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17. Define electronic configuration The distribution of electron in a orbital of a atom is called as electronic configuration.

18. Define Node or radial node or nodal surface A node is a region where there is zero probability density function. It is given by the formula ( n-1 ) for the ns orbitals. 19. Write the electronic configuration of Chromium

Expected Cr-24 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4

Actual configuration Cr-24 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5

20. Write the electronic configuration of Copper Expected Cu-29 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9

Actual configuration Cu-29 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d10

21. What is Dual character of matter Electrons are having both Particle and wave character. This is called as dual character.

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22. What are the significance of Z�� )�Z��

• The wave function Z�&'(�� #�#$!(' �"�%� '��"*%�$��%�+ �&�$� $#�

• But Z��give the intensity of the electron wave.

• According the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the probability of finding a electron at that point is termed as Probability function.

23. How many orbitals are possible for n=4

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Number of orbitals

Total Number of Orbitals

1 0 0 One S-orbital 16 orbitals 2 1 -1 0 +1 Three P-orbital

3 2 -2-1 0 +1 +2 Five D-orbital 4 3 -3 -2 -1 0 +1+2 +3 Seven F-orbital 24. Calculate the number of Radial and Angular nodes for 3d and 4f

orbitals

25. How many unpaired electrons are there for Fe+3, Mn+2 and Ar.

a)Fe26 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

Fe+3 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5 ( n = 5 )

b)Mn25 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5

Mn+2 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5 ( n = 5 )

c) Ar18 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 ( n = 0 )

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26. What is the meaning of 4f 2. And write the quantum number.

27. Which is more stable? Ni+2 or Fe+3.

Fe26 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

Fe+3 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5

Ni28 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8

Ni+2 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d8

Fe+3 is more stable, because it is having Half filled stable configuration.

28. Calculate the radial nodes for 2s, 4p, 5d and 4f orbitals

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31. Write the electronic configuration for Mn+2 and Cr+3

a)Mn25 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5

Mn+2 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5

b) Cr24 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4

Cr +3 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d3

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32. Give the 4 quantum numbers for the last electron of Oxygen.

O8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4

2px 2py 2pz The last electron is in the 2px orbital.

n l m s 2 1 +1 -½

33. Give the 4 quantum numbers for the 15th electron of Chlorine

Electronic configuration for the 15th electrons.

The 15th electron of Chlorine is in the 3Pz orbital

n l m s 3 1 +1 + ½

34. Arrange the orbitals in the increasing energy.

The order of increasing energy of orbitals is

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n l m s 4 1 +1 — ½

36. Draw the Radial distribution function graph for 2s, 3s, 3p & 3d orbital

2s 3s 3p 3d

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37. Write the electronic configuration for the first 10 elements

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1. Define Tiads.

• Elements like chlorine, Bromine and Iodine have same chemical properties in the group. These are called as Triads.

• In the tirads the atomic weight of the middle element nearly equal to the mean of the atomic weight of the remaining two elements.

2. Define Law of Octaves On arranging the elements in the increasing order of atomic weights, the property of every eighth elements is similar to the property of the first element. 3. Define Mendeleev’s Periodic law The properties of the elements are the periodic functions of the atomic weights. 4. Define Modern Periodic law The Physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of the atomic numbers. 5. Give the Anomalies of Mendeleev’s Periodic table

• Elements with same properties are placed in different groups

• Elements with different properties are placed in same groups.

• Elements with higher atomic weights are placed before the lower atomic weights.

6. Define Periodicity The repetition of the Physical and the chemical properties at regular intervals are called periodicity 7. How Lavoisier classified the elements

• Acid making elements = Sulphur

• Gas like elements = Oxygen

• Metallic element = gold

• Earthly elements = Lime

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8. Explain the Henry Moseley X-ray spectra experiment

• Hendry Moseley studied the X-ray spectra of many elements by bombarding them with high energy electrons.

• He observed a linear correlation between the atomic number and the frequency of the X-ray emitted.

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• The plot of��against Z gives a straight line.

• From the frequency the X-ray we can determine the atomic number of the known element

9. Explain the different types of elements in the Periodic table. There are 4 types of elements a)S-block elements

• The elements of group 1 and group 2 are called as S-block elements

• The last valence electron enters into the ns orbital

• Group 1 elements are called as Alkali metals and group 2 are called as Alkaline earth metals

• They are highly reactive

• They are soft metals with low boiling and melting point b)D-block elements

• The elements of group 3 to 12 are called D-block elements

• Their general electron configuration is ns2 (n-1)d 1-10

• They have high boiling and melting points

• They are good conductor of heat and electricity

• They are used as catalyst

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c) P-block elements

• The elements of group 13 to 18 are called P-block elements

• Their general electron configuration is ns2 np 1-6

• Group 16 is called as Chalcogens

• Group 17 is called as Halogens

• Group 18 is called as Noble gases

• They form covalent compounds

• They have high electron affinity and Ionization energy values d)F-Block elements

• There are 2 series of F-block elements

• Lanthanides = 4f 1-14 5d 0-1 6s2

• Actinides = 5f 0-14 6d 0-2 7 s2

• They have high melting points

• Most of the compounds are coloured

• They show variable oxidation states

10. Define atomic radius and explain the variation in the periodic table The distance between the center of the nucleus and the outer most shell containing the valence electron called as atomic radius.

Along the Period : It Decrease along the period. Reason

• As we move along the period the valence electrons are added to the same shell.

• So the Nuclear charge increases,

• And the attractive force between the valence electron and the nucleus increases

Along the Group: It Increases along the group. Reason

• As we move down the group the valence electrons are added into new shells.

• As a result the distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons increases.

11. Define ionic radius The distance between the center of the nucleus of a ion and the outer most shell containing the valence electron called as ionic radius.

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12. Define metallic radius

The half of the distance between two adjacent metal atoms in a closely packed metallic crystal is called as Metallic radius

13. Define Covalent radius

The half of the inter nuclear distance between two identical atoms linked by a single covalent bond is called as Covalent radius

14. Define Shielding effect The inner shell electrons act as a shield between the nucleus and the valence electrons, this effect is called as Shielding effect.

15. Explain the Pauling method of calculating Ionic radius

• In the Pauling method the Ionic radius was Calculated by using the Inter Ionic Distance

• Example for Isoelectronic :

Na+ = 2, 8 F - = 2, 8

r( C +) + r(A- ) = d(C+ - A- ) ------ 1

Effective Nucelar charge Zeff = Z - S

1

r( C +) � -------------- -------- 2

Zeff ( C +)

1

r( A -) � -------------- -------- 3

Zeff ( A -)

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r( C +) Zeff ( A -)

-------- = ---------- ------- 4

r( A -) Zeff ( C +)

r( C +) = ionic radius of the cation r( A- ) = ionic radius of the anion

d(C+ - A- ) = inter ionic distance

Z eff ( A -) = Effective nuclear charge of the anion

Zeff ( C +) = Effective nuclear charge of the cation

Using Eqn 1 and 4 Ionic radius can be calculated.

16. Define is ionization energy and explain the variation in the periodic table. Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an loosely bounded electron from the outermost shell of an atom. Unit is eV

• Along the Group : It decreases along the group. Reason

• As we move down the group the valence electrons are added into new shells.

• As a result the distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons increases.

• Hence the nuclear charge decreases and the ionization also decreases.

• Along the period : It increases along the period Reason

• As we move along the period the valence electrons are added to the same shell.

• So the Nuclear charge increases,

• And the attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus increases

• Hence more energy is required to remove the valence electron, so Ionization energy increases.

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17. Define Valence State or Oxidation state

Valence state is the number of electrons present in the valence shell

• Along the group the Valence state remains a constant

Because along the group the valence electrons does not changes.

• Along the period the Valence State increases.

Because along the period the of valence electrons increases.

18. Define second ionization energy Second Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove a electron from a unipositive cation.

19. Why the second ionization energy is always greater than the first IE

• The total number of electrons is less in a cation than a neutral atom

• So the effective nuclear charge of the cation is greater than the atom

• The order is IE1< IE2 < IE3 < ………

20. Define electron affinity and explain the variation in the periodic table. Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when a electron is added to the valence shell of a atom.

