204 3 87ro the role, operation and possible impacts …eei 6.1: the role, operation and possible...

Environmental Education and Information Volume 6 Number 1

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204 3 87RO THE ROLE, OPERATION AND POSSIBLE IMPACTSOF SUPPORT COMMUNICATION

ON WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

by Femi OlokesusiResearch Fellow

Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER)Ibadan

NIGERIA

Introduction

National governments in the developing world and inter-national agencies have invested huge sums of money andhuman and material resources to facilitate the develop-ment of water resources for a number of purposes. Themost common objectives of such developments, which arein the form of dams, reservoirs and diversion canals,have been to provide water for irrigation, hydro-power,navigation, recreation, industrial and domestic con-sumption as well as water quality control and floodcontrol.

Tremendous pressures are being brought to bear ondevelopment agencies in the developing countries tospeed up efforts to combat poverty, ill-health, drought,famine and all other miseries associated with the syn-drome, and water being a basic human need has beengiven a lot of attention.

Many water projects, like the Aswan High Dam in Egypt,the Kainji and Bakolori Dams in Nigeria, the Volta inGhana, the Tucurui and Itaipu in Brazil, the Tarbelaand Mangala in Pakistan and the Rajangana in Sri Lankaamong others, have been embarked upon in an attempt toprovide water for socio-economic development. But acomparison of the explosive population growth in thosecountries with available water supplies suggests theneed for more water. Nevertheless, most Third Worldcountries have not developed their water resources asextensively as industrial countries have, and theyface some special challenges in an era of scarce andcostly water. Third World economies are still largelyagrarian, and irrigated agriculture elairas 85-90 percent of their developed water sources. Supplying anexpanding urban and industrial base while meeting thefood needs of growing populations will thereforerequitfe much additional water. However, these nationsface capital and energy constraints, including negativeenvironmental impacts, which might reduce the pace ofwater resources development (Postel, 1985). Indeed,

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EEI 6.1: The Role, Operation and Possible Impacts of Support Communication on WaterResources Development

[V1

the importance of reservoir projects is illustrated bythe fact that by the year 2000 it is estimated thatthe portion of the World's streamflow regulated byreservoirs will increase from one-tenth to two-thirds(Freeman, 1974)..

Unfortunately, numerous but perhaps avoidable negativeimpacts have become evident in most water developments.In Nigeria, the Bakolori Dam project in Sokoto Stateled to social unrest, human deaths, extortion, humandisplacement without resettlement and huge bioticdestruction.

A report of the Agency for International Developmenton the prospects for the Ambuklao Dam in the Philippinesnotes that "the cutting of timber and the subsequentloss of water retention capacity of land surroundingthe reservoir has resulted in massive, silting of thereservoir, reducing its useful life from 60 to 32 years"(USAID, 1979).

Equally, the designers of the Mangala Reservoir inPakistan projected a life expectancy of at least 100years for the dam. What they did not reckon on wasthe effect of mounting population pressure on thewatershed feeding the reservoir. A combination ofthe axe and the plough, as land-hungry peasants pushup the hillsides, is leading to a rate of siltationthat will probably fill the reservoir with silt atleast 25 years earlier than projected (Sckholm, 1976).(See Table 1.)

In the area of health impacts, as of mid-1977 schisto-somiasis control has been implemented in thirty pro-jects by the YJorld Bank, at a cost of about $63.36m(0'Leary, 1982). Other international agencies wouldundoubtedly have spent huge sums of money on diseasecontrol in the Volta, Chad, Kainji, Mangla andMatumbulu basins among others. However, it has beenargued by some experts that some of these impactswould have been mitigated or reduced_if plannersmerged technology with communication (Pickford, 1985;McLoughlin, 1983; Monosowski, 1986; Olokesusi, 1985a,1985b; Ince, 1985).

