wordpress.com · 2018. 3. 15. · iii kftiu nju;r;rpfis mbj;jskhff; nfhz;l fiyj;jpl;lj;ijg; ghlrhiy...

I

jftYk; njhlu;ghly;jftYk; njhlu;ghly;jftYk; njhlu;ghly;jftYk; njhlu;ghly;jftYk; njhlu;ghly;

njhopEl;gtpaYk;njhopEl;gtpaYk;njhopEl;gtpaYk;njhopEl;gtpaYk;njhopEl;gtpaYk;

juk; 13juk; 13juk; 13juk; 13juk; 13

Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b(2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;)(2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;)(2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;)(2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;)(2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;)

njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;

fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

kfufkkfufkkfufkkfufkkfufk

II

© Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

Kjyhk; gjpg;G - 2010

njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk;

fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

gjpg;gfk;:

III

KfTiuKfTiuKfTiuKfTiuKfTiu

Nju;r;rpfis mbj;jskhff; nfhz;l fiyj;jpl;lj;ijg; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy; mwpKfk;

nra;Ak; gzp 13Me; juj;Jf;Fupa Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfis mwpKfk;;

nra;tJld; G+u;j;jpailfpd;wJ. 12Mk; 13Me; ju khzt khztpau;fs; gy;fiyf;fofg;

gpuNtrj;Jf;fhf epyTk; fLikahd Nghl;bf;F cs;shtjhy; epjKk; fzprkhd

mOj;jj;Jf;F Mshfpd;wdu;. f.ngh.j. cau; juj;Jf;fhf Gjpa fiyj;jpl;lj;ij Kjy;

jlitahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; epiyapy; mt;tOj;jk; NkYk; mjpfupf;Fk;. mt;thwhd

xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; cq;fsJ iffis milAk; ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G

topfhl;bahdJ ghlj;jpl;lj;ijg; Nghd;Nw Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. ,q;F Mrpupau;

Kjd;ikahff; ftdj;jpnyLf;f Ntz;ba %d;W mk;rq;fs; cs;sd. Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G

topfhl;bfs; ghlj;jpl;lj;Jld; KOikahfg; nghUe;jpaike;jpUj;jy;> fiyj;jpl;lj;jpdhy;

vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; Nju;r;rpfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L> fiyj;jpl;lj; jj;Jtj;ijAk;

J}uNehf;ifAk; Kjd;ikahff;nfhz;L jahupf;fg;gl;bUj;jy;> 12Mk; 13Me; ju

khztu;fsplj;Nj vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; milT kl;lj;ij kdjpw;nfhz;L jahupf;fg;gl;bUj;jy;

MfpadNt mitahFk;. vdNt ,jid ed;F crhTjy; Mrpupaupd; ,d;wpaikahj

gzpAk; nghWg;GkhFk;.

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l %d;W tplaq;fisAk; cq;fsJ ftdj;Jf;Ff; nfhz;L tUjtw;fhfj;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; 13Me; juj;jpy; fw;gpf;Fk; rfy Mrpupa MrpupiafSf;Fk;

cupa gapw;rpia toq;Fk; gzpfisAk; nra;J tUfpd;wJ. njhlu;r;rpahf elj;jg;gLk;

,g;gapw;rp mku;Tfspy; Mrpupau;fs; gq;Fgw;WtJ ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;. ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s

fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; Nfhl;ghLfs;> nrad;Kiwfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F mg;gapw;rp

ngupJk; Jizahf mikAnkd;gNj mjw;fhd fhuzkhFk;. Fwpg;ghfg; ghlrhiy

kl;l kjpg;gPl;Lr; nraw;ghLfisj; Nju;r;rp tpUj;jpf;Fj; Jizahff; nfhs;s

vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ. fw;gpj;jiyg; ghl tplq;fSf;F khj;jpuk; kl;Lg;gLj;jptplhJ

khzt khztpauJ jpwd;fSf;F nkU$l;Ljy; vDk; vjpu;ghu;g;ig epiwNtw;Wtjw;F

,t;nty;yhj; jiyaPLfSk; ,d;wpaikahjitahFk; vd;gij fy;tp kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;Lg;

gzpfspy;

IV

Kd;DiuKd;DiuKd;DiuKd;DiuKd;Diu

,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b 2009Mk; Mz;L njhlf;fk; 13Mk; juj;jpw;Fupafw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nrad;Kiwia xOq;FgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;F cq;fSf;Fj;Jizahf mikAk;. ,e;j topfhl;b E}iyj; jahupg;gjw;F mbg;gilahff;nfhs;sg;gl;l ghlj;jpl;lk; ,Jtiuapy; eilKiwapypUe;j ghlj;jpl;lq;fspypUe;JNtWgl;lJ. ,J Nju;r;rpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l ghlj;jpl;lkhfmike;jpUg;gNj mt;NtWghlhFk;. ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s Nju;r;rpfis ,j;juj;jpNyNamila Kbahkw; Nghf ,lKz;L. rpyNtis> mjw;fhf ePz;lfhyk; vLf;fyhk;.vdpDk;> Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fisAk; me;jj; Nju;r;rp kl;lj;jpd; fPo;j; jug;gl;Ls;sfw;ww; NgWfisAk; ,j;juk; Kbtiltjw;Fs; miljy; mtrpakhFk;. vdNt>,j;juj;jpw;Fupa ghlq;fisj; jpl;lkpl;Lf; nfhs;tjw;F mj;Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fSk;fw;ww;NgWfSk; JizahFk;.

,f;fw;ww;NgWfisf; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nrad;Kiwapd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fis tFj;Jf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; tFg;giw kjpg;gPl;Lf; fUtpfisj; jahupj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;Fkhdepajpfshfg; gad;gLj;JtJ Fwpj;Jf; ftdk; nrYj;JtPu;fs; vd vjpu;ghu;f;fpNwhk;.NkYk; ,g;ghlj;ijg; gapYk;NghJ crhTtjw;Fupa Nkyjpf E}y;fs;> ,izatiyf; flg;gplq;fs; (Web Site) Kjyhdit Fwpj;J khztu;fSf;F mwpt+l;lk;nra;tjw;F ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b Jizahf mikAk;.

ePq;fs; Mf;fg+u;tkhd Mrpupauhfr; nraw;gLtPu;fs; vDk; vjpu;ghu;g;GlNdNacj;Njr nraw;ghLfs; ,q;F khjpupr; nraw;ghLfshfj; jug;gl;Ls;sd vd;gijf;fUj;jpw; nfhs;Sq;fs;. Fwpg;ghf Mrpupau; - ika tFg;giwr; nrad;Kiwiakhw;wp khztu; - ikar; nrad;Kiwahf mikj;jy; Ntz;Lk; vdvjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt> khztiu E}y; crhTif> ,izag; gad;ghLKjyhd Njly;fspy; ftdk; nry;yj;jf;fthW fw;wy; tha;g;Gf;fis cUthf;FtJFwpj;J kpfTk; mtjhdkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

fw;gpj;jypd;NghJ kuG uPjpahd Kiwapy; Fwpg;G toq;Ftjw;Fg; gjpyhd ftu;r;rpfukhdtifapy; Gj;jwpT> Nfhl;ghLfs; Kjyhdtw;iw Kd;itj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mjw;fhf,g;Gjpa tFg;giwapy; njhopy;El;gj;ij cr;rstpy; cgNahfg;gLj;Jk; njhlu;ghly;Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;JtJ Fwpj;Jf; ftdk; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. vdNt> Gjpanjhopy;El;gr; rhjdq;fis ,d;wsTf;F Mf;fg+u;tkhfg; gad;gLj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;.

13Mk; juj;jpy; ,g;ghlj;ijf; fw;fj; njhlq;Fk; cq;fs; khztu;fSf;F,g;ghlj;jpl;lk; Fwpj;Jj; njspTgLj;JtJ gaDilajhFk;. tUlj;Js; eilKiwg;gLj;j vjpu;ghu;f;Fk; cq;fsJ fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; jpl;lj;ij mwpKfQ; nra;tjhy;fw;wypd;ghy; mk;khztu;fspd; Mu;tj;ijj; J}z;lyhk;. NkYk; KOg; ghlj;ijAk;fw;gjw;fhf khztu;fisg; ghlrhiyapd;ghy; Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtf mjpfhupfSf;Fk; vdJtpNrl ed;wpiaj; njuptpf;fpd;Nwd;. ,g;gzpapy; topfhl;ly; toq;fpa gzpg;ghsu;ehafk; fyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrju mtu;fSf;Fk; mr;rpl;Lg; ghlrhiyfSf;FtpepNahfpf;Fk; nghWg;ig Vw;Ws;s fy;tp ntspaPl;L Mizahsu; cl;gl Vidagzpahsu;fSf;Fk; vdJ ed;wpiaj; njuptpf;fpd;Nwd;. ,jpy; mlq;fpAs;s tplaq;fs;njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ Mf;fg+u;tkhd fUj;Jf;fis vdf;F mDg;gp itg;gPu;fshapd;ed;wpAilatdhNtd;.

tpky; rpak;gyhnfhltpky; rpak;gyhnfhltpky; rpak;gyhnfhltpky; rpak;gyhnfhltpky; rpak;gyhnfhlcjtpg; gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;.Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

V

MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk;MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk;MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk;MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk;MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk;

MNyhrid :MNyhrid :MNyhrid :MNyhrid :MNyhrid : fyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrjufyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrjufyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrjufyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrjufyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrjugzpg;ghsu; ehafk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

jpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhljpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhljpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhljpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhljpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhlcjtp gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;

fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

Nkw;ghu;itNkw;ghu;itNkw;ghu;itNkw;ghu;itNkw;ghu;it : jpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNfjpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNfjpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNfjpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNfjpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNfrpNu\;l MNyhrfu; - juk; 1


nkhwl;Lit gy;fiyf;fofk;

njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;g MNyhrfu;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

Nguhrpupau;. V.v];. fUzhee;j

gzpg;ghsu;

njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;g gPlk;

nkhwl;Lit gy;fiyf;fofk;

fyhepjp. vd;.B. nfhbfhu

gzpg;ghsu;

fzpdpg; ghlrhiy

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;

ghlj;jpl;lf; FOghlj;jpl;lf; FOghlj;jpl;lf; FOghlj;jpl;lf; FOghlj;jpl;lf; FO

: : : : : jpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jdjpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jdjpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jdjpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jdjpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jdgpujhd nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup>


Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

jpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jpjpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jpjpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jpjpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jpjpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jpgpujhd nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup>


Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

jpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[NrfujpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[NrfujpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[NrfujpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[NrfujpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[Nrfuepiya Kfhikahsu;

tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak;

`hypvy

VI

jpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhujpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhujpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhujpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhujpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhuepiya Kfhikahsu;


nkhul;Lit

nry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;dnry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;dnry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;dnry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;dnry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;dMNyhrfu;


FUzhfiy

jpU. vk;.gP. gPup];jpU. vk;.gP. gPup];jpU. vk;.gP. gPup];jpU. vk;.gP. gPup];jpU. vk;.gP. gPup];tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak;

FUzhfiy

jpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jdjpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jdjpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jdjpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jdjpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jdMrpupa MNyhrfu;

tyaf;fy;tp fhupahyak;

gpypae;jiy

jpU. mNgrpq;fjpU. mNgrpq;fjpU. mNgrpq;fjpU. mNgrpq;fjpU. mNgrpq;fMrpupa MNyhrfu;

tya fy;tp fhupahyak;

kft

jpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;fjpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;fjpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;fjpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;fjpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;fepiya Kfhikahsu;

[dhjpgjp tpj;jpahyak;

uh[fpupa

jkpohf;fk;jkpohf;fk;jkpohf;fk;jkpohf;fk;jkpohf;fk; jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu;jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu;jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu;jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu;jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu;

epiya Kfhikahsu;


f`nghy;y> jpaj;jyhit.

jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;


`hypvy

ml;ilg;glk; :ml;ilg;glk; :ml;ilg;glk; :ml;ilg;glk; :ml;ilg;glk; : jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;jpU.N[.V. gYY}d;tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak;

`hypvy

fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; :fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; :fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; :fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; :fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; :jpUkjp. vg;.V.vg;. ep];kpah

njhopDl;g cjtpahsu;

nkhopfs;> khDltpay; kw;Wk; r%f tpQ;Qhd gPlk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

VII

Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhdMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhdMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhdMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhdMrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhd

mwpTWj;jy;fs;mwpTWj;jy;fs;mwpTWj;jy;fs;mwpTWj;jy;fs;mwpTWj;jy;fs;

,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) jftYk; njhlu;ghly;

njhopEl;gtpaYk; ghlj;jpy; 13 Mk; juj;jpw;fhf jahupf;fg;gl;lnjhd;whFk;. ,g;ghlj;jpw;F

epr;rapf;fg;gl;l Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fspy; njupT nra;ag;gl;l Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; 14 ,w;fhd

nraw;ghLfs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

,j;Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; 14 ,w;Fkhd fw;wy; NgWfs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,f;fw;wy;

NgWfisAk;; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fisAk; milAk; Kiwapd; khztu; ikakhd fw;wy;-

fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghnlhd;W cq;fshy; gpd;gw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;fhf ckf;F

topfhl;lnyhd;whf njupT nra;ag;gl;l Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fSf;fhf gpuNtrKk; fw;wYf;fhd

cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,q;F nraw;ghl;bd; Kbtpy; "ghl

tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b" jug;gl;Ls;sJ. mjid cq;fs;

tFg;giwapy; khztu;fSld; ,Wjpapy; fye;Jiuahlg;gl Ntz;ba ghltpaq;fSf;fhd

topfhl;bnahd;whFk;.

,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biaf; ifahOk;NghJ fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fs;

njhlu;ghf ckJ ftdj;ij nrYj;JtJ Kf;fpakhFk;.