Along the Group : It decreases along the group. Reason

• As we move down the group the nuclear charge decreases • The atomic size increases. • The Shielding effect of the inner electrons increase

• Along the period : It increases along the period Reason

• As we move along the period the nuclear charge increases • The atomic size decreases. • The attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus

increases

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21. Define electron negativity and explain the variation in the periodic table. Electro negativity is a tendency of a element present is covalent molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself.

Along the Group : It decreases along the group. • As we move down the group the nuclear charge decreases • The atomic size increases.

• Along the period : It increases along the period

Reason • As we move along the period the nuclear charge increases • The atomic size decreases. • The attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus

increases 22. Explain the Pauling’s method of calculating the Electro Negativity

• According the Pauling the EN value of Hydrogen is 2.1 and for Fluorine is 4.0

• He calculated by using the Formula

( XA – XB ) = 0.182 EA-B - ( EA-A × EB-B ) ½ Where EA-B, EA-A and EB-B are the bond energy of AB, A2 and B2 molecules.

23. Define Diagonal relationship The similarities in the properties between the diagonally present elements are called as Diagonal relationship. Eg Li and Mg have same properties. Example lithium and magnesium have similar properties 24. Why Beryllium has high Ionisation energy than Boron ? Beryllium is having high ionization energy than Boron

• Beryllium has high Nuclear Charge • Beryllium has Stable Fully filled ns2 electronic configuration • The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost

electron is very high in Beryllium • So it is difficult to remove the outermost electrons of Beryllium • Be4 = 1s2 2s2 • B5

= 1s2 2s2 2p1

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25. Why Nitrogen has high Ionisation energy than oxygen ? • Nitrogen has high Nuclear Charge • Nitrogen has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration • The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost

electron is very high in Nitrogen • So it is difficult to remove the 2p electrons of Nitrogen • But if one electron is removed from Oxygen it gives stable 2p3

configuration, so it is easy to remove the 2p electron of oxygen • N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3 • O8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4

26. Why Beryllium has Zero electron affinity ? • Beryllium has Stable Fully filled ns2 electronic configuration • If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic

configuration. • So it will not accept electrons • Be4 = 1s2 2s2

27. Why Nitrogen has Zero electron affinity ? • Nitrogen has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration • If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration. • So it will not accept electrons • N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3

28. Why Noble gases ( Neon ) has Zero electron affinity ?

• Neon has Stable Fully filled np6 electronic configuration • If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic

configuration. And it requires more energy. • So it will not accept electrons • Ne10 = 1s2 2s2 2p6

29. Why the 17th group ( Halogens ) have high electron affinity ? • Halogens have a unstable np5 electronic configuration.

• By gaining one electron it becomes a Stable Fully filled np6 electronic configuration

• Hence it accepts one electron and become a stable Noble gas configuration .

30. Why the electron affinity of Oxygen and Fluorine is lower than sulphur and chorine • Oxygen and Fluorine is smaller in size. • Oxygen and Fluorine have high electron density. • In oxygen and Fluorine the valence electrons enter into the 2p orbital. • But in Sulphur and chlorine the valence electrons enter into the 3p

orbital.

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31. Define Isoelectronic ions.

Ions having same number of electrons and same number of electrons are called as Isoelectronic ions

Example for Isoelectronic:

Na+ = 2, 8 F - = 2, 8

32. Define effective nuclear charge

The net nuclear charge experienced by the valence electron in the outermost shell is called as effective nuclear charge

Effective Nuclear charge Zeff = Z - S

Z = atomic number S= Shielding constant

33. Why halogens act as oxidizing agents ?

• Halogens have high electron negativity and electron affinity values. • Halogens have a unstable np5 electronic configuration. • By gaining one electron it becomes a Stable Fully filled np6 electronic

configuration • Hence it accepts one electron and become a stable Noble gas

configuration 34. Give any 2 Anomalous properties of 2nd group elements

• Lithium and Beryllium form covalent compounds but other forms ionic compounds

• The second period has only 2 orbitals ( 2s and 2p ) in the valence shell. So the maximum valency is 4. But others have more orbital in the valence shell and higher valencies. Example Boron forms BF-4 but Aluminum forms AlF6

-3

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35. Mg+1, Mg+2 and Mg+3 which step required more energy ? The formation of the Mg+3 ion from Mg+2 ion requires more ionization energy because

• Mg+2 has stable noble gas configurations of 2,8 electrons

• Since the valence orbital is completely filled it requires more energy to remove an electron.

• Mg+2 ion has more effective nuclear charge.

36. Why the first IE value of sodium is lower than Mg. but the second IE value is higher than Mg Na11 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Mg12 = 1s2 2s2 2p4 3s2

• First IE value of Mg is larger because Mg is smaller in size and has high nuclear charge. So more energy is required to remove a electron from Magnesium than sodium

• But in second IE value is larger for Sodium because Sodium has full

filled Stable np6 electronic configuration. And high nuclear charge. 37. Why the first IE value of Carbon greater than Boron. But the second

IE value is reverse. B5 = 1s2 2s2 2p1

C6 = 1s2 2s2 2p2

• First IE value of Carbon is larger because Carbon is smaller in size and has high nuclear charge. So more energy is required to remove a electron from Carbon than Boron

• But in second IE value is larger for Boron because Boron has full filled

Stable ns2 electronic configuration. And high nuclear charge.

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38. Why the EA of Be, Mg and noble gases is zero Mg12 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Ne10 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 Be4 = 1s2 2s2

• Be, Mg and Noble gases are having fully filled stable electronic configuration.

• These elements will not accept electrons

39. Why the EA value of Nitrogen and Phosphorous is very low ? N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3 P15 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

• Nitrogen and Phosphorous has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration

• If an electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration. • So it will not accept electrons

40. Why the covalent radius is less than atomic radius. During the formation of the covalent bond there is a overlapping of atomic orbitals so the inter nuclear distance decreases. So covalent radius also decreases. 41. Explain the Schomaker – Stevenson method of calculation the

covalent radius • Schomaker – Stevenson calculated the covalent radius by using the

formula

d(A - B ) = r( A ) + r( B ) — 0.09 ( XA – XB ) A0

XA = electro negativity of Atom A XB = electro negativity of Atom B

• The EN values for XH = 2.1 and XCl = 3.

• It unit is A0

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( LESSON - 4 )

1. What are the similarity of hydrogen with Alkali metals • Hydrogen have 1s1 and Alkali metals have ns1 electronic configuration

• Like Alkali metals, Hydrogen forms unipositive ions. Eg H+ and Na+

• Like Alkali metals, Hydrogen forms Oxides(H2O) and sulphides(H2S).

• It also acts as a reducing agent.

2. How hydrogen differs from halogens Or Why hydrogen is not placed with Halogens in the table. • Hydrogen has less electron affinity than the halogens

• The tendency of forming Hydride ions is low

• But halogens easily form Halides.

• ½ H2 + e - 2 H - �H = + 36 K cal/Mol

• ½ Br2 + e - 2 Br - �H = - 55 K cal/Mol

3. Explain the position of hydrogen in the periodic table.

a)Hydrogen have 1s1 and Alkali metals have ns1 electronic configuration

• Like Alkali metals, Hydrogen forms unipositive ions. Eg H+, Na+ and

• Like Alkali metals, Hydrogen forms Oxides(H2O) and sulphides(H2S).

• It also acts as a reducing agent.

b) Hydrogen has less electron affinity than the halogens

• The tendency of forming Hydride ions is low

• But halogens easily form Halides.

• ½ H2 + e - 2 H -

• ½ Br2 + e - 2 Br -

c) The compounds of hydrogen have +1 oxidation states. So is placed along with Alkali metals.

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4. Define isotopes and explain the types of isotopes of Hydrogen

Elements having same atomic number but different mass number is called as isotopes

Hydrogen has 3 isotopes.