It is in the light of the above that this paper seeksto explore the following: firstly, to identify the needfor support communication in water development projects;secondly, the describe how the support communicationprocess could be planned and implemented, as a component

'r of the larger development planning and implementationprocesses in developing countries in general, and witha view to enhancing environmental quality in particular.The paper focuses primarily-on water projects, in,, the _ ^rural areas of developing nat:ipns.if.jT£p.N|AT.nvA, ̂ -r-coc'.Z- ™'

! '-:''":- ";: : rr••'"': '-—'••' ..7; ( W A T E W oUPFLY

* ) • • • ; • " • • • " ' " • : / ;

\ ; ; • . ; • '"' ^ • ' " ' • - '••••• A H T . ' O H i i g ^ s • .

V

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TABLE 1

Siltation

Country-

Egypt

Pakistan

Tanzania

Rates in Selected Reservoirs

Reservoir

Aswan HighDam

Mangla

Matumbulu

AnnualSiltationRate

(Metric tons)

139,000,000

3,700,000

19,800

Time to PillWith Silt(Years)

100

75

30

I • Source: S. A. El-Swaify and E. W. Dangler, (1982),\ "Rainfall Erosion in the Tropics: A State

I of the Art", in American Society of Agronomy,

Soil Erosion and" Conservation in the Tropics/Madison, U.S.A.

1 Some Misconceptions of the Rural Dwellers

Water resources development projects are usually regardedas a strategy for socio-economic development, especiallyof the rural areas in the developing countries, sincewater helps to improve the socio-economic and physicallife of the society, and rural development essentiallyencompasses any human activity which contributes to theestablishment of improved rural welfare (World Bank,1975). Rural development has also been construed tomean increased adaptive behaviour and purposive andcumulative" control of people over changes in the environ-ment, and in themselves, so that they may attain greaterhuman welfare and better human conditions (Inyatullah,1967; Ascroft, 1969).

In most nations, dams, reservoirs and irrigation schemesare often located in rural areas, and have sometimesbeen developed as part of the regional development pro-gramme. But in quite a significant number of poor nations,water development projects of many types are limping,delayed and often failing outright because of failure tocommunicate with the people - the rural beneficiaries.Although clearly distinguishable as a unique category ofindividuals, rural dwellers remain an audience we needto know more about in a reliable, generalizeable andscientific way, since their views are hardly known to us.

I-A

"IP


This was emphasized by Marx and Engels (1935)» when theydescribed peasants as an "indecipherable hieroglyphic tothe understanding of the civilised." The ruraliteremains an enigma to those who have not lived his lifeand, as a result, he is often characterised in a negativelight (Rogers, 1§69). Also, Prawl (1969) asserts thatlack of understanding of the ruralites develops intostereotype - the ruralite is ultra-conservative, steepedin tradition, hemmed in by custom, lacking in motivationand incentive, captive to age-old methods.

These misconceptions have to be corrected partly toenergise the ruralites for developmental tasks, so asto ensure the success of water resource developmentprojects in these difficult times. One viable strategyof achieving these objectives is the integration ofsupport communication with water resource developmentprogrammes.

Definition of Support Communication

Support Communication means the employment of variouscommunication channels (mass media, interpersonal andgroup), technologies (hardware and software), deliverysystem (print, electronic, audio-visual, training andperson-to-person), in combination with each other forthe purpose of sending messages to promote, persuade,motivate and eventually induce behaviour modifications,thereby contributing to achieving the major goals andobjectives of a particular water resource developmentprogramme.

The Need for Support Communication

A significant reason for the persistence of avoidableimpacts of large water developments (e.g. malaria,siltation, schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis and dis-placement, etc.) relates to the technical/bureaucraticbias of such projects. More often than not, theplanners are engineers in government and other agencies,who are primarily concerned with economic and technicalefficiencies. This combination of technician andbureaucrat virtually guarantees one thing. This is theeffective omission, in the earlier stages of projectdevelopment, of integral feasibility components suchas economics, legal/institutional considerations,social matters, and often environmental matters, eventhough lip service may very well be paid to theseissues (as now required by law in many countries). Toserve its purpose properly, planning for developmentof any resource, particularly one in which the entirecommunity has a direct stake (such as water), shouldbegin with the final uses to which people, want theresource to be put. The planner should then work

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EEI 6.1: The Role, Operation and Possible Impacts of Support Communication m WaterResources Development

backwards, to the present, identifying what must be donealong the way to achieve that particular package of enduses. We know from long observation that a meaningfulchange brought about by man's influence on any oneaspect of a water system will induce, sooner or later,qualitative changes in other, linked, systems (McLoughlin,1983). (See Figure 1.)