• 10.7 Nju;r;rp kl;lj;jpy; juTj;jsnkhd;wpd;> juT ifaho;tjw;F rpwe;j ts

nkd;nghUnshd;whd MYSQL nkd;nghUisg; ghtpf;f KbAk;.

• 13 Mk; juj;jpw;fhd fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; kjpg;gPl;Lf; fUtpfs; %d;W jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

VIII

cs;slf;fk;cs;slf;fk;cs;slf;fk;cs;slf;fk;cs;slf;fk;

gf;fk; gf;fk; gf;fk; gf;fk; gf;fk;

KfTiu III

Kd;Diu IV

Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhd mwpTWj;jy;fs ;; ;; ; VII

khjpupr; nraw;ghLfs;

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 1 - 10

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 6.3 11 - 20

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 6.4 21 - 25

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 7.7 26 - 33

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 8.9 34 - 39

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 8.11 40 - 45

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 9.3 46 - 51

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 10.3 52 - 57

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 10.4 58 - 63

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 11.3 64 - 71

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 11.4 72 - 78

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 11.5 79 - 84

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 11.8 85 - 92

Nju;r;rp kl;lk 13.1 93 - 94

kjpg;gPl;Lf; fUtpfs;

Kjyhk;; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 1 95 - 96

,uz;lhk; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 2 97 - 98

%d;whk;; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 3 99 -100

mUQ; nrhw;fs; 101 -111

1. juk; 13 - Kjyhk; jtiz 1 - 15

2. juk; 13 - ,uz;lhk; jtiz 16 - 34

3. juk; 13 - %d;whk; jtiz 35 - 62

4. tpdhf;fs;> ghlrhiy kl;lf; fzpg;gPL 63 - 88

1

Nju;r;rp 5Nju;r;rp 5Nju;r;rp 5Nju;r;rp 5Nju;r;rp 5 ::::: fzpdpnahd;wpd; nraw;wpuid mjpfupg;gjw;F epidtf

Kfhikj;Jtj;ijg; ghtpg;ghu;.

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 : gy;NtW tifahd epidtfq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;G

fisAk; mwpe;Jnfhs;tjw;fhf fzpdpapd; epidtf

Kiwikia gupNrhjpg;ghu;.

ghlNtisghlNtisghlNtisghlNtisghlNtis : : : : : Ie;J ghlNtis

fw;ww; NgWfs; :fw;ww; NgWfs; :fw;ww; NgWfs; :fw;ww; NgWfs; :fw;ww; NgWfs; :

• md;whl nraw;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp fzpdpapd; epidtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila

gFjpfisAk; mtw;wpd; nraw;ghLfisAk; fz;lwpe;J tupirg;gLj;Jthu;.

• fzpdp epidtfk; nraw;gLk; Kiwiaf; fhl;Ltjw;fhf gha;r;rw; Nfhl;Lg;glk;

(Flow charts) jahupg;ghu;.

• epidT mfd;w NghjpYk; vjpu;fhy Njitf;fhf mjpy; cs;slf;fg;gl;l jfty;fis

ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd tpjpfis gpNuupg;ghu;.

• NkNyhl;lkhf thrpj;Jj; Njitahd jfty;fis Nehf;fpr; nry;thu;.

• rpf;fyhd nraw;ghLfis ruskhfg; Kd;itg;gjw;F cUtg;glq;fis gad;gLj;Jthu;;.

fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;:fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;:fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;:fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;:fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;:

gpuNtrk;:gpuNtrk;:gpuNtrk;:gpuNtrk;:gpuNtrk;:

• Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztu;fs; ehd;F Ngiu tFg;gpy; Kd; mioj;J fPo;f;fhZk;

ciuahliy tFg;gpw;F Kd;itf;fTk;.

Mrpupau;: tuyhw;Wg; ghlj;jpw;F ,e;j tFg;G khztu;fs; ngw;w Gs;spfis ehd;

guprPyid nra;Njd;. mjpf Gs;spfis ngw;wtu;fs;> eLj;ju Gs;spfis

ngw;wtu;fs; Nghd;W Fiwe;j Gs;spfisg; ngw;wtu;fSk; ,e;j tFg;gpy;

,Uf;fpd;whu;fs;.

epkyd;> ckJ Gs;spfs; Fiwtjw;F vd;d fhuzk; vd;W nrhy;Yq;fs;

ghu;f;fyhk;.

epkyd; : ehd; ed;whf gbj;Njd;. Br;ru;. guPl;irf;F Kd; jpdKk; vy;yhg;

ghlq;fisAk; ed;whf thrpj;Njd;. MdhYk; tpdhg;gj;jpuj;ij ifapy;

vLj;jTlNd xd;Wk; Qhgfj;jpw;F tutpy;iy.

Mrpupau;: tpkhyp vd;why; 50 Gs;spfisg; ngw;Ws;shu;. cq;fs; mDgtq;fisf;

$w KbAkh?

tpkyp : vdf;F Neuk; Nghjhkw; Nghapl;L Br;ru;. Qhgfj;jpy; itj;jitfis

Qhgfg;gLj;j rw;W Neuk; vLj;jJ.

Mrpupia: 90 Gs;spfis ngw;w Rjj;jpw;fk; mDgtq;fs; ,Uf;Fk;. mjidf; $Wq;fs;

ghu;g;Nghk;.

Rjj; : vdf;nfd;why; guPl;ir f\;lkhf ,Uf;ftpy;iy Br;ru;. tpdhj;jhisg;

ghu;j;jTld; tpilfs; vy;yhNk Qhgfj;jpw;F te;jJ.

2

Mrpupia: mjw;F VjhtJ fhuzq;fs; ,Uf;fh?

Rjj;: ehd; gpujhd ghlf;Fwpg;GfSf;F Gwk;ghf rpW Fwpg;GfisAk; itj;Jf;

nfhs;Ntd;. mitfis mbf;fb thrpj;J Kf;fpa fhuzq;fis

epidTgLj;JNtd;.

• fPo;tUk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;

nfhs;sTk;.

• FWq;fhy kw;Wk; neLq;fhy epidtf tiffs; ,uz;L kdpj epidtfj;jpNy

cs;sd vd.

• FWQ;fhy epidtfk; jw;fhypfkhdJ. mjpy; Nrkpj;jitfs; epiyaw;wit

vd.

• fw;wy; nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ epkyd; ngw;w mDgtq;fs; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy;

Nrkpf;fg;gltpy;iy vd.

• tpkhyp fw;witfs; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy; Nrkpf;fg;gl;bUe;j NghjpYk; jw;fhypf

epidtfj;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;Yk; tpjpKiwfs; mikf;fg;gl;bUf;fhjjd; fhuzkhf

jhkjk; Vw;gl;lJ vd.

• Rjj; rpW Fwpg;Gfs; itg;gjd; %yk; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy; cs;sitfis

tpiuthf> jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L nry;y jahuhf ,Ue;jhu; vd.

• fzpdp rk;ge;jkhfTk;> epue;ju epidtfk;> jw;fhypf epidtfk;> kw;Wk; epue;ju

epidtfj;jpypUe;J jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpw;F tpiuthfj; jfty; nfhz;L nry;Yk;

FWfpa KiwfSk;> epue;ju epidtfk; mspe;JNghd NghjpYk; mjpy; Nrkpj;jit

fis kPsg;ngw;Wf;nfhs;s Clfq;fs; cs;sd vd.

fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:

fzpdpapd; epidtf Kiwikiag; ghu;g;Nghk;. mjd; nraw;ghl;bid mwpe;Jnfhs;Nthk;.

• guPl;ir xd;wpw;F tpilaspf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspy; ckJ

FOtpw;Ff; fpilf;Fk; tplak; gw;wp mtjhdpf;fTk;.

• neLq;fhy epidtfk; capNuhl;lkiljy;.

• jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpw;F Njitahd juTfs; gupkhw;wkiljy;.

• jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpypUe;J guPl;ir tplaj;jpw;Fj; juT vLj;Jr; nry;yYk;>

mjid tpiuTgLj;Jtjw;fhf neUq;fpa ,lnkhd;wpy; juT Nru;j;J itj;jy;.

• epidT KOikahf ,oe;Jtpl;l NghjpYk; $ba juTfisg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;fhf

tpjpKiwfs; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sik.

• ckf;Ff; fpilj;j tplak; fw;wy; nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ eilngWk; Kiwia mwpe;J

nfhs;tjw;Fr; rpW FOf; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;f.

• fzpdp epdtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila ve;jg; gFjp vt;tplaj;ij gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;J

fpd;wJ vd Muha;e;J ghu;f;f.

• fzpdp epdtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila mg;gFjpfis ed;F fw;f.

• md;W Kjy; ,d;W tiu mjpy; Vw;gl;bUf;Fk; khw;wq;fis Muha;e;J ghu;f;f.

• ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lkhfTk; Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f

Maj;jkhfTk;.

3

ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs;ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs;ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs;ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs;ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs;

• rpWFo fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kd;itf;;fr; nra;aTk;.

• tpupTiug;gpw;fhf Kd;te;j FOtpw;Nf Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;.

• Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fG+u;tkhd MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspd; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;JtJld; mtw;iw ntspf;nfhzUk;

tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• neLq;fhy epdtfj;jpy; cs;stw;iw FWq;fhy epdtfj;jpw;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F

neLq;fhy epidtfk; ,af;f epiyapy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd.

• fzpdpapw;F kpd; toq;fpaTld; fzpdpapd; neLq;fhy epidtfk; ,aq;fp mjy;

cs;s nray;Kiwikia FWf;fhy epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhLf;Fk; vd.

• ,jw;fhf CMOS vDk; ~rpg;| ,y; cs;s BIOS vd miof;fg;gLk; nraw;ghL

,aq;Fk; vd.

• CMOS rpg; MdJ Rkhu; 10 tUlq;fs; MAs; cs;s ,U gl;lupfspd; kpff; Fiw

thd kpd; rf;jpahy; ,aq;Fk; rpwe;j njhopy;El;gj;Jld; $baJ vd.

• BIOS vDk; epuy; fzpdpapy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s td;nghUl;fis guPl;rpj;J mtw;wpd;

nraw;ghl;ilg; gw;wpa jfty;fisj; jUk; vd.

• ,e;j epuy; thrpf;f KbAkhapUe;jhYk; khw;wpaikf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy; thrpg;G

khj;jpu epidtfk; (Read only memory - ROM) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd.

• ,e;epidtfq;fs; jw;NghJ gy tbtq;fspy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld; kPz;Lk;

kPz;Lk; vOjf;$ba tpUj;jpaile;j KiwfSld; $ba EPROM, EEPROM

vd;w ngau;fspy; etPd fzpdpfspy; ,d;W gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wnjd;gJ.

• ,j;njhopEl;gk; NkYk; tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;L Jupj epidtfq;fs; (Flash memory)

cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gJ.

• jw;fhypf epidtfkhdJ thrpg;G vOJ epidtfk; (Read Write Memory) vd

miof;fg;gLk;. ,J fzpdpapd; gpujhd kpd; toq;fspy; jil Vw;gl;Ls;sJld;

mope;JtpLk; vd.

• ,e;epidtfk; vOkhW mDfy; epidtfk; (Random Access Memory - RAM) vd

miof;fg;gLk; gpujhd epidtfk; (Main Memory) vd.

• vOkhW mZfy; epidtfj;jpd; (RAM) nfhs;ssT epue;ju epidtfj;jpd;

nfhs;ssit tpl FiwthdJld; tplaj;jpw;fhf juTfis ngWk;NghJ xOq;F

Kiw gpd;gw;w Njitapy;iy vd.

• nrayp (Processor) ,w;F kpf mUfpy; RAM mike;Js;sjhy; kpf Fiwe;j

fhyj;jpy; ,jpy; cs;s juTfis Processor ,w;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhLf;Fk; vd.

• nrayp (Processor) ,w;F toq;Fk; juTfspy; mbf;fb ngw;W ghtpf;fg;gLk;

juTfis gJf;F epidtfk; (cache memory) vDk; epidtfj;jpy; itj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;

vd.

• ,e;j gJf;F epidtfk; RAM ,d; nfhs;ssT I tpl Fiwthf ,Ug;gpDk;

juT ngw;Wj;jUk; Ntfk; kpfTk; mjpfkhFk; vd.

• gJf;F epidtfk; Kw;fhyq;fspy; nrayp ,w;F mUfpy; ntspapy;

mike;jpUe;jhYk; etPd nraypfspy; mJ cw;GwkhfNt mike;js;sJ vd.

4

• nraypf;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLk; xOq;fikf;fg;gl;l my;yJ xOq;fikf;fg;

glhj juTfis gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gLtjw;F Kd; jw;fhypfkhf

epWj;jp itj;jpUg;gjw;fhf rpW nfhs;ssTfs; nfhz;l epidtfk; ,r; nrayp

,Ds; cs;sd vd.

• me; epidtfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; (Registers) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd. RAM, Cache

kw;Wk; gjptfq;fs;(Registers) vd;gitfs; kpd; rf;jpapNyNa jq;fpAs;sgbahy;

,it mopAk; epidtfq;fs; (Volatile Memory) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd.

• mopAk; epidtfj;jpy; juTfs; Kiwahfr; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhy; mij

miltJ kpf Rygk; vd.

• me; epidtfq;fs; mope;J Nghd NghjpYk; neLq;fhy epidtfj;jpy; Nrkpf;fg;gl;l

juTfis Njitahd Neuq;fspy; kPsg;ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topKiwfs;

cs;sd vd.

• fzpdpapDs;Ns nghWj;jg;gl;Ls;s gpujhd td;tl;L neLq;fhy epidtfkhFk;.

,jpy; Nrkpj;J itj;j juTfis fzpdpapd; ntspg;Gwj;jpd; nghUj;jg;gl;l

fhe;j (Magnetic) kw;Wk; xspapay; (optical) Clfq;fs; rpytw;wpy; Nrkpj;J itf;f

KbAk; vd.