• Protium = 1H1

• Deuterium = 1H2

• Tritium = 1H3

1p 1p 1n 1p 2n

5. Compare the properties of Protium, Deuterium and Tritium

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6. Explain Ortho and Para hydrogen In hydrogen molecule, if the two nuclei rotates in the same direction is called as Ortho hydrogen In a hydrogen molecule, if the two nuclei rotates in the opposite direction is called as Para hydrogen

7. Give the difference between Ortho and para hydrogen

S.

Nm

ORTHO HYDROGEN PARA HYDROGEN

1

Both the nuclei rotates in the same

direction

Both the nuclei rotates in the

opposite direction

2

75% at room temperature

25% at room temperature

3 It is more stable

It is less stable

4

Its melting point is 13.95K

Its melting point is 13.83K

5

Its boiling point is 20.39K

Its boiling point is 20.26K

6

It has a net magnetic moment

It has Zero magnetic moment

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8. How will you convert Para hydrogen to Ortho hydrogen

Para hydrogen can be convert to Ortho hydrogen by

• By using catalyst like Iron

• By passing electric discharge

• By heating at 8000C

• By mixing with paramagnetic molecules like oxygen

• By mixing with atomic hydrogen

9. Explain the electrolysis method of preparing Hydrogen

Hydrogen is prepared by the electrolysis of water containing small amount of NaOH.

Anode = Nickel

Cathode = Iron

10. Give the preparation of Tritium

Tritium is prepared by bombarding Lithium with slow neutrons.

3Li6 + 0n1 1T

3 + 2He4

11. Show that Tritium is a Beta emitter. ( Give the Properties )

The Half life period of Tritium is 12.3 years.

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12. Explain the Lab preparation of hydrogen

• Hydrogen is prepared by heating Zinc with dilute Acids.

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

13. Give the industrial preparation of hydrogen

Hydrogen is prepared by mixing methane with steam at 9000C and 35 atm pressures in the presence of Nickel catalyst.

CH4 + H2O 3 H2 + CO

14. What is Syngas or Water gas or synthetic gas and give its use

Or Prepare hydrogen form Syngas or Water gas

• When Carbon reacts with steam at 10000C, it gives a mixture of Carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This mixture is called as Water gas or Syngas.

C + H2O 1000 C H2 + CO

• It is used in the synthesis of Methanol and simple hydrocarbons.

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15. Explain the water gas shift reaction.

When carbon monoxide is reacts with steam at 4000C in the presence of iron catalyst it gives hydrogen.

CO + H2O 400 C H2 + CO2

16. Give the preparation of Deuterium by the electrolysis of heavy water

• The dissociation of water faster than heavy water

• When water is electrolyzed hydrogen is liberated faster than deuterium

• The electrolysis is continued till the solution rich in heavy water and finally gives deuterium. 2 D2O Electrolysis 2D2 + O2

17. Discuss the three types of covalent hydrides

• Electron precise. Eg. Methane

• Electron deficient. Eg B2H6

• Electron rich hydrides. Eg Water.

18. Predict the gas and solid for HCl and NaH. Give reasons

• HCl is a gas because of absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding

• NaH is a solid because of electron transfer.

19. Explain the chemical properties of Hydrogen.

a)Hydrogen with chlorine gas

H2 + Cl2 � 2 HCl

b) Hydrogen reaction with oxygen

2 H2 + O2 � 2 H2O

c) Hydrogen reaction with Lithium

2 Li + H2 � 2 LiH

d)Hydrogen reaction with Sodium

2 Na + H2 � 2 NaH

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20. Give the chemical properties o Water

a)Water with sodium metal

2 Na + 2 H2O � 2 NaOH + H2

b)Water with Barium metal

Ba + 2 H2O � Ba(OH)2 + H2

c)Steam with Red hot Iron

3 Fe + 4 H2O � Fe3O4 + H2

d)Water with Chlorine gas

H2O + Cl2 � HOCl + HCl

The Hypo chlorous acid is responsible for the antibacterial action of chlorine water and also used as bleach.

e)Water with Silicon Tetra Chloride ( SiCl4)

SiCl4 + 2 H2O � SiO2 + 4 HCl

f)Water with Phosphorus pent oxide

P4O10 + 6 H2O � 4 H3PO4

21. Give the preparation of Lithium Aluminium Hydride ( LiAlH4 )

4 LiH + AlCl3 � LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl

22. Give the preparation of Sodium Boro Hydride

4 NaH + B(OCH3)3 � NaBH4 + 3 CH3ONa

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23. Hydrogen peroxide can act both oxidizing & redacting agent. Prove.

Oxidation takes place in acidic medium

2 FeSO4 + H2SO4 + H2O2 Fe2(SO4)3 + 2 H2O

Reduction takes place in basic medium

2 KMnO4 + 3 H2O2 2 MnO2 + 2 KOH + 2 H2O + 3 O2

24. List the uses of Heavy water

• It is used as Moderators in Nuclear reactor.

• It is used as tracer element to study the mechanisms of organic reactions.

• It is used as coolant in nuclear reactors to absorb the heat

25. List the uses of Deuterium

• It is used as tracer element to study the mechanisms of organic reactions.

• High speed deuterium is used in Artificial radio activity

• It is used in the preparation of heavy water which used as Moderators in Nuclear reactor

26. Explain the exchange reaction of Deuterium

CH4 + 2 D2 CD4 + 2 H2

NH3 + 3 D2 2 ND3 + 2 H2

27. Give the action of Heavy water with the following a)Aluminium Carbide

Al4C3 + 12 D2O � 4 Al(OD)3+ 3 CD4

b)Calcium Carbide

CaC2 + 2 D2O � Ca(OD)2 + C2D2

c) Magnesium Nitride

Mg3N2 + 6 D2O � 3 Mg(OD)2 + 2 ND3

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d)Calcium Phosphide

Ca3P2 + 6 D2O � 3 Ca(OD)2 + 2 PD3

28. Explain the exchange reaction of Heavy water

HCl + D2O DCl + HOD

NaOH + D2O NaOD + HOD

NH4Cl + 4 D2 O � ND4Cl + 4 HOD

29. How does heavy water reacts with hypo phosphorous acid?

( Prove Hypo Phosphorous acid is Mono Basic )

H3PO2 + D2O � H2DPO2 + HOD

30. Why NH3 is having high boiling point

NH3 is having high boiling point because of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

31. NH3, H2O and HF arrange in the order of hydrogen bonding

• The order of increasing strength of Hydrogen bonding is

HF > H2O > NH3

• The strength of hydrogen bonding increases with the increase in Electro negativity.

• The order of electro negativity is F > O > N.

• Hence HF has the strongest Hydrogen bonding

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32. Compare the structure of H2O and H2O2

S.Nm H2O H2O2 1 It is bent structure It is Open book structure

2 The bond angle is 104.50 The bond angle is 90.20

3

H H

H H

33. List the uses of Hydrogen

• Liquid hydrogen is used as Rocket Fuel

• Atomic hydrogen is used for cutting and welding metals

• Hydrogen is used for preparing Fertilizer and explosives

• Hydrogen is used in Fuel cells for generating electricity.

• It is used as catalyst for the preparation of Vanaspathi.

• It is used for the preparation of Methanol and industrial solvent

34. What is Soft water and Hard water

• Water free from calcium and magnesium salts is called soft

water.

• Water containing chlorides and sulphate of magnesium & calcium

ions is called as Hard water.

35. What is Temporary hardness and how it is removed;

• Temporary hardness is due to the presence of Bicarbonates of Magnesium and Calcium.

• It can be removed by boiling and filtration.

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36. Explain the Clark’s method of removing temporary hardness?

Give the equation.

In Clark’s method calculated amount of lime is added to hard water

and filtered-off.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH )2 � 2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O

Mg (HCO3)2 + 2 Ca(OH )2 � 2 CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2 H2O

37. What is permanent Hardness and how it is removed

• Temporary hardness is due to the presence of Chlorides and Sulphates of Magnesium and Calcium.

• It is removed by adding washing soda.

38. Explain the Ion Exchange method of of Softening hard water.

• In this method the hard water is passed through an ion exchange Zeolites.

• The Zeolites are hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicates (NaO�Al2O3�xSiO2�yH2O)

• The Zeolites contains porous structure of mono valent sodium ions, which is exchanged with Calcium and Magnesium ions in water.