Research has also i"ound substantive evidence thatdevelopment and communication are strongly correlated(Beltran, 1978). At the village level, Rao (I960)found in a comparative study clear correlations betweencommunication and socio-economic as well as politicaldevelopment. Effective support communication and inter-action requires conscious efforts by members of thepublic and development agents because of a variety ofobstacles to such relationships.

Lerner (1958) asserts that communication is a maininstrument of socialization and socialization is, inturn, the main agency of social change. Social changeitself is a condition for societal development. Quebral(1974) cites Schramm on the tasks of communication in adeveloping state:

(1) To circulate knowledge that will informcitizens of opportunities, dangers andchanges into the immediate and largerenvironment;

(2) To provide a forum where issues affectingthe national life may be aired;

(3) To teach those ideas, skills and attitudesthat will promote development; and

(4) To create and maintain the consensus thatis needed for the stability of the state.

Despite all these laudable objectives, there are a numberof inherent criticisms levelled by both the public andnational governments against the role and utility of

]support communication in project planning. Some ofthese are briefly examined.

"i

I The Citizen's Perspective

| (i) . In many rural areas, perhaps as a result ofI i ' illiteracy, previous unfulfilled promises and apathy,i general suspicions of conspiracy are often directed' towards public officials and development agency actions'•• -.-• by the general public.

i• ; 2 4

- 6 -

Figure: 1 The Water - Use Link

Water-use

r Pattern ofConsumers

Existing

Problems

(Water Associated )

Water Supply

Design andIn st alia tio n Nutr it ion

.Sanitat i on

Result ing

-^Health State

of Consumers

Source: Ince, M. (1985) • ' Water and

Grosvenor Press Intern

Operation andmaintenance

of

water supply

Disease ' , Developing World Water, WEDC ( Ed.)

London

SI

Xratr.ocMOISU!

O(TC

rooT3

1D

ZXft

XO>-~It

• •

or..T

B;• - •

ODCD

5

c•s.

%crr

w

O

T3no

I

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(ii) The ruralites believe that,irrespective of theirinvolvement in the planning process, public officialsalready know what they intend to do — hence it is a wasteof time and effort to participate.

(iii) Usually, the ruralites receive little or no feed-back in respect of the impact of their inputs on thepublic officials or agency - hence motivation is reduced.

(iv) Those groups which complain most and have politicalclout are served, while those who are quiet, unorganisedor inexpressive, even if in need, may be ignored.

(v) Due to factionalism, it is sometimes risky to takepart in the project planning and implementation process,as the powerful landowners and politicians (even if inmilitary uniform) are behind the factionalisation inorder to achieve their selfish objectives, and by anymeans too!

(vi) In many developing countries, it is a fact thatthe corruption among leaders of governments, associations,co-operatives and villages often deals a mortal blow topeople's desire to be involved in the planning process.

(vii) Short-term survival logic of the poor majorityenhances apathy, while the latter suppresses participa-tion instincts.

The G-overnment Agencies' Perspective

On the part of the national governments and agencies, thefollowing criticisms of support communication are common:

(i) Support communication is unnecessary, since theproject has.been approved by the national government andinternational aid agency. In any case, the people lackthe organizational skills for dialogue, it is argued.

|

(ii) More often than not, support communication requiresgreater disclosure of information than would be requiredotherwise. In many poor countries such governmentdocuments are tagged "secret11, even though they areavailable in government and university libraries in thedeveloped nations. Also, the tag of secrecy encouragesthe resource mis-allocation instincts of the publicofficials; hence the need to protect it.

(iii) Support communication demands a share in decision-making, a position that conflicts with existing require-ments to operate in the general public interest, as wellas making the project more difficult.

