'ard this rigorous cogniti$e psychology

4e 'as also encouraged %y the possi%ility of using computer

models for studying cogniti$e processes @iller and his colleagues continued to mo$e the interest in

cogniti$e psychology along 'ith se$eral contri%utions @iller& +ilanter and Pre%ram argued that cy%ernetic concepts (such

as information feed%ack) edirected human %eha$ior%etter than >R concepts do

@iller and 3runer founded a center for cogniti$e studies through'hich Piaget#s ideas 'ere populari=ed in the 8 eisser pu%lishes (ognitive Psychology 19HL


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,rtificial intelligence

pecial %ranch of computer science that in$estigatesthe eprocessing psychology

,pproach to studying cognition& 'hich uses thecomputer as a model for human informationprocessing 0t follo's the rationalist tradition& and hasa strong nati$istic component

0nformation processing marks a return to facultypsychology and the recent disco$ery that the %rain isorgani=ed into many “modules (groups of cells)each associated 'ith some specific function alsocontri%utes to this return to faculty psychology


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Connectionism

eural net'orks > a model of a comple< system of artificial neurons ,s in the %rain the associations among neurons in the net'ork changeas a function of e


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Contemporary psychology

.i$ersity of contemporary psychology4istorically there 'as hostility among the

different schools of thoughtToday there is a relati$ely peaceful co>e


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Contemporary psychology

8neasy relationship %et'een scientific and appliedpsychology

2rom psychology#s inception as a science there 'astension %et'een those 'anting psychology to %e a

pure science (such as ?undt) and those 'antingpsychological principles to %e applied to practicalmatters (such as 4all& Cattell& and @unster%erg)

The founding of the ,P, did not decrease thistension

The tension resulted in Titchener refusing to participate inany of its acti$ities and he created his o'n organi=ation& The*


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Training of clinical psychologists

/ightner ?itmer esta%lished the tradition thatclinical psychology 'ould %e closely aligned'ith scientific psychology

Mears later a ne' professional degree& thedoctor of Psychology (Psy.) 'as institutedfor those 'ho 'ere trained as appliedclinicians 'ithout the research training

6ne may ask though> ho' can you apply a scienceyou are not familiar 'ith5


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The rift

,s ,P, continued to e$ol$e the applied

mem%ers %egan to outnum%er the research

oriented psychologists

0n 19H; a group of scientific psychologists leftthe ,P, and formed their o'n organi=ation

Psychonomic ociety

/ater& another group 'as organi=ed to form the

,merican Psychological ociety (,P) o' the ,ssociation for Psychological cience


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Postmodernism

,s 'e ha$e noted throughout the course& !postmodernism# isancient

Postmodernism& also called social constructionism& %egan itsattack on enlightenment ideals of e19H;s

0n essence& postmodernism %elie$es that “reality is created %yindi$iduals and groups 'ithin $arious personal& historical andcultural conte


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Psychology#s status as a science

There is no clear unifying principle& a group of

facts 'ith different interpretations

, -uestion is: can psychology e$er %e

unified5 The ans'er is %ased on the indi$idual#s $ie'

of 'hether it e$en should it %e

@ost 'ould agree that psychology is still acollection of different facts& theories&

assumptions& methodologies& and goals


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Psychological cience

?hate$er psychology#s status as a science& it

continues on though it#s unclear at this time 'hat

direction it may %e heading

?hile its di$ersity is a mainstay and to %ehighlighted as a strength& perhaps a ne'

paradigm is needed to push us for'ard

0n any e$ent& kno'ing psychology#s past 'ill

help us %etter understand its present& and

prepare for its future

20th century psychology

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