• The Zeolites can be reused by treating with sodium chloride.

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39. Give the preparation of Hydrogen peroxide.

a)When Barium peroxides reacts with sulphuric acid, it gives hydrogen peroxide.

b)When Sodium peroxides reacts with sulphuric acid, it gives hydrogen peroxide.

Na2O2 + dil.H2SO4 � Na2SO4 + H2O2

40. Give the industrial preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide

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41. What is 30% solution of hydrogen peroxide?

Or what is 100 volume of hydro peroxide?

30 % solution of hydrogen peroxide is called as ‘100-volume’ hydrogen

peroxide. At STP on heating 1 ml of hydrogen peroxide liberated 100 ml of

oxygen.

42. Why hydrogen peroxide is store in Plastic bottles not in Glass bottles • It dissolves the Alkali metals present in glass. • It undergoes a Catalyzed disproportionation reaction. • So it is stored in Plastic bottles.

43. List the used of Hydrogen peroxide

• It is used as Antiseptic

• It is used to bleach paper and textile

• It is used in water treatment to oxidize pollutant in water.

44. How Hydrogen peroxide is used to restore the colour of old paintings

• Hydrogen peroxide is used to restore the white colour of the old paintings

• Hydrogen sulphide in air reacts with the white pigment to form a black colored lead sulphide.

• Hydrogen peroxide reacts lead sulphide to give white coloured lead sulphate.

PbS + 4 H2O2 � PbSO4 + 4 H2O

45. Explain the structure of Hydrogen peroxide.

• Hydrogen peroxide is having a Skew conformation

• Hydrogen peroxide is having a Non Polar structure.

• There is repulsion between the –OH bonds with Lone pairs of electrons on each Oxygen atoms.

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• The two hydroxyl group do not lie on the same plane

• The hydrogen atoms lie on the pages of open book and the two oxygen atoms on the spine.

• The dihedral angle is 90.20. And the O-O-H angle is 94.80.

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46. What is hydrogen bonding

• When hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom

such as fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen, the bond is polarized.

• The polarized hydrogen forms a weak electrostatic force of interaction

with another electronegative atom.

• This interaction is called as a hydrogen bond and is denoted by dotted

lines (…..…)

47. What are intra and inter molecular hydrogen bonding. ( Types )

• The hydrogen bonding which occur within the molecule is called as Intra molecular hydrogen bonding. Eg. Ortho Nitro Phenol

• The hydrogen bonding which occur between two or more molecules of same or different types is called as Inter molecular hydrogen bonding. Eg. Water.

48. What are the importance of Hydrogen bonding

• It plays an important role in bio molecules like proteins.

• It plays a important role in the structure of DNA,

• It holds the two helical Nucleic acid chains of the DNA together.

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��Unit – 5

1. What are S-block elements The Elements of Group 1 and 2 are called as S-Block elements. Group 1 is called as Alkali metals and group 2 are called as Alkaline earth metals 2. What are the general characteristics of the Alkali metals

• Alkali metals are highly reactive

• Francium is radio active

• Their general electronic configuration is ns1.

• Their common oxidation state is +1.

• As we move down the group, the IE value decrease with the increase in the atomic number

• As we move down the group, the Atomic radius increases.

3. Explain the flame colour and the Spectra of Alkali metals

• When Alkali metal salts is mixed with Concentrated Hydrochloric acid and heated on a Platinum wire it give the characteristic colour flame.

• When heated the valence electrons are excited to the higher energy level

• When drops back to the ground state the energy is emitted as light in the visible region.

4. Why the second ionisation enthalpy of Alkali metals are very high ? When a electron is removed from the alkali metals, it gives a mono valent cation with fully filled stable np6 electronic configuration. So it is very difficult to remove the electrons .

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5. Why lithium salts are more soluble than the other metals in group 1 ? Lithium is more soluble because of high solvation and Smaller size of lithium ion. 6. What is the reason for the distinctive behavior of lithium

• Lithium is smaller in size

• Lithium is having high polarizing power.

• Lithium is having high hydration energy

• Lithium do not have any D-orbitals

7. Compare the properties of lithium and other elements S.

Nm Lithium Other elements

1 Hard, high melting and boiling point

Soft, low melting and boiling point

2 Less reactive More reactive

3 Reacts with nitrogen to give Li3N

No reaction

4 Reacts with bromine slowly Reacts violently

5 Compounds are less soluble in water

Compounds are Highly soluble in water

6 Lithium nitrate decomposes to give Oxides

Decomposes to give Nitrite

8. What are similarities ( Diagonal relation ) between Lithium and

Magnesium

• Both lithium and Magnesium are Hard

• Both lithium and Magnesium reacts slowly with water.

• Both forms Nitrides with nitrogen. Eg. Li3N and Mg3N2.

• Both do not form Super oxides.

• Both forms only Oxides like Li2O and MgO.

• Their carbonates decompose on heating giving CO2 gas and Oxides.

• Both do not forms Bicarbonates

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9. Why lithium and magnesium shows Diagonal relation ?

• Both lithium and magnesium are similar in size. Li+ = 0.766 A0 and Mg+2 = 0.720 A0

• Both Lithium and Magnesium have similar Electro negativity value Li = 1.0 and Mg = 1.2

10. Give the action of Alkali metals with Oxygen.

• Lithium 4 Li + O2 2 Li 2O ( Simple Oxides )

• Sodium 2 Na + O2 Na2O2 ( Peroxides )

• Potassium K + O2 K O2 ( Super Oxides )

11. Why the Alkali metals have high conductivity in Ammonia solution

• This is because the alkali metals loses its valence electrons in ammonia solution.

• The cation and the electron are ammoniated to give ammoniated cation and ammoniated electron.

M + ( x + y ) NH3 [ M ( NH3 ) X ] + + [ e ( NH3 ) y ]

— 12. Why the Alkali metals give deep blue colour in Ammonia solution The blue colour is because the ammoniated electron absorbs energy in the visible region of the light. ( The concentrated solution is Bronze colour and diamagnetic ) 13. Give the action of Lithium with Acetylene

H - C� C - H + Na Na - C� C-H Na - C� C-H + Na Na - C� C - Na

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14. Give the action of Lithium with water Lithium reacts with water to give lithium hydroxide

15. Why Lithium Iodide is covalent in nature

• Lithium is smaller is size.

• The larger Iodide ion is greatly polarized by the lithium ion

16. Give the action of Lithium with carbon Lithium reacts with carbon to give lithium carbide.

17. Give the uses of Alkali metals

• Lithium used for making alloys. Eg: Li-Al alloy is used for making Aircraft parts.

• Lithium carbonate is used in medicines

• Lithium is used for making electro chemical cells

• Cesium is used in Photo chemical cells.

• Potassium chloride is used in Fertilizers.

• Liquid sodium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors. 18. Give the action of heat of Lithium carbonate. And why it is less stable

Lithium carbonate is less stable because due to the large size difference between Lithium and the Carbonate ion. It makes the crystal less stable. 19. Why the solubility carbonate and bicarbonates in water increases

rapidly moving down the group This is because moving down the group, the Lattice energy decreases more rapidly than the hydration energy

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20. Give the preparation of Sodium Carbonate by Solvay process.

• In the Solvay process, sodium carbonate is prepared from Ammonia.

• The ammonia is recovered by adding Calcium Hydroxide. 21. What is Soda Ash ( Give the action of heat of Sodium Carbonate. When Sodium carbonate is heated, it loses a water molecule to become mono hydrate. On heating at 373K it becomes a white powder called as Soda Ash.

22. List the used of Sodium Carbonate

• Sodium carbonate is called as Washing soda, which used in Laundry.

• It is used in Volumetric analysis

• It is used in water treatment to convert hard water to soft water.

• It is used to prepare Glass, Paper and Paints 23. List the use of Sodium chloride

• It is used as common salt

• It is used to prepare NaOH and Sodium Carbonate

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24. Give the preparation of Sodium hydroxide.

• Sodium hydroxide is prepared by the electrolysis of Brine solution by using Castner - Kellner cell.