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(iv) Many public officials still believe that evencommunicable diseases, such as schistosomiasis, malaria,onchocerciasis, etc., are due to voodoo; consequently,their control techniques need not be a public affairscomponent of the project. This is equally true of theruralitea.

(v) Due to weak environmental expertise, the urge topromote scientific environmental debates is poor. Thisinter-relates with the poor political clout of nationalenvironmental agencies-. Table 2 indicates the environ-mental expenditure of India, Indonesia, P.N.&,Philippines,Singapore, Nigeria and U.S.A.

While the definitions of environmental expenditure :vary from one country to another, the difference of overtwo orders of magnitude of environmental expenditure asfractions of GNP is significant. These expenditures maybe taken as a measure of the actual commitment toenvironmental values and are more meaningful than officialpronouncements (Roque, 1986).

(vi) As a result of poor communication facilities, thetasks of gathering people for meetings and mailing ofpamphlets and questionnaires are extremely difficult;consequently, the involvement of the ruralites is viewedas a significant waste of scarce resources (Olokesusi,1985a).

Despite these criticisms, public involvement of one form :;or the other often takes place in many development pro-jects. The most common form is the public relationsaspect of development projects which espouses the positiveaspects of the project only. From this usually emanatedemands by pressure groups, particularly the landownersand the squatters, for compensation, resettlement andcontracts, etc. Hardly do the public officials ordevelopment agency inform the concerned public about *possible negative impacts of the project - even knownones such as schistosomiasis and onchocerciasis.

Thus, the types of support communication in many waterdevelopment projects, particularly in the developingnations, range from manipulation through therapy toplacatioh, to use Arnetein's framework (Arnstein, 1969).(See Figure 2.)

It is contended in this paper that the elimination of ?impediments to support communication depends on alteringthe nature of the relationship that exists between thepublic and the water development agency, and consequentlyaltering the nature of the roles played by public officialsand the public. One means of achieving this objective isthrough a planned communication programme. A plannedcommunication programme is a systematic process of analys-ing, co-ordinating, synthesizing and evaluating all

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TABLE 2

Ratio of Expenditure in Environmental Administration toGNP for Some Selected Countries

Ratio of EnvironmentalCountry Administration Expenditure

to GNP

India 0.0122a

Indonesia 0.381b

Papua New Guinea O.836c

Singapore 1.087

Philippines 0.005e

Nigeria 0.000621f

(Environmental Protection only)

United States 2.00s

(Population control only)

a Based on 1982 figures at current market prices

Based on environmental expenditure for fiscal year1982-83 over GNP for 1982

c Based on environmental expenditure for 1985 overGNP of 1983

Based on environmental expenditure for fiscal year1983-84 over GNP. figure for 1983

e Based on NEPC and NPCC budget over GNP for 1983f

Based on environmental expenditure for 1980-85 andGNP for 1979-80 and Federal Republic of Nigeria(1981), Fourth National Development Plan, 1981-85.Vol.1, Lagos, Nigeria

g Average for 1975-84

Source:^ Roque, C. R. (1986),"Factors InfluencingEnvironmental Policies in Developing Countries"in Environmental Planning and ManagementSymposium Proceedings, Asian Development Bank,

r p.154.

Nigeria, as in (f) above, derived by author.

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Figure: 2. The Ladder of Citizen Participation.

Citizen Control

Delegated Power

Partnership

Placation

Consultation

Informing

Therapy

Manipulation

•Degrees of Citizen Power

•Degrees of Tokenism

Non- participation

Source: Arnstein, S-0969 ), A Ladder of "Citizen Participation*JAIP 35 ( 4 ) July: 216 - 44.

The Communication Planning Process

The communication planning process discussed below is a generalised

and simplified, but iterative process.

Figure: 3. The Support Communication Planning Process.

-^Target Audiences Identification and Analysis

Formulation of Terminal Behavioural Objectives

Message Selection and Sequencing

1Assessment of Communication Re sour cs

IC o m m u n i c a t i o n S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n

YCommunication Process Evaluation

IIiii


factors involved in the attainment of quantifiable changein the target audiencefs behaviour. The process isbriefly described below.