• td;tl;L> ehlh(tapes) kw;Wk; nefpo;tl;L (floppy disk) vd;git fhe;j Clfq;fshfTk;>

,Utl;L (CD)" DVD Nghd;wit mopTwh epidtf (Non Volatile Memory)

Clfq;fshfTk; cs;sd vd.

thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;

epiyaw;w epidtfk; epiyaw;w epidtfk; epiyaw;w epidtfk; epiyaw;w epidtfk; epiyaw;w epidtfk; (Volatile Memory)

fzpdpfspy ; gad;gLj ;jg ;gLk ; e pidtfk; fzpdpfspd ; nraw ;ghl ;bw ;F

Kf;fpakhdnjhd;whFk;. epidtfj;jhy; GupAk; gpujhd nrayhdJ fzpdp juT

nraw;ghl;bd; gyjug;gl;l $l;lq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd juTfisf; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp

itg;gjhFk;. mjpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp cs;s juTfs; mopahkypUf;f njhlu;r;rpahf

kpd; toq;fiy Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. VNjh xU tifapy; me;j epidtfq;fSf;Ff;

fpilf;Fk; kpd;njhlu;G Jz;bg;gile;jhy; clNd mjd; epidtfj;jpYs;s juTfs;

mope;J tpLk;. Mifahy; ,eepidtfq;fs; kpd; njhlu;gpd; Nky; jq;fpapUf;Fk;

epidtf tifahFk;. fzpdpapYs;s fPo;f;fhZk; epidtfq;fs; ,t;tifiar;;; NrWk;.

1. vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (RAM)

2. gjptfq;fs; (Registers)

3. gJf;F epidtfk;

vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (RAM)

,e; epidtfk; fzpdpapd; gpujhd epidtfk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. fzpdpapd;

kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpw;F VjhtnjhU nraw;ghl;ilr; nra;tjw;Fj; Njitahd

5

Kiwik nkd;nghUs;> gpuNahf nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; Njitahd juTfisf;

fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp itg;gJ ,e; epidtfj;jpNyahFk;. ,jd; rpwg;gk;rk; vd;dntd;why;

nraw;ghl;L myfpw;F ,jpy; cs;sitfis Neubahf ngw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba tha;g;G

cs;sikNaahFk;. mJNghyNt ,jd; gpuNtr fhyk; kpfTk; Fiwthdgbahy;

nraw;ghLfis kpfTk; Ntfkhfr; nra;a KbAk;.

,e; epidtfj;jpd; VjhtnjhU ,lj;jpypUe;J Neubahfj; juTfisr; nraypapw;Fg;

ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjdhy; ,jw;F xOq;FKiwnahd;W Njitapy;iy. Mifahy; ,e;

epidtfj;ij vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vd miof;fg;gLk;.

,e; epidtf tiffs; NtfkhdJ NghyNt ,jpy; gytpjkhd nfhs;ssTfisf;

nfhz;ljhf ngw;Wf; nfhs;s KbAk;. ,jpy; juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;jtTk;> mjpypUe;J

thrpf;fTk; KbAk;. ,g;gb ,Ue;jNghjpYk; fzpdpapd; kpd; njhlu;ig epWj;jpaTld;

mjpy; cs;s midj;Jj; juTfSk; mope;JNgha;tpLk;.

vOkhW mZfy; epidtfq;fs; ,U tiffsppy; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;. mitfshtd:

1. ,af;ftpay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (DRAM)

2. epiyapay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (SRAM)

etPd fzpdpfspy; Rygkhff; fhzg;gLk; epidtf tif mirT vOkhW mZfy;

epidtfkhFk;. ,e; epidtfj;jpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp itj;Js;s VjhtNjhu; jftiy

mbf;fb Gj;Jzu;t+l;l (refresh) Ntz;Lk;. ,e; epidtfj;jpd; epidtf fyd;fspy;

itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; juTf;s nrf;fDf;F kpy;ypad; msT my;yJ kpd; Jbg;Gfis

mDg;gp kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; Gj;Jzu;t+l;Lk;.

epiyapay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; fzpdpapd; ,uz;lhk; tif epidtfkhf

fUj KbAk;. ,e; epidtfq;fspYs;s juTfs; mbf;fb Gj;Jzu;T+l;lg; glkhl;lhJ.

MdhYk; mj;juTfs; Nky; ,d;DnkhU juT vOjg;gLk; tiuapy; my;yJ kpd;

Jz;bg;gilAk; tiu ,J Xu; epiyapay; glkhf epfOk;. ,e; epidtf rpg;fs;

nky;ypajhdjhy; ghtidapy; ,y;yhjNghJ ghtid FiwthdJ. ,jdhy; ,af;ftpay;

epidtfq;fis tplTk; nraypapy; cs;s gJf;F epidtfj;jpw;F (cache memory)

kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd njupT ,e;j epiyapay; epidtfk; vdf; fhl;lyhk;. ,d;DNkhu;

tifapy; mirT epidtfq;fspd; juTf; nfhs;ssT mjpfkhdjhy; gpujhd

epidtfj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd njupT ,JthFk;.

gjptfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; (Registers)

fzpdp epu;khzj;jpd;NghJ gjptfq;fs; vd;gd kpfTk; rpwpa nfhs;ssTfisf; nfhz;l

fsQ;rpa epidtfkhFk;. ,tw;wpYs;s juTfis NtW ,lj;jpy; cs;s juTfis

ngWtij tpl mjpf Ntfj;jpy; nraypapw;F mZfpf; nfhs;sf;$baJ> ,jd; rpwg;gk;r

khFk;. epidtf Ntfg; gbepiyapd; cau; epiyapy; ,Ug;gJ ,g; gjptfq;fNsahFk;.

6

gJf;F epidtfkgJf;F epidtfkgJf;F epidtfkgJf;F epidtfkgJf;F epidtfk ; (Cache Memory)

fzpdp nraw;ghl;bw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l fhyj;ij fzpf;fg;gLtJ kpfr; rpwpa myfpdhyhFk;.

cjhuzkhf fzpdp nrayp gpujhd epidtfj;ij mZFtjw;F vLf;Fk; Neuk;

nghJthf tpdhbapd; kpy;ypad; 60 ,y; xU gq;fhFk;. mjhtJ neNdh nrf;fd; 60

MFk;. MdhYk; nraypapd; nraw;ghl;by; xU Rw;wpw;fhf nry;Yk; Neuk; neNdh

nrf;fd; 2 MFk;. ,jd;gb nraypnahd;wpw;F neNdh nrf;fd; 60 vd;gJ kpfg; ngupa

fhykhFk;.

,jd;gb fzpdp nraypapw;F jkJ fhupaq;fSf;fhfj; Njitg;gLk; juTifsg; gpujhd

epidtfj;jpypUe;J mZfpf;nfhs;tjw;F mjpf Neuk; nrytplg;gLk; tplakhdgbahy;

gpujhd epidtfj;ij tplf; Fiwe;J ,Ug;gpDk; Ntfkhf mZfy; cs;s nraypapw;F

kpfTk; neUf;fKs;s my;yJ nraypapDs; mlf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; epidtf tif gJf;F

epidtfkhFk;.

gJf;F epidtfj;jpy; ngUk;ghYk; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tJ nraypapdhy; mbf;fb

gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpYs;s juTfspd; gpujpfshFk;. nraypapw;F gpujhd

epidtfj;jpd; Xu; ,lj;jpYs;stw;iw thrpf;f my;yJ mjpy; vOJtjw;f

NjitNaw;gl;lhy; nrayp Kjyhtjhf gJf;F epidtfj;jpy; mjw;Fupa gpujp cs;sjh

vd;gijg; guPl;rpj;Jg; ghu;f;Fk;. mjw;Fupa gpujpapUe;jhy; cldbahf mjid

nraypapw;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;. gpujhd epidtfj;jpd; juT mZfSf;F ,J Ntfj;ijj;

jUk;.

etPd jdpegu; fzpdpfspd; gJf;F epidtf kl;lq;fs; %d;W cs;sd. Kjy; kl;lk;

L1 gJf;F epidtfk;. kpfTk; NtfkhdJld; nraypapDs;NsNa mike;Js;sJ. ,jdhy;

,j;juT nraypapw;F nry;tjw;F jha;g; gyifapd; juT khu;f;fq;fisg; gad;gLj;jg;

glkhl;lhJ. Mifahy; ,J nraypapd; Ntfj;ij tpl mjpf Ntfj;jpy; nraw;gLk;.

,uz;lhk; kl;lk; L2 kw;Wk; %d;whk; kl;lk; L3 jha;g;gyifapy; my;yJ nraypapy;

mike;jpUf;f KbAk;. jha;g;gyifapypUf;Fk;NghJ mjw;F juT khu;f;fj;ij gad;

gLj;Jtjhy; rpwpjsT Ntfk; Fiwe;jhYk; gpujhd epidtfk; Ntfkhfr; nraw;gLk;.

L3 kl;l epidtfk; L2 kl;l epidtfj;jpw;Fj; Njitahdtw;iwg; ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gJld;

L2 epidtfk; L1 epidtfj;jpw;Fj; Njitahdtw;iwg; ngw;Wj;jUk;. L1 epidtfk;

nraypapw;F mtw;iwf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,e; epidtf kl;lq;fs; midj;Jk; my;yJ

,d;iwa rpy fzpdpfspd; mlq;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

mopAwh epidtfk;mopAwh epidtfk;mopAwh epidtfk;mopAwh epidtfk;mopAwh epidtfk; (Non Volatile Memory)

,t;tifahd epidtfq;fs; fsQ;rpag;gl;bU;fk; juTfs; my;yJ jfty;fs; kpd;

njhlu;G Jz;bj;jTld; my;yJ fzpdpia nraypyf;fr; nra;jTld; mopakhl;lhJ.

,e; epidtf tiff;F thrpg;G khj;jpuk; epidtfk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfq;fs;

Nru;j;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. ,it nfhs;sytpy; mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhYk; epiyaw;w

epidtfj;ijg; Nghd;W Ntfk; nfhz;ljy;y. mit tpiyapYk; $bajhFk;.

7

etPd fzpdp njhopy;El;gj;jpd; Kd;Ndw;wj;Jld; cyfpy; gy fzpdp epWtdq;fs;>

epiyaw;w epidtfq;fspd; Ntfj;jpw;Fr; rkdhd Ntfj;jpy; nraw;glf;$bathW thrpg;G

khj;jpu epidtfq;fisj; jahupg;gjpy; gupNrhjidfis Nkw;nfhz;L tUfpd;wdu;.

cjhuzkhf IBM epWtdk; tpUj;jpnra;Js;s Magnetoresistive RAM vDk; M R A M ,idf;

$wyhk;.

epiyahd epidtfk; gpujhdkhf ,uz;L tifg;gLk;.

1. thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; (Read only memory - ROM)

2. ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfq;fs; (secondary storage)

thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;

,e; epidtfk; thrpf;f khj;jpuk; Kbe;j epidtfk; NghyNt fzpdp nraypapw;F

mjpy; vOj KbahJ. ,t;thwhd epidtfq;fspy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s tpNrl

nkd;nghUs; cs;sJ. mit epiyg;nghUs; (firmware) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,k;

nkd;nghUl;fs; tpNrlkhd td;nghUSf;F khj;jpuk; fl;Lg;gl;lJk; mit mbf;fb

Gj;Jzu;t+l;l mtrpakw;wjhFk;. tpNrlkhf jdpegu; fzpdpia nghUj;j tiuapy;

mtw;wpd; jha;g;gyifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; Fiwflj;jp rpg; xd;wpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp

,Uf;Fk; epiyg;nghUs; %yk; fzpdpapid nraw;gLj;Jk; mbg;gil fhupaq;fis

epiwNtw;Wk;.

fzpdpapw;F kpd; njhlu;ig toq;fpaTld; nraw;gLk; ,k;nkd;nghUs; %yk; fzpdpapw;F

nghUj;jg;gl;l cgfuzq;fisf; fz;lwptjw;fhd eilKiw (Diagnostic Routine) ia

nra;tJld; mk; nkd;nghUspd; kw;nwhU gFjpapd; %yk; fzpdpapd; ,af;f Kiwik

fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp cs;s ,lj;jpypUe;J xU gpujpia gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F mZf

itf;Fk;. cs;sPl;L cgfuzq;fspypUe;J fpilf;Fk; rkpf;iQfis guptu;j;jid nra;jy;

Nghd;witfSk; ,e; epuypd; kw;iwa tplaq;fshFk;. fzpdpfSf;F Nkyhf kw;iwa

cw;nghjpe;j KiwikfspYk; ,t;thwhd thrpg ;G khj;jpu epidtfq;fs;

nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;j thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfq;fSf;F fzpdp nraypapdhy;

vJTk; vOj Kbahtpl;lhYk; etPd njhopy;El;g Kiwapdhy; kpd; kw;Wk; NtW

Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp tpNrl cgfuzq;fs; %yk; mopf;fTk; kPz;Lk; vOjTk;

KbAk;. ,t;thwhd thrpg;g khj;jpu epidtf tiffs;:

1. thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - ROM (Read only Memory)

2. epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;

- PROM (Programmable Memory)

3. mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;

- EPROM (Erasable Programmable Memory)

4. kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;

- EEPROM (Elactrically Erasable Programmable Memory)

5. Jupj epidtfk; - Flash Memory

8

epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; (PROM - Programmable Memory)

kpfr; rpwe;j thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfnkhd;iw epu;khdpf;f mjpf fhyk; nry;tjhYk;>

kpfr; rpwpjhf jahupg;gjw;F nryT mjpfkhtjhYk; ,t; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtf

jahupg;ghsu;fshy; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; (PROM) vDk; ngaupy;

epidtf rpg; epu;khzpf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e; epidtf rpg; ntw;W rpg;fshff; Fiwe;j

tpiyapy; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;. mtw;iw programmer vDk; tpNrl cgfuzj;jpd;

%yk; epuy;gLj;j KbAk;.

mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk; - EPROM

Nkw;Fwpg;gplg;gl;l R O M kw;Wk; P R O M fSld; nraw;gLtJ xUtifapy; ehrfhu

nrayhff; fUjyhk;. Vndd;why; ,r; rpg;fspd; tpiuFiwthapUe;jhYk; kPz;Lk;

kPz;Lk; epuy;gLj;j KbahjjhyhFk;. Mifahy; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba

rpg; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mjid mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu

epidtfk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,e;j rpg;gpy; cs;s juTfs; Gw Cjh fjpu; %yk;

tpNrl cgfuznkhd;wpdhy; mopf;f KbAk;. gpd; kPz;Lk; vOjf;$ba epiyf;F

tUk;. ,e;j KO rpg;GNk mopf;fg;gLk;.

kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - EEPROM

mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;> epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu

epidtfj;ij tpl rpwg;gpay;Gfspy; Kd; ,Ue;jNghjpYk; ,r; rpg;ig mopf;Fk; NghJk;

kPz;Lk; vOJk; NghJk; mjw;fhf xJf;fg;gl;l tpNrl cgfuzk; gad;gLj;j Ntz;baJk;

Fiwe;j nrytpy; ,yFthf nra;Jnfhs;sf;$ba tha;g;G ,y;yhikahYk; ,t;thwhd

mnrsfupaq;fis mfw;wp kpd;id gad;gLj;jp mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G

khj;jpu epidtfk; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;j rpg;ig jahupj;jjd; gpd; fPo;f;fhZk;

mD$yq;fs; cUthfp cs;sd.