• Cathode - Mercury

• Anode - Carbon rod

• Sodium metal is liberated at the cathode and reacts with mercury to form Sodium Amalgam

• Sodium amalgam is treated with water to give Sodium Hydroxide.

• Chorine is liberated at the anode At the cathode Na+ + e - Na-amalgam At the anode Cl - ½ Cl2 + e - 2 Na-amalgam + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + 2 Hg + H2

25. Give the used of Sodium hydroxide.

• It is used as laboratory reagent.

• It is used in refining Petroleum

• It is used to prepare soap and paper.

• It is used in textile industry 26. Why sodium bicarbonate is used in Baking Cakes.

When sodium bi carbonate is heated it decomposes to gives carbon-di-oxide bubbles and makes the cake light and fluffy.

27. List the used of Sodium Bi carbonate.

• It is used in Fire Extinguisher

• It is used as a Antiseptic for skin infections

• It used in Baking.

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28. Give the biological importance of Sodium and Potassium Biological importance to sodium ions

• Sodium ions are found outside the cell in the blood plasma.

• Sodium ions are used in the transmission of Nerve signal.

• The sodium ions are used in the transport of sugar and amino acids into the cell

• The sodium ins are used to regulate the flow of water across the cell membranes

Biological importance to Potassium ions

• Potassium ions are used to activate the enzymes.

• Potassium ions participate in the Oxidation of Glucose to ATP

• Potassium ions is used in the transmission of Nerve signal

• Potassium ion is found in Biological fluids. 29. What are Alkaline earth metals

• Group 2 elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are called as Alkaline earth metals

• The oxides and hydroxides are alkaline in nature and the metal oxides are found in the earth crust. So they are called as Alkaline earth metals

30. Explain the important common features of Group 2 elements

• Group 2 elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are called as Alkaline earth metals

• Their general electronic configuration is ns2.

• Their common oxidation state is +2.

• Moving down the group the ionic radius increases

• Moving down the group the Ionization enthalpy decreases.

• Moving down the group the electro negativity decreases.

• Moving down the group the hydration enthalpy decreases.

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31. Why the ionic radius of Alkaline earth metals are smaller than alkali metals ?

• Alkaline earth metals have high Nuclear charge

• The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is very high in Alkaline earth metals.

32. Why the Ionisation enthalpy of Alkaline earth metals are larger than

alkali metals ? ( less electro positive than alkali metals )

• Alkaline earth metals are smaller in size

• Alkaline earth metals have high Nuclear charge

• The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is very high in Alkaline earth metals.

33. Why the Alkaline earth metals have +2 Oxidation state By losing 2 electrons Alkaline earth metals get fully filled stable noble gas configuration. So they have +2 Oxidation state 34. Why the IE1 of alkaline metals is high but the IE2 is less than alkali

metals ?

• In alkali metals the second electron has to be removed from fully filled stable noble gas configuration

• But in alkaline earth metals, the second electron is removed from a mono valent cation which gave still one electron.

35. Why the Alkaline metals are more hydrated than the alkali metals The hydration enthalpy of Alkaline earth metals ions is larger than alkali metals.

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36. Explain the flame colour and the Spectra of Alkaline earth metals

• When Alkaline earth metal salts is mixed with Concentrated Hydrochloric acid and heated on a Platinum wire it give the characteristic colour flame.

• When heated the valence electrons are excited to the higher energy

level

• When drops back to the ground state the energy is emitted as light in the visible region.

37. Why beryllium shows anomalous behavior.

• Smaller in size

• High polarizing power

• Absence of D-orbitals in the valence shell

• High electro negativity and high ionization energy. 38. Compare the properties of Beryllium and other elements

( how Beryllium differs from rest of the member of the family ) S.

Nm Beryllium Other elements

1 Forms covalent compounds Forms Ionic compounds 2 High melting and Boiling point Low melting and Boiling point 3 Do not reacts with water Reacts with water 4 Do not reacts with hydrogen

directly Reacts with hydrogen directly

5 Do not reacts with Halogen directly

Reacts with Halogen directly

6 Do not attacked by acid Attacked by acids 7 Hydroxides are Amphoteric Hydroxides are Basic

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39. Why Beryllium shows diagonal relation with Aluminium

• Both the Beryllium and Aluminium are similar in size

• Both have same electro negativity values

• Both have similar charge per unit area 40. Explain the diagonal relation ( Similarities ) between Beryllium and

Aluminum

• Both beryllium chloride and aluminium chloride forms dimeric structure with chloride bridges.

• Both beryllium and Aluminium forms complexes. BeF4 -2 and AlF6

-3

• Beryllium carbide and Aluminium carbide give methane on hydrolysis

• Both beryllium and Aluminium renders passive with Nitric acid

• Both beryllium and Aluminium Hydroxides are Amphoteric in nature. 41. List the uses of Beryllium

• It is used as radiation windows in X-ray tubes and X-ray detector

• It used as sample holders in X-Ray emission studies.

• It used to built Beam pipes in accelerators

• It used in Detectors. 42. List the uses of Magnesium

• It is used to remove sulphur fro Iron and steel

• It is used in Refining of Titanium in Kroll Process

• It is used in Printing Industry

• Magnesium allow in used in Aero plane construction

• It is used as Desiccant

43. List the uses of Calcium

• It is used a reducing agent in the metallurgy of Uranium.

• It is used for making cement

• It is used for making Fertilizers

• It is used in Vaccum Tubes

• It is used in dehydrating oils

• It is used to prepare Plaster of Paris

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44. List the uses of Strontium

• Sr-90 is used in Cancer Treatment

• It is used in Dating Rocks

• It is used as Radioactive tracer in determining the source of ancient coins.

• Sr87 / Sr86 ratio is used in Criminal Forensic science.

45. List the used of Barium

• It is used in Metallurgy and Radiology

• It is used as De-Oxidizer in refining Copper

• Ba-133 is used in the calibration of Gamma rays detectors in nuclear chemistry

• It is used to remove Oxygen in Television and Electronic tubes. 46. List the used of Radium

It is used as self luminous paint in watches, clocks, Dials and Aircraft switches.

47. Why alkaline earth metals are less ionic than alkali metals Alkaline earth metals have high nuclear charge and they are smaller

in size. 48. BeO is covalent but others are ionic. Explain.

BeO is covalent because the Be+2 ion is smaller in size.

49. Give the preparation of Barium Peroxide

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50. Explain the structures of Beryllium chloride

Beryllium chloride is having the following structures

• Chain structure- a in the solid state

• Linear monomer structure – b at high temperature of 1200K

• Chloro Bridged dimer structure – c in the Vapour state 51. Why BeSO4 and MgSO4 is soluble in water ? Because the Mg+2 and Be+2 ions have high hydration enthalpy which overcomes the lattice enthalpy. So it is soluble in water. 52. What is Quick lime give the preparation

• Cao - Calcium Oxide is called as Quick lime.

• It is prepare by heating lime stone at 1070K

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53. What is Slaking of lime or Slaked lime. When water is added to quicklime, it breaks the lumps of lime. This process is called Slaking of lime.

54. Give the preparation of Calcium Hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide is prepared by mixing water with quicklime

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55. Give the action of Quick lime ( Calcium Oxide ) with Silicon dioxide and Phosphorous pent oxide a) Action of Calcium Oxide with Silicon dioxide

Calcium Silicate

b) Action of Calcium with Phosphorous pent oxide

Calcium Phosphate

56. List the used of Calcium Oxide – Quick lime

• It is used to prepare cement and glass

• It is used to prepare Slaked lime

• It is used in the purification of sugar

• It is used as a dehydration agent

57. When carbon di oxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky. Explain why ?

This is due to the formation of Calcium carbonate.

58. Give the action of milk of lime ( calcium carbonate ) with chlorine and

give its uses ? When milk of lime reacts of chlorine it gives Hypo chlorite. It is used in Bleaching Power

2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 CaCl2 + Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H2O

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59. List the used of Calcium Hydroxide

• It is used as Building material

• It is used to White wash

• It is used for making Glass

• It is used in the purification of Sugar

• It is used to make Bleaching powder 60. List the uses of Gypsum ( CaSO4 . 2 H2O )

• It is used for making Plaster Boards, which is used for walls and ceilings

• It is used to make Plaster of Paris, which is used in Sculptures

• It used in making surgical and ortho pedic casts

• In agriculture, it is used as soil conditioner and fertilizer.