Target Audience Identification and Analysis

As soon as the project's needs are appraised and goalsformulated, the various categories of project audiencesshould be identified. Such audiences must include grass-roots, whether organized or not, professionals, communityleaders, change agents, as well as policy makers/administrators and field cadres in the project's location.

The project planner should gather relevant social dataon the audiences, categorise and analyse such data interras of their characteristics, e.g. age, sex, attitude,income and educational level among others.

Census tract records (CTR) would be adequate for a majorcomponent of this phase of the process. However, whereGTR are not available or are obsolete, a mini-surveycould be done by the appropriate agency.

Formulation of Terminal Behavioural Objectives

During this phase, full specification of behaviouralchanges expected of the project (or continuously) ismade. The list would describe in observable andmeasurable terms the desired changes in knowledge,attitudes, health, environment and practices of theaudiences. These objectives shall form the basis forthe project's formative and summative evaluation. Theobjectives serve other functions, such as evaluatingthe audiences, to know exactly what is expected of themand how to go about achieving them; also, they facilitatethe selection and sequencing for messages as well as theselection of communication approach and media. Mobilisingpublic support for adequately funded impact mitigationmeasures will require extensive public education on thedimensions of the problem and its many consequences.

Message Selection and Sequencing

The message is the translation of project behaviouralobjectives into concrete terms. It acts as a bridgebetween.the audience^ existing behaviour and the terminaldesired behaviour. The message selected should bechecked and clarified with appropriate communicationplanning specialists, for accuracy and completeness.However, a message must be critical and cover all majorknowledge and skills required of the audience. Also,the message should be simple and not conflict with thesocial norms of the audience. The sequencing should befrom simple to complex.


Assessment of Communication Resources

Human and material resources are required in qualitativeand quantitative terms. Thus, an inventory of suchresources has to be drawn up as early as possible. Theorganizational framework for the process should beequally good and open to suggestions through a perceptibletwo-way communication channel. The financial resourcesavailable should determine the type of physical facilitiesneeded and communication strategies to be used.

Communication Strategy Selection

This phase of the process involves a thorough analysisof the possible alternative methods of communicating withthe audience and selecting one or a combination of thealternatives. For each possible alternative, the appro-priate communication process and support materials shouldbe listed. The previous phases would by and largedetermine the outcome of this phase. The use of towncriers in many rural areas of Nigeria to pass informationsuch as invitations to market square meetings, outbreakof epidemics, etc. may prove to be more effective andefficient than some radio-vision programmes.

As far as possible, methods that would facilitateaudience feed-back should be given priority. Extensiveuse should be made of visuals, radio farm forums andlocal dialects.

Communication Process Evaluation

Since in phase two prescribed behavioural objectives weremade, an evaluation of these is made in order to monitorthe project, provide an assessment of the impact ofvarious inputs arid give indications of the success of theproject concerned.

This is a very vital phase and, if done with dexterity,enables improvements to be made to the whole communicationimplementation process.

The above six stages are not as simple as they seem.There must be adequate commitment of the government agencyfor communication processes to succeed. Members of thepublic must also show willingness to become involved inactivities beyond their homes, more so those activitiesthat are pertinent to their long-term social well-being.Perhaps the donor agencies should be compelled to usethe "carrot and stick" tactics coupled with factual informa-tion to convince the aid recipients of the need forenvironmental quality through support communication inwater resources projects.

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Conclusion

It is apparent that, in order to develop informed waterresource plans and programmes, a deep appreciation ofthe characteristics, concerns and problems of peopleliving in the area to be affected must be gained at theearliest possible point in the planning or decision-making process. In an attempt to develop a cumulativeeffort at plan resolution, public meetings must bepurposeful, that is, the meetings must accomplish sometasks upon which the process of planning or decision-making is dependent.

It has to be indicated that, in many developing nations,governments and aid agencies should not wish informedpublic opinion into existence overnight. Quite somepainstaking and patient work will have to be done towipe out the pyramid of ignorance, inertia and com-placency. Also, support communication should be a com-ponent of the Environmental Impact Assessment andHeview processes in these countries, and the earlierthey all make EIA mandatory, the better.