• kPz;Lk; vOJk;NghJ rpg;ig nghUj;jpa ,lj;jpypUe;J mfw;w Njitg;glhJ.

• KO rpg;igAk; mopj;J tplhky; mtrpakhd gFjpia kl;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOj

KbAk;.

• cs;slf;f juTfis mopg;gjw;fhd tpNrl cgfuzk; Njitg;glhik

Jupj epidtfk; Jupj epidtfk; Jupj epidtfk; Jupj epidtfk; Jupj epidtfk; - Flash Memory

kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; rpg;gpy; 1byte

kl;LNk kPz;Lk; vOj KbAk;. MdhYk; ,J ke;j fjpapy; eilngWk;. ,t; tplak;

xUtifapy; ,yFthdjhapUe;jhYk; ,U nfhs;ssit vOJtjw;F ntF Neuk;

nry;tJ xU gpujp$ykhff; fUjyhk;.

Xu; cgfuzj;jpd; cs;slf;fg;gl;l rpg;gpy; cs;s juTfspd; jpBu; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLj;j

Ntz;Lk; vdpd; mt;thwhf cgfuzq;fSf;F ,j;jifa rpg;fs; kpfTk; nghUj;jkw;w

jhFk;. ,j;jifa gpd;thq;fSf;Fj; jPu;thf Jupj epidtf rpg; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ.

9

,t;tifahd rpg;gpy; juT kPy; vOJk;NghJ xNuabahf ghupa gFjpahf (chunks)

vOj KbAk;. mjhtJ 512 igl;fspd; gFjpia xNuabahf vOjyhk;. kpf NtfkhfTk;

,yFthftk; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOj Kbahjjhy; mjw;nfd;W tpNrl cgfuzk;

Njitg;gglhjjdhy; Jupj epidtfk; kpfTk; gpugy;akhfpAs;sJ.

mbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwikmbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwikmbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwikmbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwikmbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwik (Basic Input Output System - BIOS)

,J fzpdpia jahu;g;glj;Jk; epiyg; nghUshFk;. fzpdpapw;F kpd; njhlu;ig

toq;fpaTld; nraw;gLk; KjyhtJ nkd;nghUs; ,e;epiy nghUshFk;. CMOS ,r;rpg;

gpujhd gyiff;Fg; nghUj;jg;gLtJ mg; gyifia jahupf;Fk; NghNjahFk;. ,e;

epiyg;nghUspd; mbg;gil eltbf;ifahdJ fzpdp Kiwikapd; td; jl;L>

tpirg;gyif> Rl;b kw;Wk; midj;J cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L ghfq;fis milahsk;

fhzy;> guPl;rpj;jy;> kw;Wk; Muk;gj;ijg; ngw;Wf; nfhLj;jyhFk;. ,q;F Kiwikapy;

cs;s td;nghUs;fs; KiwikfSf;F Vw;wkhd Kiwf;F mikj;Jj; jUk;. ,jw;fhf

,t; td;nghUl;fspd; xl;Lk; nkd;nghUl;fis mZfy; nra;J mt; td;nghUl;fis

fl;Lg;ghl;il Kiwikf;F toq;Fk;. ,r; nraw;ghL booting my;yJ boots up vd

rhjhuzkhf miof;fg;gLk;. ,ij bootstrapping vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

epug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jpepug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jpepug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jpepug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jpepug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jp (Complementry Metel Oxide Semi-conductor

- CMOS Chip)

,J fzpdp jha;g;gyifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; rpwpa rpg; MFk;. ,jpy; Kiwikapd;

jpfjp> Neuk; kw;Wk; Vida mikg;Gfs; (settings) mlq;fpAs;sJ. ,e;j rpg;gpw;Fj;

Njitg;gLtJ kpfr; rpwpa kpd; rf;jp vd;gjhy; mr; rf;jpia rpwpa ypj;jpak; gl;lupnahd;why;

toq;fg;gLk;. ,e;j gl;lupia gy tUlq;fs; ghtpf;f KbAk;. ,ij C M O S gl;lup vd

miof;fg;gLk;.

epiyahd epidtf tiffSf;F mlq;Fk; ,d;DnkhU epidtfkhf ,uz;lhe;ju

fsQ;rpakhf miof;f KbAk;. ,it gy tbtq;fspy; fhzyhk;. fPo; fhl;lg;gLtJ

mjd; rpyjhFk;.

1. fhe;j ehlhf;fs; - Magnetic tapes

2. td; tl;Lfs; - Hard disks

3. xspapay; ehlhf;fs; - Optical disks

fhe;j ehlhf;fs;fhe;j ehlhf;fs;fhe;j ehlhf;fs;fhe;j ehlhf;fs;fhe;j ehlhf;fs;

fhe;j xspg;gjpT nra;tjw;fhd ClfkhtJ ,f; fhe;j elhf;fNs. nky;ypa

fzj;ijf;nfhz;l> ePz;l gpsh];bf; ehlhit fhe;jg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ,e;j fhe;j

ehlhf;fs; mikf;fg;gLk;. ngUk;ghYk; xyp> xsp juTfs; Nghd;W fzpdp juTfis

fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpitf;f ,it gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Kjd; Kiwahf ,f; fhe;j ehlhf;fis

jahupj;jtu;fs; N[u;kdpapdu; Mthu;fs;. ,e;ehlhf;fs; xyp> xsp xspg;gjpT nra;tjw;Fk;>

kPs; Xl;lTk; (play back) $ba gy cgfuzq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf Nlg;

10

nuf;Nfhlu; kw;Wk; tPbNah nuf;Nfhlu;fis fhl;lyhk;. fzpdp juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;J

tjw;fhf ,f;fhe;j ehlhf;fis nrYj;Jk; gFjp ehlh nrYj;jp (Tape Drive) vd

miof;fg;gLk;. Kw;fhyj;jpy; fzpdpapd; ,uz;lhe;ju fsQ;rpakhf gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

,f;fhe;j ehlhf;fisg; ghJfhg;G Nrkpj;jYf;fhfg; (backup) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ghupa

mytpyhd juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;Jtjw;F ,it jw;NghJk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.

td;tl;L td;tl;L td;tl;L td;tl;L td;tl;L (Hard disk)

fzpdpapd; gpujhd fsQ;rpakhf gad;gLj;jg;gLtJ td;tl;lhFk;. vz;zpay;

FwpaPlhf;fg;gl;l juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gl;l fhe;j Kfg;igf;nfhz;l tisahj>

Ntfkhf Rw;Wk; tl;Lfs; gy Nru;f;fg;gl;l td;tl;L Xl;bnahd;W etPd fzpdpfspy;

fhzg;gLk;. ,it gy nfhs;ssTfspy; ngw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;. fhe;j ehlhf;fis tpl

kpff;$ba juTfis mZfy; nra;Jnfhs;s Kbak;. ,j;jl;Lfs; etPd fzpdpfspy;

gutyhff; fhzyhk;.

xspapay; tl;Lfs;xspapay; tl;Lfs;xspapay; tl;Lfs;xspapay; tl;Lfs;xspapay; tl;Lfs;

,it jl;ilahd tl;ltbt tl;L tiffshFk;. ,jpy; vz;zpay; juTfis

fsQ;rpag;gLj;Jk;NghJ ,t;tl;by; cs;s rpwpa gs;sq;fs; (pits)> NkLfs; mbg;gilahff;

nfhz;L vz;zpay; 0 kw;Wk; 1 thrpf;ff;$ba tifapyhd njhopy;El;gk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

,j; juTfs; thrpf;fg;gLtJ Nyru; xspf;fjpu; cjtpAldhFk;. ,t;tl;by; juTfisf;

fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gLtJ Nyru; %yk; my;yJ ,ae;jpug; gjpT %ykhFk;. nghJthf

,t;tl;Lfs; xsptl;L (Compact Disk-CD-R) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,jpy; xUKiw kl;LNk

juT vOj KbAk;. kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOJtjw;fhf CD-RW tifapyhd xyptl;Lfs;

gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jpy; mNefkhf fzpdp juTfs; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gLtJld; xyp>

xsp juTfSk; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jyhk;. ,j;jl;Lfspy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpajy;y. jpiug;glq;fs;>

ghly;fs; nghd;wtw;iw re;ijapy; ngwyhk;. jw;NghJ mNefkhf gad;gLj;jg;gLtJ

DVD tl;LfshFk;. ,j;jl;Lfs; gy nfhs;sTfspy; cs;sd. etPd fzpdpfspy;

gad;gLj;Jk; ,it tpiyapYk; Fiwe;jitahFk;.

11

Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6 ::::: fzpdpapd; KO mstpyhd nraw;ghLfisAk;

Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F ,af;f Kiwikia

cgNahfpg;ghu;.

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 : xU ,af;f KiwahdJ fzpdpapd; nraw;ghLfis vt;thW

epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij Muha;thu;.



• gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; Kiwikfspd; gz;Gfis tpsf;Fthu;.

• nray;Kiwfs; ,Uf;Fk; epiyfisAk; mit NtWgLk; tpjj;ijAk;

njspTgLj;Jthu;.

• ,af;f Kiwik nray;Kiw cgepuy; %yk; nray;Kiw Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLk;

tpjk; gw;wp tpsf;Fthu;.

• KOtijAk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;fhf rpW gFjpfshf Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;Sthu;.

• $ba nraw;wpwidg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;F Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;thu;.


gpuNtrk;gpuNtrk;gpuNtrk;gpuNtrk;gpuNtrk;

• ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrpnahd;wpd; nraw;ghl;ilAk; mjpy; fhzg;gLk; NritfisAk;

gw;wp khztu;fsplk; tpdtTk;.

• fhj;jpUf;Fk; miog;G (Call waiting) Nritnahd;W nraw;gLk; tpjk; gw;wp

fye;JiuahlTk;.

• fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrp miog;G xd;wpy; jpiuapy; njd;gLk; nra;jp xd;Wk; fpilf;Fk;

vd;gJ.

• Njitnadpd; ,izg;gpy; ,Uf;Fk; miog;ig jw;fhypfkhf epWj;jptpl;L Gjpa

miog;Gld; ,izaf;$baJld; mg;Gjpa miog;ig epWj;jp kPz;Lk; gioa

,izg;Gld; njhlu;G glTk; KbAk; vd;gJ.

• ,r;nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrp %yk; xNu jlitapy; gy

tplaq;fis Nkw;nfhs;sf;$ba trjpfs; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gJ.

• ,r;nraw;ghL gy;njhopy; (multitasking) vdg;gLk; vd;gJ.

• ,r;nraw;ghLfs; ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrpapd; ,af;f Kiwik %yk;

Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ vd;gJ.

• fzpdpapYk; gy;njhopy; nraw;ghLfs; eilngWtJld; mtw;wpd; Kfhikj;Jtk;

,af;f Kiwik %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ vd;gJ.

12

fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;:

• fPo;f; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s jiyg;Gf;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Ff; fpilf;Fk; jiyg;gpd;

kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;.

• gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwikfspy;

• Neug;gfpu;T (time sharing) kw;Wk; nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL(processor utilization)

• nray;KiwfSk; (processes) mtw;wpd; epiyfSk; (process states)

• nray;Kiwfis ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; (process scheduling)

• thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij KOikahfTk; ckJ jiyg;gpw;Fupa gFjpapd; kPJ $ba

ftdKk; nrYj;jTk;.

• fzpdpapd; nraw;ghl;bDs; nray;KiwfSk;> mtw;wpd; cgepuy; gLj;jy;fSk;>

gy;njhopy; my;yJ gy;epuy; Kiwf;F cjTk; tpjk; gw;wp rpW FOf; fye;Jiuahl

nyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• nraypapd; gad;ghl;il nraw;wpwDld; gpuNahfpg;gjw;F nray;Kiw epuy;fs; %yk;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;fis jkJ FOtpw;F Kd;itj;Jf; fye;JiuahlTk;.

• nray;Kiw epiy (process states) fspd; %yk; Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tJld;

nraw;wpwid mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; tpjk; gw;wp ftdk; nrYj;jp kjpg;gPl;bw;Fl;gLj;jTk;.

• cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fis $l;lhfTk; gilg;ghw;wy; kpf;fjhfTk; KO tFg;gpw;Fk;

Kd;itg;gjw;F jahuhfTk;.

ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b:ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b:ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b:ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b:ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b:

• rpW FOf;fspd; fUj;Jf;fis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kidtf;fTk;.

• Kd;itj;j FOtpw;Nf tpupTiug;gpw;fhd Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;.

• Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fg+u;tkhd fUj;Jf;fis tprhupf;fTk;.

• fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fs; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;JtJld; rhuhk;rg;gLj;jTk;.

• fzpdp nraypapd; nraw;wpuid mjpfupg;gjw;fhf mjd; Neuj;ij mjp$ba

mstpy; gad;gLj;jj;jf;f mtrpak; Vw;gl;lJ vd;gJ.

• ,jw;fhf nraypia mjp$ba mstpy; gad;ghl;bw;F vLj;Jf; nfhs;sf;$ba

gy;epuy; kw;Wk; gy;njhopy; ,af;f Kiwikfs; cUthfpd vd;gJ.

• ,t;tpaf;f KiwikfSf;F nraypapd; Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;J nfhs;t

Jld; mjd; mjp$ba cw;gj;jpj;jpwid ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk; vd;gJ.

• ,t;tpaf;f KiwikfspYs;s gpujhd ,ay;ghdJ nraw;ghL vd;W miof;fg;gLk;

epuy; gFjpfs; ghtpf;fg;gLtJ vd;gJ.

• ,r;nray;Kiwfs; mtw;wpd; gy;NtW epiyfspw;F (states) toq;fg;gl;L mit

VNjDk; xU xOq;fpy; nraypf;F mDg;gg;gl;L Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd

vd;gJ.

• ,k;Kfhikj;Jtj;ij Nkw;nfhs;tJ nray;Kiw xOq;fikg;G (process sheduler)

vdg;gLk; Kiwnahd;wpd; %ykhFk;.

• ,r;nray;Kiw FWq;fhy> ,ilf;fhy> ePz;lfhy vd;w %d;W tiffshyydJ

vd;gJ.

13

• ,t; xt;nthU gFjpfspYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; tplak; xd;wpw;nfhd;W NtWgl;l

njd;gJ.

• etPd fzpdpfspy; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;w gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwik

fSf;F ,r;nray;Kiw %yk; fzpdp juT xOq;FgLj;Jk; nray;Kiwapid

njhlu;r;rpahfg; Ngzf;$ba tha;g;G Vw;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gJ.

thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk;gy;epuy;gLj;jy;gy;epuy;gLj;jy;gy;epuy;gLj;jy;gy;epuy;gLj;jy;gy;epuy;gLj;jy; (Multiprogramming)

Muk;g fhy fzpdpfspy; nraypnahd;wpd; Neuk; ngWkjpkpf;fjhf ,Ue;jJld;

,e;Neuj;ij mjp$bastpy; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tJ fbdkhdjhy; fzpdpg; ghfq;fspy;

nraw;ghL kpfTk; ke;jfjpahapUe;jJ. mt;thW elg;gjw;F nraypnahd;W VNjDnkhU

tplaj;jpy;

,r;nray; cau; nraw;wpwDld; $banjd;gij njspTgLj;jpaJ. ,k;Kiwikfspy;

xNu jlitapy; gy nkd;nghUl;fis ,af;ff;$ba trjp Vw;gl;lJ.

etPd fzpdpfspy; VNjDk; nkd;nghUl;fis ,af;Fk;NghJ mk;nkd;nghUspd; xd;Wf;F

Nkw;gl;l gpujpfis xNu jlitapy; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F cl;nrYj;jf; $baJld;

,jd; %yk; xNu jlitapy; gyuhy; ,k;nkd;nghUis ghtpf;ff;$ba trjp fpilf;fpd;wJ.

mJ khj;jpukd;wp rpy nkd;nghUl;fspy; xU gpujp khj;jpuk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F

cl;gLj;jg;gl;L mg;gpujp gyUf;F xNu jlitapy; mjid gad;gLj;jf;$ba trjpia

ngw;Wj; jUfpd;wJ. ,q;F xNu nkd;nghUspd; FwpaPL nghJthf gfpu;e;J nfhs;sf;$ba

Kiwnahd;W ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,k;Kiw kPs;nrYj;jp (Re-entered) Kiw vd;w ngauhy;

miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

nrayp xd;W xU jlitapy; xU nraw;ghl;by; xU fl;lisia khj;jpuk; nraw;gLj;Jk;.

vdpDk;> VNjDnkhU Neu ,ilntspapy; gy nraw;ghLfis Njf;fp itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;.

,r;nraw;ghLfSf;fhf nrayp %yk; Neuk; xJf;fg;gLk;. xJf;fg;gl;ll Neuk; fpilf;Fk;

tiu> kpFjp nraw;ghLfis jw;fhypfkhf nraypoe;j epiyapy; itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;.

VNjDk; nraw;ghLfs; rpy xNu Neuj;jpy; nraw;glhky;> VNjDk; Neu xOq;fpw;fika

nraw;gLkhapd; mt;thW eilngWtJ ~~Vffhy ,af;fk;|| (Concurent excecution) vd;W

miof;fg;gLk;.

14

gy;epuy; gy;njhopy; ,af;f Kiwiknahd;wpy;> $ba vz;zpf;ifapyhd nraw;ghLfs;

Fwpj;j ,ilNtisf;Fs; nraw;gLj;jg;gly; eilngWk;. gy; epuy;fSf;fhf nrayp

%yk; xt;nthU nraw;ghl;bw;Fk; Fwpj;j Neu xJf;fy; Njitg;gLk;. mNj Nghd;W

Fwpj;j Neuj;jpy; mr;nraw;ghLfs; g+u;j;jp nra;ag;gly; Ntz;Lk;. ,r;nray;fs;

epiwtiltjw;F Kd;dNu nrayp %yk; Neu xJf;fis epiwT nra;ag;gLnkdpd;>

mjid $ba tpiutpy; kPz;Lk; Muk;gpj;J mjd; kpFjpg; gFjpia epiwT nra;tjw;F

re;ju;g;gk; toq;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW nraw;ghLfs; epiwtiltjw;F

Kd; ,ileLNt epWj;jf;$ba re;ju;g;gq;fs; ,uz;L cs;sd. mitahtd:

1. NtnwhU nraw;ghl;bd; %yk; Kiwikf;F ,ila+W nra;jp toq;fg;gly;. ,r;re;ju;g;gk;

~~nkd;nghUs; ,ila+W|| (Software Interrupt) vdg;gLk;.

2. td;nghUs;fs; %yk; ,ila+U nra;jp (Hardware Interrupt) toq;fg;gLk;. ,r;re;ju;g;gk;

~~td;nghUs; ,ila+U|| vdg;gLk;.

xU nraw;ghl;il epWj;jp NtnwhU nraw;ghl;il tyq;Fjy; re;ju;g;g Msp (Context

Switch) vdg;gLk;. etPd ,af;f Kiwikfspy; xU nraw;ghL gy cgnrw;ghLfisf;

nfhz;bUf;f KbAk;. mt;Tgr; nraw;ghLfs; threads vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd

cgnraw;ghLfspdhy; jdpahf nraw;gl KbAk;.

Neug;gfpu;TNeug;gfpu;TNeug;gfpu;TNeug;gfpu;TNeug;gfpu;T (Time shearing)

gy gadu;fSf;fpilapy; gy;njhopy; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwikfs; %yk; nra;ag;gLfpd;w

Neu Kfhikj;Jtk; ~~Neug;gfpu;T|| vdg;gLk;. ,J Kjd; Kjyhf 1960 fspy;

mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJld;> 1970 Mk; jrhg;jkstpy; fzpdpj; njhopEl;gj;jpy;

jpUg;GKidia Vw;gLj;jp fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd; gpujhd gz;ghf mike;jJ.

,jd; %yk; fpilf;fg;ngw;w gpujpgydhdJ gy gadu;fs; xNu fzpdpia ghtpg;gjd;

%yk; gz tpuaj;ijf; Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;sf;$ba re;ju;g;gk; Vw;gl;lJ. NkYk; xNu

fzpdp gpuNahf nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ xNu jlitapy; gyUf;F ,ilr; nraw;ghLfs;

%yk; njhlu;GgLtjw;Fk; ,jd; %yk; tha;g;Gf; fpl;Lfpd;wJ.

xU gadu; nraw;wpwdw;W ,Ug;gpDk; $ba vz;zpf;ifapyhd gadu;fs;

gpuNahfg;gLj;jg;gLkplj;J $ba nraw;wpwDld; nraw;gLjtw;Fupa rhj;jpaj;ij

ikakhff; nfhz;Nl ,t;ntz;zf;fU cUthdJ. ,q;F xU gadu; fzpdpAld;

VjhtnjhU nraiy nra;JKbj;J gpd; ntnwhU nraiy Muk;gpg;gjw;F mjpf

Neuk; vLf;Fk;NghJ nrayp mf;fhyg; gFjpapy; cjhrPdk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. gadu;fsJ

vz;zpf;if mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ NtnwhUtuJ gad;ghl;bw;F ,e;Neuk;

gad;gLj;jg;glf; $bajhAs;sJ. ,t;thW gw;gadu; nray;fSf;fhf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;

FO nghUj;jkhd vz;zpf;ifapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ KO nray; KiwAk; kpfTk;

nraw;wpwDs;sjhf mikAk;. NkYk; tl;L> ,Wtl;L> tiyaikg;G Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J

fpilf;Fk; cs;sPLfSf;fhf fhj;jpUf;Fk; FWfpa Neuj;ij NtnwhU gadupd;

ghtidf;fhf cgNahfpg;gLj;jy; ,q;F eilngWfpd;wJ.

15

nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghLnraypapd; cr;r gad;ghLnraypapd; cr;r gad;ghLnraypapd; cr;r gad;ghLnraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL (Processor Utilization)

fzpdpapd; %yk; nray; xd;iw my;yJ gytw;iw nra;J nfhs;Sk;NghJ ,Uf;Fk;

gy tsq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,tw;wpy; Kf;fpakhd tskhdJ kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L

myfhFk;. ,jd; nra;wwpwid cr;r mstpy; gad;gLj;jy; ~nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL||

vdg;gLk;.

xU nraw;ghL khj;jpuk; nraypy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ nraypapy; cr;r gad; Fiwe;J

fhzg;gLk;. vdpDk; gy;nraw;ghLfspd;NghJ nraypapd; gad;ghL cr;r epiyia

milAk;. mt;Tr;r epiyia miltjw;fhf ,af;f KiwikapDs; gy;NtW cghaq;fs;

ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. nray;Kiw xOq;FgLj;jYk; ,jd;NghJ kpf Kf;fpa gq;fspg;igr;

nra;fpd;wJ.

nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk;nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk;nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk;nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk;nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk; (Processors and Process States)

fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd; %yf;fU (Kernel) %yk; nrad;Kiw Kfhikj;Jtk;

nra;ag;gLk;NghJ gy;NtW fl;lq;fspd; fPo; ,r;nray;Kiwfs; nraw;ghl;bw;Fl;gLj;jy;

tupirg;gLj;jg;gLk;. mt; xt;nthU fl;lj;jpd; NghJk; nray;Kiw Nkw;nfhs;sg;

gl;bUf;Fk; epiyfs; ngauplg;gl;Ls;sd. gy;NtW ,af;f Kiwikfspy; ,g; ngau;

khWgl;bUg;gpDk; xt;nthU epiyapYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;fs; xj;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;.

nray;Kiw ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; %yk; nray;KiwfSf;F nghUj;jkhd epiyfs;

xg;gilf;fg;gLtJld; me;epiyfs; khw;wg;gl;L Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLk;.

,e;epiykhw;wy; re;ju;g;g Msp (Context Switch) vdg;gLtJld; nray;Kiw cgepuy;

%yk; ,r;nray; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thW gy;NtW epiyfspd; fPo;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;Kiw nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; re;ju;g;gj; njhlupd; gpd; mtw;wpd;

nraw;ghL Kbtile;J gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J ePf;fg;gLk;. nrad;Kiwfspd;

mbg;gil re;ju;g;gq;fisAk; mr;re;ju;g;gq;fspy; epyTk; epiyfisAk; ftdpg;Nghk;.

16

nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk;nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk;nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk;nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk;nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk; (Process State Diagram)

NkYs;s tiuglj;jpd; tl;lq;fspd; %yk; nray;Kiw re;ju;g;gq;fSk; mtw;wpw;F

Vw;glf;$ba ~re;ju;g;gk; khWjy;| njhlu;ghf mk;Gf;Fwpfs; %yKk; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.

mjd;gb cUthf;fg;gl;l (created) nray;Kiwnahd;W jahu; epiyf;Ff; nfhz;L tug;gl;L

mJ gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F tUtjhy; me;epiy ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L

nraypf;F nry;tjw;F my;yJ kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F nrd;W fhj;jpUf;f NeupLk;.

,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLkhapd; me;epiy epiwT nra;ag;gl;L> gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J

epf;fg;gLtjw;F epWj;jg;gl;l my;yJ KbTw;w epiyf;F (Terminated State) cl;gLtjw;F

my;yJ ,il epWj;jg;gl;L ,ila+W Vw;gl;l epiyf;F cl;gl;L kiwKf epidtfj;jpy;

fhj;jpUf;f Neuplf;$Lk;.

mbg;gil nray;Kiw epiyfs;mbg;gil nray;Kiw epiyfs;mbg;gil nray;Kiw epiyfs;mbg;gil nray;Kiw epiyfs;mbg;gil nray;Kiw epiyfs;

cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy (Created or New State)

Kjy; jlitahf nray;Kiwnahd;W cUthf;fg;gl;lJk; me;epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l

(Created) my;yJ Gjpa (New) epiy vdg;gLk;. ,e;epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiw

jahu;epiyf;F tUk;tiu fhj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,it ePz;l fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jy;

(Long Term Sheduler) vDk; nkd;nghUspd; %yk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. jahu; epiyapy;

(Ready State) ,Uf;Fk; ,r;nrad;Kiw ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; %yk; mLj;J

tuf;$ba epiyf;F khw;wg;gLtJld; mJ jhkjkiltjw;F my;yJ me;epiyf;F

cl;gLj;jhJ mg;Gwg;gLj;jg;gLtjw;Fk; tha;g;Gz;L. mNef Nkirf; fzpdpfspy; (Desktop)

cUthf;fg;gl;l(Gjpa)

Created (New)

epWj;jg;gl;ll/KbTw;w

Terminated

fhj;jpUj;jy;/

jahuhapUj;jy;

Waiting or Redy

,af;f

epiyapYs;s

Running

milgl;l/

jLf;fg;gl;l

Blocked

khw;wg;gl;lJk;

fhj;jpUg;gJk;

Swapped out and

Waiting

khw;wg;gl;lJk;

jLf;fg;gl;lJk;.