• It is used in tooth paste, Shampoos and hair products

• It is used to make Portland cement 61. Give the role of Gypsum in Agriculture

• In agriculture, it is used as soil conditioner and fertilizer.

• It provide calcium and sulphur, which is required for plant growth

• It is used to remove excess sodium from the soil. 62. What is Dead Burnt Plaster

• When gypsum is heated above 393K , no water molecules are left for crystallization. It forms anhydrous calcium sulphate. This is called Dead Burnt Plaster.

63. Define Retrograde Solubility

When the temperature increases, the solubility of gypsum in water decreases. This property is called as Retrograde Solubility

64. List the properties of Gypsum

• Gypsum is soft and soluble in water.

• Gypsum is white or Grey in colour. But due to the presence of impurities it is pink, yellow, brown and light green.

• Gypsum crystals occur like petals of a flower, called as Desert Rose.

• Gypsum has low thermal conductivity, so it is used for making Dry Walls

• Alabaster is variety of Gypsum, which is opaque and Granular. It is an ornamental stone used for making Sculptors.

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65. Give the preparation of Plaster of Paris ( CaSO4 . ½ H2O )

• When gypsum is heated at 393K , Plaster of Paris is formed.

66. List the used of Plaster of Paris

• In Building industry it is used as Plasters

• It is used in the treatment of Bone fracture and Sprains

• It is used for making Statues

• It is used in Dentistry 67. Define Efflorescence The spontaneous loss of water by a hydrated salt is called Efflorescence. 68. Why Alkaline metals are harder than alkali metals

• Alkaline earth metals are smaller in size

• They have high density.

• So they form strong metallic bonds. 69. Give the Biological importance of Magnesium and Calcium

Magnesium

• Magnesium plays a important role in Bio-chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes

• Magnesium is essential for DNA synthesis

• Magnesium is essential for the stability and functioning of the DNA

• Magnesium is used for balancing the electrolyte in the body

• Magnesium is present in Chlorophyll and play a main role in Photosynthesis .

• Deficiency of Mg caused Neuro-Muscular irritation Calcium

• Calcium is essential for strong Bones and teeth

• Calcium is present in the blood

• Calcium is used to maintain the hormones

• Deficiency of calcium caused longer time for blood to clot.

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70. Write the balance equation for the following chemical reactions a) Lithium with Nitrogen gas

6 Li + N2 2 Li3 N

b) Action of heat of Sodium Bi Carbonate

c) Rubdium with oxygen

Rb + O2 RbO2

d) Potassium hydroxide with CO2

KOH + CO2 KHCO3

e) Action of heat of Calcium Carbonate.

f) Heating Calcium with Oxygen

2 Ca + O2 2 CaO

g) Heating Calcium oxide with carbon.

2 CaO + 5 C 2 CaC2 + CO2

h) Heating Calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

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Lesson - 6

1. State Boyle’s law

At constant temperature the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure

1 V � -------- P 2. Define pressure

Force Pressure = -------------------- pascal

Area

3. Charles law At constant pressure the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature. V � T 4. Define Gay-Lussac’s law At constant volume the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature. P � T 5. Define Avogadro hypothesis Equal volume of all gases under same temperature and pressure contains equal number of molecules V � n

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6. Derive the ideal gas equation 1

Boyles law V � -------- P Charles law V � T Avogadro law V � n nT

V � -------- P nRT

V = -------- P PV = nRT P=Pressure R=Gas constant T=Temperature V=Volume 7. Dalton law of Partial pressure The total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the gases present in the mixture. PTot = p1 + p2 + p3 + ………… PTot = Total pressure p1 + p2 + p3 = Partial pressure 8. What are the applications of Dalton law In a reaction, involving a collection of gases by the downward displacement of water. The pressure of the Dry vapour can be calculated by using P Dry Gas = PTotal - PWater Vapour

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9. Define Grahams law of Diffusion The Rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass. 1

Rate of Diffusion � -------- M 10. Define Compressibility factor The deviation of an ideal gas from the ideal behavior is measured by the ratio between PV and nRT. This is called as compressibility factor. PV Z = ---------- nRT 11. Define Critical temperature Critical temperature is defined as the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied even at a high pressure. 12. Define Critical Pressure Critical pressure is defined as the pressure required to liquefy one mole of a gas at its critical temperature. 13. Define Critical Volume Critical volume is defined as the volume occupied by one mole of as gas at its critical temperature and pressure. 14. Define Joules Thompson effect. The lowering of temperature, when a gas is made to expand adiabatically form high pressure to low pressure is called as Joules Thompson effect. 15. What is inversion temperature

The temperature below which a gas obeys Joules Thompson effect is called as Inversion temperature. 2a Ti = --------- R = Gas constant Rb

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16. What are the different the different methods of Liquefaction of Gas

1. Linde’s method. This is based on Joules Thompson effect

2. Claudes method. In addition to Joules Thompson effect, the gas is made to do mechanical work. So more cooling is done.

3. Adiabatic process. In this method, the cooling is done by removing the magnetic property of the magnetic material like Gadolinium Sulphate.

17. What are the consequence of Boyles law

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18. Explain the compressibility factor of a real gas

19. Give the mathematical expression that relates the gases Volume, and moles.

The ideal gas equation is PV = nRT P=Pressure V=Volume T=Temperature R=Gas Constant 20. Give the difference between diffusion and Effusion

Diffusion

Effusion

The movement of the gas molecules through another gas from high concentration to low concentration is called as Diffusion.

The movement of the gas molecules through a small hole from high concentration to low concentration is called as Effusion

21. Define Boyle’s temperature or Boyles point

The temperature at which a real gas obeys the ideal gas law over a wide range of pressure is called as Boyle’s temperature.

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22. What are ideal gases? Give the difference between Ideal and real gases.

Ideal gases are gases that obey the ideal gas equation, P V = n R T. P=Pressure V=Volume T=Temperature R=Gas Constant

S. Nm

IDEAL GAS REAL GAS

1 Ideal gases obeys the gas law under all conditions of temperature and pressure

Real gases only obey at low pressure and temperature

2 The volume occupied by the gas is very small compare to the total volume of the gas

The volume occupied by the gas is not small compare to the total volume of the gas

3 There is no force of attraction between the gas molecules

There is a force of attraction between the gas molecules

4 They obey Ideal gas equation PV = nRT

They obey the Vanderwaals equation.

23. Derive Vander Waals equation

a) Pressure Correction: The pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the force of bombardment on the wall of the container. The speed of the gas molecules moving towards the wall is reduced by the force of attraction by the neighbors. This force is directly proportional to the square of the density of the gas.

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Pideal = P + P’

b) Volume correction The gas molecules occupy certain volume which is lesser than the actual volume of the container. 4 Volume of a sphere = ------ � r 3 3

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4 Excluded volume = ------ � ( 2 r )3 3 4 Excluded volume = 8 ------ � r 3 3 Excluded volume = 8 Vm 8 Vm Excluded volume of a single molecule = --------- 2 = 4 Vm

Excluded volume for ‘n’ molecule = n ( 4 Vm ) where b = 4 Vm

V’ = n b Videal = V- V’ Videal = V- n b From ideal gas equation P V = n R T

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Substitute P and V

Where a and b are Vander Waals constants 24. What are the significance ( uses) of Vanderwaals constants

• The critical constants can be calculated by using the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’.

25. Show that the partial pressure and the total Pressure is related to the

mole fraction of the gas

According to Daltons law of partial pressure

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From Ideal gas equation PV = nRT P RT --------- = ---------- n V P1 RT --------- = ---------- n 1 V P2 RT --------- = ---------- n 2 V P3 RT --------- = ---------- n 3 V or Pi RT --------- = ---------- ni V Substite the above in 6.13 Pi PTotal = nTotal -------- ni

nTotal PTotal = Pi -------- ni

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ni

Pi = --------- PTotal nTotal

Pi = Xi . PTotal 26. Why the gas behaves ideally in low pressure and High temperature

Or Give the effect of T and P on a ideal gas or Real gas.