Consequent upon the vital roles which water plays inhuman development, there is the need to integrate waterresources programmes with local and regional developmentprocesses. This would enable adequate consideration ofthe major impacts and necessary mitigation measures. Itwould also encourage the use of regular monitoring,particularly of ecological and socio-economic indicatorsas development evaluation tools. National governmentsshould improve public information about sanitation,environmentally desirable and sustainable development.

Finally, there is a definite need for improved institu-tional frameworks for development planning. Relevantpublic and private agencies, including grasercots, shouldbe mobilized for relevant research and information dis-semination as well as encouraging better application offoreign and indigenous resources for sustainabledevelopment.


References

Arnstein, S. (1969), "A Ladder of Citizen Participation",JAIP, 35, No.4, July.

Ascroft, J. R. (1969), "Modernisation and CommunicationControlling Environmental Change", unpublished Ph.D.Dissertation, Michigan State University.

Beltran, L. R. (1974), "Communication Strategies forRural Development", in Proceedings of Cornell-CIATInternational Symposium, Colombia, fl.15.

Eckholm, E. (1976), "Losing Ground: Environmental Stressand World Food Prospects?!, W. W. Norton & Co.. New York. .:*

Freeman, P. H. (1974), "The Environmental Impact of aLarge^Tropical Reservbir: Guidelines for Policy andPlanning, Based on a Case Study of Lake Volta, Ghana,in 1973 and 1974". Smithsonian Institution.Washington D.C.

Ince, M. (1985), "Water and Disease", WEDC (Ed.),Developing World Water. Grosvenor Press, London,pp.19-22.

Inyatullah (1967), "Toward a Non-Western Model ofDevelopment", Lerner and Schramm, Communication andChange in Developing Countries, Honolulu: East-WestCentre Press.

Lerner, D. (1958), The Passing of Traditional Society,Free Press, New York.

Marx and Engels (1935), Selected Works, Vol.1, Inter-national Publishers, New York, p.159.

McLoughlin, P. F..M. (1983), Water Management Problemsin the Third World, Lessons for Canada, Canadian AEnvironmental Advisory Council, Ottawa, Canada. ~.

Monosowski, E. (1986), "A Critical Review of the TucuriHydro-power Project, Brazil", paper presented at theInternational Seminar on Environmental Impact Assess-ment, 6-19 July, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, U.K.

O'Leary, D. T. (1982), Health Aspects of WatershedDevelopment and Irrigation Projects, World Bank,Washington D.C.

Olokesusi, A. (1985a), "Public Participation in the^Petroleum Industry Development in Nigeria", paperpresented to the 4th Biennial Nigerian NationalPetroleum Corporation International Seminar on thePetroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment,November, Kaduna, Nigeria.


Olokesusi, A. (1985b), "Promoting Environmental Qualityin Nigeria Through Environmental Impact Assessmentand Review Process", J. Nigerian Institute of TownPlanners, Vol.IV and V, October.

Pickford, J. (1985), "Water and People", WEDC (3d.),Developing World Water, Grosvenor Press, London.

Postel, S. (1985), Conserving Water; The UntappedAlternative, Worldwatch Institute, Washington D.C.

Prawl, W. L. (1969), "Men in the Field", CERES, Vol.2,No.4.

Quebral, N. C. (1974), "Communication for NationalBuilding", Philippine Quarterly, Vol.5, No.4, December.

Rao, Y. V. (1966), Communication and Development; AStudy of Two Indian Villages, University of MinnesotaPress.

Rogers, E. M. (1969), Modernization Among Peasants: TheImpact of Communication, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, p.19.

Roque, C. R. (1986), "Factors Influencing EnvironmentalPolicies in Developing Countries", EnvironmentalPlanning and Management: Proceedings of RegionalSymposium on Environmental and Natural ResourcesPlanning,

U3AID (1979), Environmental and Natural Resource Managementin Developing Countries: A Report to Congress,Washington D.C.

World Bank (1975), The Assault on World Poverty, JohnHopkins University Press, U.S.A.

204 3 87ro the role, operation and possible impacts …eei 6.1: the role, operation and possible...

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