Swapped out and

Blocked

gpujhd

epidtfk;;

Main Memory

kiwKf

epidtfk;

Virtual Memory

17

,g;gpuNjrk; Rakhf eilngWtJld; epfo; Neu xOq;FgLj;jy; (Real Time Processing)

eilngWk; fzpdpfspy; ,jw;fhf jhkjk; Vw;gLk;. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk; epfo; Neu

xOq;FgLj;jypd;NghJ nray;Kiwfs; gytw;iw epidtfj;jpw;F mDkjpg;gJld; mit

,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLtjpYs;s Nghl;bapd; fhuzkhf ,Wjpg; ngWNgiw

ngw;Wf;nfhs;s vLf;Fk; fhyk; ePbj;jyhFk;.

jahu;epiy jahu;epiy jahu;epiy jahu;epiy jahu;epiy (Ready State)

,e;epiy ~~fhj;jpUj;jy; (wating)" my;yJ ~~,af;fj;jf;f epiy(runable) || vdTk;

$wg;gLfpd;wJ. Gjpa epiyapy; fhzg;gl;l nray;Kiw xd;W mLj;J cl;gLtJ

,e;epiyf;fhFk;. ,e;epiyf;Fl;gLk; nray;Kiw gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; jq;fpapUg;gJ

mr;nray;Kiw fzpdpapd; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myF %yk; ,af;f epiyf;F

cl;gLj;jg;gLk; tiughFk;. ,t;tpaf;f epiy ~~XLepiy|| (Running State) vd miof;fg;gLk;.

jdp nraypAila fzpdpnahd;wpy; xNu jlitapy; nraw;gLtJ xU nray;Kiw

khj;jpuNk. Mifahy; jahu; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiwfs; gy mit ,af;f

epiyf;F cl;gLk; tiu gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; tupirg;gLj;jp itf;fg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

vdpDk; etPd fzpdpfspy; fhzg;gLk; tYkpf;f nraypfs; nray;Kiwfs; gytw;iw

xNu jlitapy; nraw;gLj;jf;$ba ,ay;Gilad.

XL epiy XL epiy XL epiy XL epiy XL epiy (Running State)

,e;epiy ~~nraY}f;fKs;s (Active)|| my;yJ ~~,af;f (Executing) epiy|| vdg;gLk;.

NtW tifapy; $Wtjhdhy;> VNjDk; xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpy;

nraw;gLk; nrad;Kiw ,g;ngauhy; miof;fg;gLk;. ,e;epiyapy; fhzg;gLk;

nray;Kiwanhd;wpd; nraw;ghL Kbtiltjw;Fupa Neuj;ij tpl $ba Neuk; vLf;fyhk;.

mt;thwhd nray;Kiwnahd;W kPz;Lk; jahu; epiyf;Fl;gLj;jg;gLk;. mt;thW eilngWk;

NghJ jw;fhypfkhf jilg;gl;l epiyf;F (Blocked State)my;yJ jahu; epiyf;F (Ready

State)cl;gLj;jg;gLk;

jilg;gl;l epiy jilg;gl;l epiy jilg;gl;l epiy jilg;gl;l epiy jilg;gl;l epiy (Blocked State)

,e;epiy ~~cwq;Fepiy|| (sleeping state) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. VNjDnkhU

nray;Kiw ,e;epiyf;F cl;gLkhapd; mjid kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpypUe;J

mfw;wg;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; my;yJ kiwKf epidtjf;jpy; jf;f itf;fg;gLk;.

,t;thW ,Uf;Fk; nray;KiwfSf;Fg; nghUj;jhkhd tsq;fs; fpilf;Fk; tiu

,ila+U epiyapNyNa ,Uf;f NeupLk;. mt;tsq;fs; fpilj;j clNdNa ,ila+U

epiy jahu; epiyf;F khw;wg;gl;L ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLtjw;F kPz;Lk;

tupirg;gLj;jg;gLk;.

epWj;jg;gl;lepWj;jg;gl;lepWj;jg;gl;lepWj;jg;gl;lepWj;jg;gl;l/KbTw;w epiy KbTw;w epiy KbTw;w epiy KbTw;w epiy KbTw;w epiy (Terminated State)

nraw;ghnlhd;W ,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ ,ileLtpy; epWj;jptply; my;yJ ,aq;fp

Kbe;j gpd; epWj;jg;gly; ,g;ngauhy; miof;fg;gLk;. rhjhuzkhf ,e;epiyf;F cl;gLk;

nray;Kiwnahd;W gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; my;yJ kha epidtfj;jpypUe;J ePf;fg;gLt

Jld; mt;thW ePf;fk; nra;ag;glhj nraw;ghLfs; mtjhuq;fs; (Zombies) vdg;gLk;.

18

Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs;Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs;Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs;Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs;Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs; (Additional Process States)

kiwKf epidtfk; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;w fzpdp Kiwikfspy; nray;Kiw Nkyjpf

epiyfs; ,uz;L fhzg;gLk;. ,t;tpuz;L epiyfspYk; nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju

Nrkpg;gfq;fspy; (Secondary Storage) Njf;fp itf;fg;gLk;.

khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (Swapped out and waiting)

jahu; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiwnahd;W mjpf Neuk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy;

Njq;fp ,Ug;gpd; tpiutpy; ,af;fg;glNtz;ba NtW nray;KiwfSf;Fg; gpujhd

epidtfj;jpy; ,lk;ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjw;fhf ,r;nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfj;jpy;

,Uf;Fk; kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;. ,t;thW khw;wg;gl;l gpd; mJ ,Uf;Fk;

epiy ~~khw;wg;gl;lJk;> fhj;jpUg;gJkhd|| epiy vdg;gLk;. ,t;tif nray;Kiwfs;

kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F Njit Vw;gl;l clNd jahu;epiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L

gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;.

khw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiykhw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiykhw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiykhw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiykhw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiy (Swapped and blocked)

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l epiyiag; Nghd;Nw ,r;re;ju;g;gj;jpYk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; jilNaw;gl;l

epiyfSld; $ba nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju Nrkpg;ghf kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F

khw;wg;gLk;. mg;NghJ kiwKf epidtfj;jpy; ,r;nray; ~~khw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJ

khd|| (swapped out and blocked) epiyapNy fhzg;gLk;. vdpDk; ,e;epiy kPz;Lk;

~~khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd|| (Swapped out and waiting) epiyf;F khWglyhk;. gpd;

mJ jahu; epiyf;Fl;gLj;jg;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F kPz;Lk; tuyhk;.

ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; (Sheduling)

gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;nray; ,af;f Kiwikfs; cUthf;fg;gLk;NghJ gpuNahfg;gLj;jg;

gLk; gpujhdkhd Nfhl;ghlhf ,J fUjg;gLk;. ,q;F fzpdpnahd;wpy; fhzg;gLk;

nraypfspd; vz;zpf;ifiatplf; $ba vz;zpf;ifahd nray;Kiwfs; nraypapDs;

nraw;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUg;gjhYk;> ,Uf;fk; xOq;FgLj;jy; myFfisf; nfhz;L rfy

nray; KiwfisAk; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F NeupLtjhYk; ,r;nray; Kiwfs; VNjDk;

xU xOq;fpw;fika nraypw;F mDg;Gk; nranyhd;W fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik %yk;

nraw;gLj;jg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,r;nray; ~~ml;ltizg;gLj;jy;|| (Sheduling) vdg;gLtJld;

mij nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F ~~ml;ltizg;gLj;jp|| (Sheduler) vd;w ngaupdhy; miof;fg;gLk;

epunyhd;W cs;sJ. mt;tl;ltizg;gLj;jp ~~mDg;gp|| (dispatcher) vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.

,e;epuy; fPo;f;ffhzg;gLk; tplaq;f;s gw;wp tpopg;GldpUf;Fk;.

1. kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyF cr;r nraw;wpwDld; ghtpf;fg;gly;

2. rhjpj;j msT rhjpj;j msT rhjpj;j msT rhjpj;j msT rhjpj;j msT (Throughput) ----- Neu mynfhd;Wf;Fs; nray;gLj;jg;gl;L Kbf;fg;

gLk; nray;Kiwfspd; vz;zpf;if.

3 KO nray; Neuk; KO nray; Neuk; KO nray; Neuk; KO nray; Neuk; KO nray; Neuk; (Turnaround) ----- nray;Kiwnahd;W nraypf;F ngw;Wf;nfhLf;

fg;gl;lJk; mr;nray; Kiw nraw;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Neuk;.

19

4 fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; (Waiting time) ----- nray;Kiwnahd;W nraypf;F ngw;Wf;nfhLg;

gjw;F Kd;G jahu;epiyapy; tupirg;gl;bUf;Fk; Neuk;.

5 gjpyspg;G Neuk; gjpyspg;G Neuk; gjpyspg;G Neuk; gjpyspg;G Neuk; gjpyspg;G Neuk; (Response Time) ----- nray;Kiwnahd;wpw;F VNjDk; mwpTWj;jy;

fpilj;jy; Neuk; Kjy; mjid nraw;gLj;Jtw;F Muk;gpf;Fk; tiuahd fhyk;.

6 nraypapd; xt;nthU nray;Kiwf;Fk; nraw;ghl;lyF Neuj;ijr; rhjhuzkhfg;

ngw;Wf; nfhLj;jy;.

ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; (Sheduler Types)

fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpy; njspthf ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfs; %d;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

mitahtd:

1. ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp(Long term sheduler)

,it gpuNtr ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (admission sheduler) my;yJ cau;kl;l ml;ltizg;

gLj;jp (highlevel sheduler) Nghd;w ngau;fshy; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

2. kj;jpafhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Mid term sheduler)

3. FWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Short term sheduler)

,J mDg;gp vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.

ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Long term sheduler)

jahu;epiy tupirg;gLj;jYf;F cl;gLj;jg;glNtz;baJ ve;j nrad;Kiw vd;gij

jPu;khdpg;gJ ,e;j ml;ltizg;gLj;jp %ykhFk;. mNjNghd;W ve;j nray;Kiw

Kiwikapy; nraw;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij jPu;khdpg;gJk; ,jd; %ykhFk;. NkYk;

njhlu;r;rpahf nraw;gLk; nray;Kiwfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lkh my;yJ

Fiwa Ntz;Lkh vd;gJk; ,jd; %yk; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk;. etPd ,af;f Kiwikfspy;

epfoNeu nraw;gLj;jpypd; NghJ nrad;Kiwfs; nraw;gLtjw;fhf kj;jpa

nraw;ghl;lyfpdhy; Nghjpa Neuk; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jYk; ,jd; %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ.

,t;tif ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ghupa mstpy; njhFjp nray;gLj;jy; (batch processing)

fspy;

20

FWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpFWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpFWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpFWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpFWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Short term sheduler)

,t;tl;ltizg;gLj;jpia ~~mDg;gp (Dispatcher)|| vd;wiof;fg;gLk;. jw;NghJ

nray;epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nry;Kiwapd; gpd; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;

nray;Kiwfspy; vr;nray;Kiw nraypf;F mDg;Gtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdnjd;gij

,J jPu;khdpf;Fk;. mJ nraw;gLj;jg;gLtJ fbfhu ,ila+W (clock intrupt) %yk; my;yJ

cs;sPL/ntspaPL Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J tUfpd;w ,ila+W xd;wpd; (I/Ointrupt) %yk; my;yJ

,af;f Kiwikapdhy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w rkpQ;ir my;yJ nra;jp my;yJ NtW

,aw;if rkpQ;ir Nghd;w FWf;fPLfspd; gpd;ghFk;. NkYk; Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l ePz;lfhy>

kj;jpafhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfis tpl ,e;j ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ve;NeuKk; ghtidf;F

vLf;fg;gLk;. ,q;F ,Uf;Fk; nkhba+y; xd;whd mDg;gp %yk; nraypf;F mDg;gg;gLfpd;w

nray;fis nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyif fl;Lg;gLj;jy; re;ju;g;g Msp

(Context Switch) vdg;gLfpd;w nray;Kiwfspd; epiyia khw;Wjy; ,jd; %yk;

eilngWfpd;wJ. ,t; mDg;gp nkhba+y; mjp$ba NtfKilajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

mt;thW mika Ntz;baJ xt;nthU nray;Kiw khw;wkilAk; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk;

,t; mDg;gp nraw;gLtjd; fhuzj;jpdhyhFk;. xU nray;Kiw epWj;jg;gl;L NtnwhU

nray;Kiw Muk;gpg;gjw;F ,t; mDg;gp vLf;Fk; fhyk; ~~Gyg;glhj mDg;gp fhyk;

(Dispatcher Latency Time)|| vd miof;fg;gLk;.

21

Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6Nju;r;rp 6 ::::: fzpdpapd; KOmstpyhd nraw;ghLfisAk;

Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F ,af;f Kiwikfis

cgNahfpg;ghu;.