• At high temperature the kinetic energy of the molecules increases hence the inter molecular force of attraction decreases. So the gas behaves ideally.

• At high pressure the density of the gas increases and the molecules come closer to one another. The inter molecular force of attraction increases. Hence the gas do not behaves ideally.

27. Derive the Vander Waals critical constants.

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28. Explain the following observations a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water during summer

During summer, the temperature increases, so the solubility of the gas in water decreases. So the pressure inside the Aerated water bottles increases and explodes.

b) Liquid ammonia bottles is cooled before opening. At room temperature the vapour pressure of liquid ammonia is very high. If the bottle is opened suddenly the pressure decreases and the volume increases. This cause the breakage of the bottle.

c) The tyres of Automobile is inflated slightly lesser pressure in summer. The Pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. During summer, the temperature increases and the Pressure of air inside the tube increases. So the tube will burst.

d) The size of weather balloons becomes larger a it ascends into larger altitude.

When the balloons ascents, the atmospheric pressure decreases, so the volume of the balloons increases according to Boyles Law.

e) Why does gases don’t settle at the bottom of the container. 4. Gases have less density and the molecules can freely move. 5. All gases molecules have high inter molecular force of attraction 6. The gases molecules are constantly bombarding with one another and

on the wall on the container. So they don’t settle down.

f) Why there is no gas in the atmosphere? And why moon has no atmosphere.?

• Hydrogen gas is light in weight. So it escapes high from the earth’s atmosphere.

• The moon is having very low gravity and low escape velocity

• The gases have higher thermal velocity. g)Why aerosol cans carry warning of heating ? On heating the gas inside the aerosol Can expands and the pressure inside the Can increases, leading to an explosion.

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1. Define a system The system is the part of the universe which is under thermodynamic consideration. Eg. A balloon with air 2. What are the two types of system

a) If the physical state of all the constituents is same, it is called as Homogeneous system. Eg. Mixture of gases

b) If the physical state of all the constituents is not same, it is called as Heterogeneous system. Eg. Mixture of Oil and water.

3. Define a Surrounding Everything in the universe which is not the part of the system is called as surrounding. 4. Define a Boundary A boundary separates the system and the surrounding. 5. Define Intensive property

The properties of the system that depends on mass is called as intensive property. Eg. Volume and Mass

6. Define extensive property. The property of the system that does not depend on mass is called as Extensive property. Eg. Density and temperature 7. List some extensive and intensive properties.

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8. What are the different types of system There are 3 types of system a) Open system

In a open system both energy and matter is exchanged to the surrounding. Eg. Hot water in a open vessel

b) Closed system

In a closed system only the energy is exchanged to the surrounding. Matter is not exchanged. Eg. Hot water in a closed vessel

c) Isolated system

In a Isolated system both energy and matter is not exchanged to the surrounding. Eg. Hot water in a thermo flask

Isolated system

9. Define a thermodynamic process. The process that brings a change in a system is called as thermodynamic process. Eg. Heating and cooling

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10. Define Reversible process. The process in which the system and the surrounding can be restored to the initial state from the final state is called as Reversible process. 11. Define Irreversible process. The process in which the system and the surrounding cannot be restored to the initial state from the final state is called as Irreversible process. 12. What are the conditions for Reversible process.

• The process should be very slow.

• The system and the surrounding must be in equilibrium. 13. Define Adiabatic process

When there is no exchange of energy, between the system and the surrounding is called as Adiabatic process. For a adiabatic process q = 0

14. Define Isothermal process The Process in which the temperature remains constant, when the system moves from initial to final state is called as Isothermal process. For a isothermal process dT = 0 15. Define Isobaric process. The Process in which the Pressure remains constant, when the system moves from initial to final state is called as Isobaric process. For a isothermal process dP = 0 16. Define Isochoric process. The Process in which the Volume remains constant, when the system moves from initial to final state is called as Isochoric process. For a isothermal process dV = 0 17. Define Cyclic process When a system returns to its original state after completing a series of changes, is called as cyclic process. For a cyclic process, dP=0, dT=0, dV=0, dH=0 and dU=0.

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18. Define state function A state function is a thermodynamic property of a system whose value does not depends on the path by which the system changes from its initial to final state. Eg. P. V and T 19. Define Path function A Path function is a thermodynamic property of a system whose value depends on the path by which the system changes from its initial to final state. Eg. Work and Heat. 20. Define internal energy The total energy of all the molecules in a system is called as internal energy. U = Ut + Uv + Ur + Ub + Ue + Ui Ut = Translational energy Uv = Vibrational energy Ur = Rotaional energy Ub = Bond energy Ue = Electronic energy Ui = energy due to molecular interaction 21. What are the importance of Internal energy

• Substances having different internal energies have different Physical structures.

• For example, carbon’s allotropic forms like Graphite and Diamond have different structures and different Internal energy.

22. Give the Characteristic of Internal energy

• Internal energy is an extensive property. It depends on the mass of the substance.

• Internal energy is a state function. It depends on T. P and V of the system.

• The change in the internal energy is given by

�U = Uf – Ui

Uf = internal energy of the final state

Ui = internal energy of the initial state

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• If Uf > Ui then �U = Uf – Ui = Positive

• If Uf < Ui then �U = Uf – Ui = Negtive

• For a cyclic process, �U = Zero

23. Define heat and give its unit Heat is the energy transmitted across the boundary separating the system and the surrounding. Its unit is Joules 24. Define Calorie The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 10 C which is in the vicinity of 150C is called as Calorie. 25. Explain the sign convention of Heat.

• The symbol of heat is ‘q’

• If the heat flow from the system to the surrounding then q = Negative

• If the heat flow from the surrounding to the system then q = positive 26. Define work and explain the significance of its negative value. Work is defined as the product of force and displacement. Unit = Joules

– w = F . x The negative value indicated the decrease in the internal energy, when work is done by the system. 27. Give the characteristics of work.

• Work is a path function

• It appears only at the boundary of the system

• It appears only during the change in the state of the system

28. Define Joules Joules is defined as the work done by a force of one Newton with a displacement of one meter. ( J = Nm )

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29. Explain the sign convention of work

• The symbol of work is ‘w’

• If the work is done by the system, the energy decreases, then w = Negative

• If the work is done on the system, the energy increases, then w = Positive

30. Define Zeroth law of thermodynamics If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they tend to be thermal equilibrium with themselves. 31. Derive the relation for the work involved in expansion and

compression process.

The work done by a system is given by w = - F . �x but F = Pext . A Substitute the Value of F in the above equation but A . �x = Vf - Vi w = - Pext . ( Vf - Vi ) When Vf < Vi. then �V = Negative w = - Pext . ( - �V ) w = Pext . �V

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wrev = - Prev . dV ------- 1

From Ideal gas equation Pint V = nRT nRT Pint = ------------ V Sub Pint in eqn 1 nRT wrev = - ------------ dV V Rearranging this equation. dV wrev = - nRT -------- V Vf wrev = - nRT ln -------- Vi

( But ln = 2.303 log )

Vf wrev = - 2.303 nRT log ------- Vi

During expansion Vf > Vi, the sign of work done is negative During compression Vf < Vi, the sign of work done is positive.

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32. What are the statements of First law of thermodynamics

• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but one form of energy can be converted in to another for form.

• When a particular type energy disappears, an equivalent amount of energy must be produced.

• The total energy of the system and the surrounding is a constant.

• Heat and work are the two ways to change the system’s internal energy

• The change in the internal energy of closed systems equal to the energy that passed through the boundary as heat.

33. Give the mathematical statement for the first law of thermodymics

According to the first law of thermodynamics

�U = q + w

Case – 1 ( Cyclic process ) Constant Internal energy

For a cyclic process �U = 0

�U = q + w

0 = q + w

q = - w

the amount of heat absorbed is equal to the work done

Case – 2 ( Isochoric process ) Constant Volume

�U = q + w

But w = - P�V

�U = q - P�V

For a Isochoric process �V = 0

�U = q - 0 or �U = q

The heat supplied is equal to the internal energy.