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 : fzpdpfspd; epidtfj;ijAk; cs;sPl;L ntspaPl;L

nraw;ghLfisAk; XU; ,af;f KiwikahdJ v;thW

epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij Muha;thu;.



• fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;F mbg;gilahFk; mq;fq;fisg; ngaupLthu;.

• fzpdpnahd;wpy; epidtf Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwia tpgupg;ghu;.

• cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L cgfuz Kfhikj;Jtj;ij td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs;

,af;fj;jpd; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpgupg;ghu;.

• xU nray; Ntfkhfr; nraw;gLjtw;fhf gy cghaq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jthu;.

• midj;J nraw;ghLfisAk; njhlu;r;rpahff; nfhz;L nry;tjw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l

nraw;ghLfis ,aq;F epiyapy; itj;Jf; nfhs;Sthu;.



• fzpdp epidtfk; gw;wpa khztu;fspd; Kd; mwpitf; Nfl;lwpaTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• fzpdpapd; nraw;ghl;bw;F mjd; epidtfk; mj;jpahtrpakhdJ vd.

• fzpdpf;F nghUj;jg;gLfpd;w rhjdq;fSk; fzpdpapd; epidtfj;ij cgNahfg;

gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd.

• Mifahy; fzpdp nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ mjd; epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; mtrpak;

vd.


• thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij ed;F guprPyid nra;aTk;.

• fPo;tUk; jiyg;Gfspy; ckJ FOtpw;Fupa jiyg;igg; gw;wp $ba ftdk; nrYj;jTk;.

• epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;

• epidtfj;ij cs;sf epidtfk;> ntspaf epidtfk; vdg; gpupj;jy;.

• cs;sf kw;Wk; ntspaf epidtfq;fspd; rpwg;gk;rq;fs;

• epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd; gpur;rpidfSk; thjq;fSk;.

• epidtf xJf;fPL nra;jy;.

• khw;wy;> gf;fkhf;fy;> milahskply;.

22

• cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fis Kfhikj;JtKk; td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs;

fSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;ig itj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;fhd cgfuz Xl;b

nkd;nghUl;fs; mtrpak; vd.

• ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lhfTk;> Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f

Maj;jkhfTk;.


fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk;

fzpdpapd; epidtfk; gpujhdkhf cs;sf kw;Wk; ntspaf vd ,U ghfq;fshfg;

gpupf;fyhk;.

cs;sf epidtfkhff; fUjg;gLtd:

1. gjptfq;fs; (Registers)

2. gJf;F epidtf kl;lk; I (Cache 1)

3. gJf;F epidtf kl;lk; II (Cache 2)

4. vOkhW mDfy; epidtfk; (R A M)

nghJthf Nehf;Fk;NghJ midj;J cs;sf epidtfq;fSk; fPo;tUk; rpwg;gk;rq;fsif;

nfhz;litahf ,Uf;Fk;.

1. Fiwe;j nfhs;ssT

2. kpff; Fiwe;j gpuNtr Neuk;

3. cau;e;j tpiy (tpiy igl; mbg;gilahff; fzpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.)

ntspaf epidtfkhdJ

1. kpFe;j nfhs;ssitf; nfhz;lJ.

2. kpff;$ba gpuNtr Neuk;

3. Fiwe;j tpiy

gjpTfis kl;Lk; ftdpf;Fk;NghJ mit Ntfkhf ,aq;Fk; jd;ik cilajhapDk;

nraypapd; cs;Ns cs;s cgfuzkhdjhy; mJ ngWkjp tha;e;jjhFk;. mjd;

nfhs;ssT Fiwe;jjhFk;. gpuNtr Neuk; Fiwe;jjhFk;.

tpiuT epidtf kl;lk; I kw;Wk; tpiuT epidtf kl;lk; 2 IAk; ,NjNghy;

gad;gLj;j KbAk;. ,y;iynadpd; ,jw;Ff; fPo;j; juj;jpy; cs;s vOkhW mDfy;

epidtfk; (R A M) gad;gLj;jg;gl KbAk;. ,jd; gpuNtr fhyk; $bajhFk;. nrytplf;$ba

tpiyapy; cs;sd nfhs;ssTk; $bajhFk;.

fzpdpapd; rfy nra;wghLfisAk; ftdj;jpw;nfhs;Sk;NghJ tpiy> gpuNtr fhyk;>

kw;Wk; nfhs;ssT rpwe;j Kiwapy; elhj;jg;gLtjw;F Nkw;gb epidtf tiffs;

,uz;ilAk; Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;jy; mtrpakhFk;.

23

epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhd gpur;rpidfSk;> thjq;fSk;epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhd gpur;rpidfSk;> thjq;fSk;epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhd gpur;rpidfSk;> thjq;fSk;epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhd gpur;rpidfSk;> thjq;fSk;epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;fhd gpur;rpidfSk;> thjq;fSk;

1.1.1.1.1. epidtf xJf;fPL epidtf xJf;fPL epidtf xJf;fPL epidtf xJf;fPL epidtf xJf;fPL (((((Memory Allocation)))))

fzpdp nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; ntspaPl;il ngWtjw;fhf mjw;Fupa

epuiy epidtfj;jpw;Fg; gpuNtrpj;J ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;fhf Kjd;ik epidtfj;jpd;

,lk;ngWkhdk; NghJkhdjhfTk;> Njitf;Nfw;g xJf;fg;gl;bUe;jYk; Ntz;Lk;.

2. gupkhw;wk;> ,izj;jy;> Jz;lhf;fk;

fzpdpapd; epidtfj;ij xJf;fPL nra;Ak; gpujhd nghWg;G fzpdpapd; ,af;f

KiwikiaNa rhUk;. fzpdpapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gyjug;gl;l epuy;fSf;fhf

Kjd;Kiwahf xJf;fPL nra;jy; ,yFthdjhFk;. Mdhy; fzpdpapDs; rpy nraw;ghLfs;

epiwNtwpaTld; my;yJ mfw;wpaNghJ NtW epuy;fs; kPz;Lk; epidtfj;jpw;F nrYj;jp

mtw;iw xJf;fPL nra;tJ kpfTk; f\;lkhdjhFk;. ,jw;F Kf;fpa fhuzk;

mr;nraw;ghLfs; epidtfj;jpypUe;J mfw;Wk;NghJ mjd; epidtf Jisnahd;W

cUthFk;. ,it vOkhwhf cWthtjhFk;. ,e; epidtfj;Jis cUthtjd;

gpur;rpidia xOq;fhf Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; (((((Garbage Collection)))))

rpy epuy;fspy; ,af;ftpay; juT (Dynamic Data) tbtikg;G gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,it

epidtff; fyq;fis cgNahfj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;; nfhs;sg;gLtJ Nghd;W ntspNaw;WjYk;

eilngWk;. njhopy;El;g uPjpapy; ftdpj;jhy; njhlu;e;Jk; Njitapy;yhj juTfis

ePf;Fk;NghJ mt;tplq;fspy; ntw;Wf; fyq;fs; cUthfpd;wd. vOkhwpahf cUthFk;

ntw;wplf; fyq;fis $l;lkhf xd;W Nru;j;jy; ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; cldbahf

elg;gjpy;iy. mt;thW mike;j ,lq;fs; Fg;ig gpuNjrq;fshf miof;fg;gLk;.

,f;Fg;igfs; mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ epidtfj;jpy; mdhtrpakhd ,l neUf;fb Vw;gLfpd;wJ.

,J epidT xJf;fPl;bw;F Neubahf ghjpg;gopf;Fk;. Mifahy; Fg;igfs; Xuplg;gLj;jy;

nra;a Ntz;b cs;sd.

ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; (Protecting Processes)

fzpdp epuy;fspy; ,Uf;ff;$ba FiwghLfspdhy; xU nraw;ghl;bw;fhf xJf;fPL

nra;ag;gl;l epidT fyq;fs; NtnwhU nraw;ghl;bd; %yk; Mf;fpukpj;jy; nra;ag;gLk;

re;ju;g;gq;fs; fhzyhk;.

,af;f Kiwikapd; %yk; ,t;thwhdit elf;fhjpUf;f toptFf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,af;f

Kiwikapd; ,r; rpwg;gk;rk; nraw;ghL ghJfhg;G vd miof;fg;gLk;.

kha epidtfk;kha epidtfk;kha epidtfk;kha epidtfk;kha epidtfk;

nghJthf nraypapw;F kha epidTf; fyq;fs; njupe;;jhYk; fzpdpapy; ngsjpfkhf

cs;sJ kpfTk; Fiwthd msNtahFk;. Mifahy; ju;f;f epidtf Kftupnahd;iw

ngsjpf epidtf Kftupahf khw;wpf;nfhs;Sk; tpjpKiwnahd;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

24

kha epidtj;jpd; %yk; ngupa mstpyhd Kftup ntw;wplk; (Address Space)

epu;khdpf;fg;gLk;. nraw;ghl;bd; MAw;fhyj;jpy; mJ nraw;gLtJ mijr; #oTs;s

mwpTWj;jy;fs; rpytw;iwf; nfhz;NlahFk;.

xU nraw;ghL gad;gLj;JtJ mjw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l juTfs; mlq;fpa rpy epidT

fyq;fisNaahFk;. Fiwe;j epidtf fyd;fSldhf ,Ue;jhYk; kpfr; nraw;wpwDld;

epidtfj;ij Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;JtJ gf;fkhf;fy; kw;Wk; Jz;lfj;jpw;F cWJizahf

mikAk;. kha epidtfk; rl;lfnkhd;wpd; Kftupf;F xg;ghd ngsjpf epidtfKs;s

rl;lfnkhd;wpw;F ,izg;gJ milahsg;gLj;jy; (Mapping) vdg;gLk;.

nraw;ghl;nlhd;wpd;NghJ nefpo;Tj; jd;ikia ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;fhf VjhtJ gf;f

nkhd;wpd; VjhtJ rl;lfnkhd;wpw;F milahsg;gLj;jy; nra;a KbAk;.

gf;fkhf;fYk; (gf;fkhf;fYk; (gf;fkhf;fYk; (gf;fkhf;fYk; (gf;fkhf;fYk; (Paging) milahskplYk; () milahskplYk; () milahskplYk; () milahskplYk; () milahskplYk; (Mapping)))))

ntspg;Gw Nrkpg;G epidtfq;fspy; cs;s juTfis fzpdpapd; gpujhd epidtj;jpw;F

nfhz;L nry;tjw;fhd gy topKiwfs; cs;sd. mjpy; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt

topKiwahf gf;fkhf;fk; fUjg;gLk;.

,jpy; ntspg;Gw Nrkpg;G Clfj;jpYs;s juT Kfhikj;Jtg; gLj;jf;$bathW

xNuasthd rpW ghfq;fshfg; gpupj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd ghfnkhd;iw gf;fk;

vd miof;fg;gLk;.gf;fq;fshf gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F juT my;yJ epuy; gFjpfs;

gpuNtrpg;gjhy; mq;f ,Uf;Fk; ,lg;gpukhdk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;af;$bajhf cs;sJ.

NkYk; ,it Gj;jfg; gf;fq;fs; NghYs;sgbahy; Njitahd gf;fj;ij khj;jpuk;

gpuNtrpf;fr; nra;a KbAkhAs;sJ.

cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk;cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk;cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk;cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk;cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk;

,Jtiu ehk; fye;jhNyhrpj;jJ epfo;T Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;jy; KiwfisNaahFk;.

kdpjd; fzpdpAld; ,ilj;njhlu;G Vw;gLj;jpf;nfhs;tJ cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;Lf; fUtpfspd;

%yNkahFk;.

fzpdpnahd;iw gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ mk;KiwikfspYs;s cghaq;fs; gytw;iw

xNuabahf gad;gLj;j Ntz;b tUk;. nraw;ghnlhd;wpd;NghJ fzpdpapd; gy

cgfuzq;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W ,ilr; nraw;ghl;by;

25

fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs;fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs;fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs;fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs;fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs;

,it fzpdp epuy;fshFk;. ,it ,af;fKiwik kw;Wk; td;nghUl;fSf;fpilNa

Vw;gLk; njhlu;ghlYf;F cjTk;.

cjhuzkhf mr;R ,ae;jpunkhd;iw fzpdpapw;F nghUj;jp ,af;Fk;NghJ mjw;Fupa

Xl;b nkd;nghUs; ,ilKfkhf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b

• rpW FOf; fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; toq;fr; nra;aTk;.


• Vida FOf;fspd; tpUj;jpAld;$ba MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspd; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;JtJld; mjid ntspf;nfhzUk;

tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd;NghJ fPo;tUk; nraw;ghLfs; eilngWk;.

• xJf;fPL nra;jy;

• gupkhw;wk;> ,izj;jy;> Jz;lhf;fk;

• mdhtrpakhdij mg;Gwg;ggLj;jy;

• nraw;ghLfis ghJfhj;jy;.

• gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F Gwk;ghf kha epidtfk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd.

• ghtidapd;NghJ gf;fkhf;fYk; milahsg;gLj;jYk; eilngWk; vd.

• cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fs; ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;

jg;gLk; vd.

• mjdhy; cgfuzq;fs; nkd;nghUs;fSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;ig itj;Jf;

nfhs;sg;gLk; vd.

• ntspthupahf fzpdpf;F nghUj;jg;gLk; cgfuzq;fs; xoq;fhf nraw;Gupa

cgfuz xl;b nkd;nghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd.

26

Nju;r;rp 7Nju;r;rp 7Nju;r;rp 7Nju;r;rp 7Nju;r;rp 7 ::::: fzpdp fl;lisj; njhFg;gpw;Fw;gLj;jp gpur;rpidfis

jPu;g;gjw;F fzpdp fl;lisj; njhFg;G nkhopfisg;

ghtpg;ghu;.

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 : fl;lisj; njhFg;Gfis mgptpUj;jp nra;tjpy;

fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;Gfisg; ghtpg;ghu;.