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Case – 3 ( Isobaric process ) Constant Pressure

�U = q + w

But w = - P�V

�U = q - P�V

Case – 4 ( Adiabatic process ) Constant Heat energy �U = q + w

For a adiabatic process q = 0

�U = 0 + w

�U = w

The decrease in the internal energy is equal to the work done

34. Define Enthalpy

Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and product of the pressure and volume of the system.

H = U + PV

H=Enthalpy U = internal energy P=pressure

35. Derive the relation between enthalpy and internal energy ( 2018 Mar)

H = E + PV

H1, U1 and P1 are the Changes for the initial state

H2, U2 and P2 are the Changes for the final state

For the initial state

H1 = E1 + PV1

For the final state

H2 = E2 + PV2

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From ideal gas equation PV = nRT

P Vf – P Vi = ( nf R T ) – ( ni R T )

36. What the convention rules for balancing a thermo chemical equation

• The coefficients refer to the number of moles of the reactants and the products in the reaction.

• The enthalpy change of the reaction should be written with the sign and its unit.

• When the reaction is reversed, the sign of �H will be reversed, with the same magnitude.

• If �H = positive, it is a endothermic reaction

If �H = negative, it is a exothermic reaction

• Physical states like gas, liquid and solid should be written in brackets.

• If a thermo chemical reaction is multiplied by a number, then the �H should be also multiplied by the same number.

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37. Define Heat of Combustion

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of the substance is completely burnt in excess of air is called as Heat of Combustion.

38. Define Specific heat capacity

The heat absorbed by one Kg of a substance to raise its temperature by one Kelvin is called as Specific Heat capacity.

39. Define Molar heat capacity

The amount of heat absorbed by one mole of a substance to raise its temperature by one Kelvin is called as Molar heat capacity.

Its Unit = J K-1 mol-1

40. Derive the relation between Cp and Cv for a ideal gas.

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41. List the application of the bomb calorimeter.

• It is used to determine the amount of heat released in a combustion reaction

• It is used to determine the calorific value of food

• It is used in food processing and explosive testing industries.

42. Define the Calorific value of food The amount of heat produced when one gram of a substance is completely burnt, is called as Calorific value of food. Its unit = J kg -1

43. Define Heat of solution

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of a substance is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature.

44. Define heat of neutralization

The change in the enthalpy when one gram equivalent of acid is completely neutralized by one gram equivalent of a base.

45. Why the heat of neutralization of any acid with a base is a constant value of -57.32 KJmole-1. ?

• According of Arrhenius theory all strong acid and strong base ionizes to give H+ and OH- ions.

H + + OH – H2O �H = -57.32 KJ mole-1

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46. Define molar heat of fusion

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of a solid is converted into liquid at its melting point is called as Molar heat of fusion

47. Define molar heat of vaporization

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of a liquid is converted into vapour at its boiling point is called as Molar heat of vaporization

48. Define molar heat of Sublimation

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of a solid is directly converted into vapour at its sublimation temperature is called as Molar heat of Sublimation

49. Define Molar heat of Transition

The change in the enthalpy when one mole of an element changes from one allotropic form to another is called as Molar heat of Transition

50. Define Hess’s law

The enthalpy change of a reaction at constant volume or pressure is same whether it takes place in a single or multiple steps provided the initial and the final states are same.

51. Define lattice energy

The amount of energy required to completely remove the ions from its crystal lattice to an infinite distance is called as lattice energy.

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52. Explain the Born – Haber cycle using NaCl crystal as an example Or show that energy is released during the formation of NaCl crystal

Born – Haber cycle is used to calculate the lattice energy.

�Hf = - 411.3 KJ mol -1

�H1 = 108.7 KJ mol -1

�H2 = 495.0 KJ mol -1

�H3 = 244 KJ mol -1

�H4 = - 349 KJ mol -1

U = - 411.3 – [ 108.7 + 495 + 244 - 349 ]

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U = - 411.3 – [ 108.7 + 495 + 122 - 349 ]

U = - 411.3 – 376.7

U = - 788 KJ mol -1

Since the lattice energy is negative, energy will be released during the formation of NaCl crystal.

53. What are Various the statements for the second law of thermodymics

• Entropy statement

For a spontaneous process, the entropy of an isolated system will increase.

• Kelvin Planck statement

It is impossible to construct a machine that absorbs heat from a hot source and converts it completely into work without transferring a part of heat to a cold sink.

• Clausius statement

It is impossible to transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir without doing some work

54. Define entropy

Entropy is the ratio between the heat energy exchanged and the temperature of the system. It unit is JK-1.

q

S = --------

T

55. Give 2 examples for Spontaneous process

• Melting of ice

• Evaporation of water.

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56. Why melting and evaporation is called as spontaneous process.

• When randomness and disorder of the molecules increases it is called as spontaneous process.

• When the system moves from Solid Liquid gas

the randomness and disorder increases.

• During melting the solid changes to liquid. And during evaporation liquid changes to gas. So the randomness and disorder increases.

57. Define standard entropy change. The entropy of a substance at 298K and one bar pressure is called as standard entropy.

58. Define standard entropy of formation The entropy of formation of 1 mole of a compound from its elements in standard conditions is called as standard entropy of formation.

59. Define Gibbs free energy

It is defined as

G = H – TS

G = Gibbs free energy H = Enthalpy S = Entropy

60. What are the Characteristic of Gibb’s free energy

• Gibbs free energy is define as G = H – TS G = Gibbs free energy H = Enthalpy S = Entropy

• G is an extensive property

• G is an single valued state function

• The different conditions for spontaneity are For a spontaneous process �G = negative

For a non spontaneous process �G = positive

For a equilibrium process �G = zero

• Net Work done ( –�G ) = – w – P�V

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61. Derive the relation between Gibbs free energy and the Work done

�G = �H - T�S

But �H = �U + P�V

�G = �U + P�V - T�S

But �U = q + w

�G = q + w + P�V - T�S

But T�S = q

�G = q + w + P�V - q

�G = w + P�V

Net Work done ( –�G ) = – w – P�V

62. Define spontaneous Process. And the conditions or Criteria. The reaction which takes place without any external driving force is called as spontaneous process. Conditions for Spontaneity.

• �S = Positive

• �H = Negative

• �G = Negative

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63. Define reaction quotient ‘ Q ‘ Reaction Quotient is defined as the ratio between the molar

concentration of the products and the molar concentration of the

reactants under Non-Equilibrium conditions

64. Derive the relation between Std Gibbs free energy and the Equilibrium constant

�G = �G0 + RT ln Q

When �G = 0, then Q = Keq

0 = �G0 + RT ln Keq

�G0 = – RT ln Keq

�G0 = – 2.303 RT log Keq

65. Define the third law of thermodynamics

The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero is zero.

For a perfectly crystal S = 0 when T = 0

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66. Explain the measurement of �U by using the Bomb Calorimeter

( Determination of enthalpy of combustion using the Calorimeter)

• The inner vessel is made of strong steel

• The cover is fitted to the vessel by using screws.

• A known weight of a substance is taken in a platinum cup and

combusted with a electric arc.

• The Bomb is tightly closed with excess of oxygen and immersed in

water containing a stirrer.

• The heat evolved during the reaction is absorbed by the calorimeter

and the water.

• The increase in the temperature is measured by using a Beckmann

thermometer.

• The amount of heat produced in the reaction is equal to the heat

absorbed by the calorimeter and water.

• Heat absorbed by the calorimeter is given by

q1 = k . �T

But k = calorimeter constant

• Heat absorbed by the water is given by

q2 = mw . Cw . �T

mw = molar mass of water

• The calorimeter constant is determined by burring a standard

substance like benzoic acid.

It heat of combustion value is -3227 KJ mol -1.

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• The enthalpy of combustion at consent pressure is give by

Diagram :

67. List the applications of the Bomb calorimeter.

• It is used to determine the heat released in a combustion reaction

• It is used to determine the Calorific value of Food

• It is used in industries like Food processing and Explosive testing.

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