• fzpdp epuy;fis fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;Gfisg; ghtpg;ghu;.

• epuy;fis tpUj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ tupirKiw> vspaKiw> gy;Kiw Nghd;w kPs;

nray; Kiwfisg; ghtpg;ghu;.

• kPs; nray;fSf;fhf fzpj fl;Lg;ghl;il my;yJ ju;f;ff; fl;Lg;ghl;il Njitf;

Nfw;g njupT nra;thu;.

• xU gpur;rpidia jPu;f;Fk;NghJ gy tifahd jPu;TKiwfs; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ kpfTk;

nghUj;jkhd jPu;T Kiwia Nju;e;njLg;ghu;.

• gpur;rpid jPu;f;Fk;NghJ mjd; fl;likg;ig ,dq;fz;L mg; gpur;rpidia NkYk;

ruskhf;fpf;nfhz;L jPu;T fhz;ghu;.



• ngUksT khztu;fs; fye;Jnfhs;Sk; guPl;irnahd;wpd; Nju;r;rp ml;ltizia

jahu;nra;ag;gLk; Kiwapid khztu;fSld; fye;jhNyhrpf;fTk;.

• ,q;F eilngWk; juT nraw;ghl;il tpsf;Ftjw;fhf Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztDf;Fr;

re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhUWk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• guPl;irapd;NghJ xt;nthU ghlj;jpw;Fk; ngw;w Gs;spfis fzpdpapw;F cs;sPL

nra;J ngw;w Gs;spfSf;Fupa juj;ij ngwyhk; vd;gJ.

• Vw;fdNt jPu;khdpj;j Gs;sp guk;gy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;gJ.

• juj;jpidg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ Gs;spfis xg;gpl;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij

ngwg;gLk; vd;gJ.

• ,r;nraw;ghL midj;J khztu;fspdJk; Gs;spfis cs;sPL nra;J KbAk;

tiu kPs; nraw;ghL nra;ag;gLk; vd;gJ.


• ckf;F toq;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij ed;F ftdpf;fTk;.

27

• fPof;fhZk; gpur;rpidfspy; ckJ FOTf;F toq;fg;gl;Ls;s gpur;rpidiag; gw;wpa

$ba mtjhdk; nrYj;jTk;.

• VjhtJ xU ghlj;jpd; Gs;spfisg; ngw;Wf;nfhz;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij ntspaPL

nra;jy;. ,jw;fhf fPo;tUk; xOq;fikg;igg; gpd;gw;Wf.

• guPl;irapd;NghJ xt;nthU ghlj;jpw;Fk; ngw;w Gs;spfis fzpdpapw;F cs;sPL

nra;J ngw;w Gs;spfSf;Fupa juj;ij ngwyhk; vd;gJ.

• Vw;fdNt jPu;khdpj;j Gs;sp guk;gy; gad;gLj;j;gLk; vd;gJ.

• juj;jpidg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ Gs;spfis xg;gpl;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij

ngwg;gLk; vd;gJ.

• ,r;nraw;ghL midj;J khztu;fspdJk; Gs;spfis cs;sPL nra;J KbAk;

tiu kPs; nraw;ghL nra;ag;gLk; vd;gJ.

Gs;spfs; Gs;spfs; Gs;spfs; Gs;spfs; Gs;spfs; juk; juk; juk; juk; juk;

75 ,w;F Nky; A

65 ,ypUe;J 75 tiu B

55 ,ypUe;J 64 tiu C

45 ,ypUe;J 54 tiu S

0 ,ypUe;J 44 tiu W

• VjhtJ xU vz;zpd; 1 ,ypUe;J 12 tiu tha;g;ghl;L ml;ltiziaj;

jahupj;jy;.

• nghUl;fspd; tpiyfis cs;sPL nra;J mtw;wpd; $l;Lj;njhifia ngw;Wf;

nfhs;sy;. (nghUspd; tpiy ~0| Mf cs;sPL nra;jhy; NkYk; cs;sPL

nra;jy; KbtilAk;.)

• ckf;Ff; fpilf;fg; ngw;w gpur;rpidia ed;F tpsq;fp mjidj; jPu;g;gjw;Fupa

epuiy jahu; nra;f.

• ckJ FOtpd; tpilfis Cu;[pjg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf rpW FO fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;f.

• ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lhfTk;> gilg;ghw;wy; kpf;fjhfTk; KO tFg;gpw;Fk;

Kd;itg;gjw;Fj; jahuhfTk;.


vy;yh fzpdp epuy;fspYk; fPo;tUk; fl;Lg;ghl;L fl;likg;Gfspy; Vjhtnjhd;W my;yJ

mjw;F Nkw;gl;litfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

1. tupir Kiw (sequence)

2. njupT Kiw (selection)

3. kPs;; nray; (repetion)

28

fzpdp epuypy; cs;s tupirfis nraw;gLj;Jk; tupir Kiw fl;Lg;gl;L fl;likg;gpd;

%yk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.

1.1.1.1.1. tupir Kiwtupir Kiwtupir Kiwtupir Kiwtupir Kiw

epunyhd;wpy; cs;s tupfis xd;wpd; gpd; xd;whf jug;gl;Ls;s Kiwapy; nraw;gLj;jy;

~tupir Kiw| vd miof;fg;gLk;.

cjhuzk; 1:cjhuzk; 1:cjhuzk; 1:cjhuzk; 1:cjhuzk; 1:

celsius=float(input(“Enter Celsius temperature: “))

fahrenheit = 1.8 * celsius + 32

print “Fahrenheit = “, Fahrenheit

,e; epuypd; %yk; ntg;gj;ij nry;rpa]; ghifahfg; ngw;W mjid guidl; ghiff;F

khw;wp ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. ,jpy; cs;s fl;lisfs; midj;Jk; gbg;gbahf nraw;gLk;.


price=float(input(“Enter Price: “))

qty=int(input(“Enter Quantity: “))

amount=price*qty

print “Amount is “, amount

,e;epuypd; %yk; nghUspd; tpiy> nghUl;fspd; njhifapid thrpj;J mjw;fhf

nrYj;j Ntz;ba KOj; njhifia fzpj;jy; nra;ag;gLk;.

2.2.2.2.2. njupTKiwnjupTKiwnjupTKiwnjupTKiwnjupTKiw

,jpy; njupT nra;tjw;fhd khw;W ntspaPLfs; gy ,Ug;gpd; toq;fg;gl;l tiuaiwf;F

mika guPl;rpj;J xU khw;W ntspaPl;bid kl;Lk; njupT nra;J nfhs;sg;gLk;.

a). ruykhd njupTruykhd njupTruykhd njupTruykhd njupTruykhd njupT

,yf;fz tpjp (syntax)

if expression:

statement(s)

[else statements(s)]


a=int(input(“Enter a No: “))

if a%2==0:

print “Even number”

29

Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd;NghJ xU vz;izg; ngw;W mjid 2My; tFj;jhy; kPjp ~0|

Mapd; mjid ,ul;il vz; (Even Number) vd ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;.


a=int(input(“Enter a No: “))

if a%2==0:

print “Even number”

else:

print “Odd number”

,t; cjhuzj;jpy; xUvz;izg; ngw;W mjid 2My; tFj;jhy; kPjp ~0| Mapd; print

'''Even number' vd;Wk; ,y;yhtpl;lhy; print "Odd number" vd;Wk; ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;.

b). gy;njupTfs;gy;njupTfs;gy;njupTfs;gy;njupTfs;gy;njupTfs;

njhlupay;(syntax)

if expression:

statement(s)

elif expression2:

statement(s)

else:

statements(s)]


price=int(input(“Enter Price: “))

if price>1000:

discount=price*10/100

elif price>=500:


else:


net_price=price-discount

print “Net Price is “, net_price

,t;Tjhuzj;jpd; %yk; nghUnshd;wpd; tpiyiag; ngw;W mjw;Fupa fopT fzpf;fg;gLk;.

nghUspd; tpiy &. 1000/- ,w;F $Ljyhf ,Ue;jhy; 10% fopTk;> mjd; tpiy &. 500

,ypUe;J 1000/- tiuahapd; 5% fopTk; Vida tpiyfSf;F 2% fopTk; toq;fg;gLk;.

30


no1=int(input(“Enter first number: “))

no2=int(input(“Enter second number: “))

print “1. Add”

print “2. Substact”

print “3. Multiply”

print “4. Divide”

choice=int(input(“Enter Choice: “))

if choice==1:

print no1, “+” , no2, “=”, no1+no2

elif choice==2:

print no1, “-” , no2, “=”,no1-no2

elif choice==3:

print no1, “*” , no2, “=”,no1*no2

elif choice==4:

print no1, “/” , no2, “=”,no1/no2

else:

print “Invalid Entry!”

,t; cjhuzj;jpd; %yk; ,uz;L vz;fis ngw;W mjid xU nkDtpd; %yk;

njupe;njLf;fg;gLk; fzpj nraw;ghl;bw;F cupa tpilia ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;.

3.3.3.3.3. kPs; nray;kPs; nray;kPs; nray;kPs; nray;kPs; nray;

$w;nahd;iw my;yJ gy $w;Wf;fis kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;jy; ~gd;Kiw

nray;| vd miof;fg;gLk;.

a) For $w;W$w;W$w;W$w;W$w;W

xU $w;iw my;yJ gy $w;Wf;fis rpy Fwpg;gpl;l jlitfs; gd;Kiw nra;tjw;fhf

,e;j For $w;W gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jid ,uz;L re;ju;g;gq;fspy; khj;jpuk; gad;gLj;jg;

gLfpd;wJ.

i) Fwpg;gpl;l ,yf;f vy;iyf;Fs; (tiuaiwf;Fs;) gd;Kiw nrayhf;Fk;.

for var-name in range (stard-no,stop-no)

ii) juT gl;banyhd;Wld; gad;gLj;jy;

for list-item in list

statement(s)

31


for no in range(1, 5):

print (no)

,jpy; 1 ,ypUe;J 4 tiu ,yf;fq;fis ntspaPL nra;Ak;. ,t; cjhuzj;jpYs;s

range vd;gjd; %Yk; ngwg;gLk; Muk;g vz; 1 ,ypUe;J filrp vz; 5 tiu vz;is

ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. (,jpy; filrp vz; 5 Nruf;fg;glkhl;lhJ.)


numbers=[10,30,40,60,50]

for number in numbers:

print (number)

Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd; %yk; for $w;iw juT gl;banyhd;Wld; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jpy;

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l ,yf;fg;gl;bay; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.


for letter in “Computer”:

print (letter)

,t;Tjhuzk; gl;baYf;Fg; gjpyhf ))) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. mq;F cs;s vOj;Jf;fspd;

vz;zpf;ifapd; gb Fwpg;gpl;l mqk¾lrKh nra;ag;gLk;.

b) while $w;W$w;W$w;W$w;W$w;W

,f;$w;Wld; toq;fg;gl;l epge;jid cz;ikahf cs;stiu gz;Kiw nraw;ghL

eilngWk;.


num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))

while num>0:

if num%2==0:

count + = 1

num = int (input ('''Enter Number'))

print "Total Even numbers", count

Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpy; Kjypy; xU vz;izg; ngw;Wf;nfhz;L mJ Neu; ngWkhdk;

cs;sjhapd; num>0 epge;jid cz;ikahFk;. mt;thwhapd; while $w;wpDs; nry;Yk;.

mq;F mt; vz; ,ul;il vz;zh vd;gijg; guPl;rpj;Jg; ghu;f;Fk;. mt;thwhapd; count

,id 1 ,dhy; mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. mjw;Fg; gpd; ,d;DnkhU vz;izg;

ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;. toq;fg;gl;l epge;jid (no>0) cz;ikaw;wjhFk; tiu gd;Kiw

gLj;jg;gLk;. toq;fg;gl;l ,ul;il ,yf;fq;fs; midj;jpdJk; vz;zpf;ifia ,e;

epuy; %yk; ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;.

32

Kf;fpa nrhy; - Kf;fpa nrhy; - Kf;fpa nrhy; - Kf;fpa nrhy; - Kf;fpa nrhy; - break (Keyword)

for kw;Wk; while gd;Kiw nraypypUe;J kPs;tjw;fhf break vd;gij gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.


i=I

while 1

33

ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b

• rpW FOf; fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; toq;fr; nra;aTk;.


• Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fG+u;tkhd MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• fzpdp epuy;fSf;Fs; $w;Wf;fs; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; xOq;FKiwnahd;W

cz;L vd;gJ.

• ,jw;fhf xt;nthU fzpdp epuypYk; fl;Lg;ghl;L fl;likg;G xd;Nwh my;yJ

mjw;F NkyjpfkhfNth gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wnjd;gJ.

• fzpdp xd;wpy;. nfhLf;fg; gl;Ls;s $w;Wf;fs; xt;nthd;whf

xOq;FKiwf;fika nfhLf;fg;gl;l Kiwapy; nraw;gl itg;gJ tupirKiw

vdg;gLk; vd;gJ.

• njupTfis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf khw;W topfs; gy ,Uf;Fkplj;J toq;fg;gl;l

epge;jid guPl;rpf;fg;gl;L khw;W topnahd;iw njupT nra;jy; Nju;T vdg;gLk;

vd;gJ.

• $w;W xd;W my;yJ gy kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;jy; kPs;nray; vdg;gLk;

vd;gJ.

34

Nju;r;rp 8Nju;r;rp 8Nju;r;rp 8Nju;r;rp 8Nju;r;rp 8 ::::: tiyg;gq;fPL kw;Wk; juT> Fuy; vd;gtw;iw nraw;wpwDs;s tifapy; njhlu;ghly; nra;tjw;fhf gupkhw;wj;jpd

Jk; fzpdp gzpg;gpd;dy;/tiyg;gpd;dypdJk; gad;ghl;il

Muha;thu;.

Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 :Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 : tiyg;gpd;dYf;fhd xU Nkw;Nfhs; khjpupahf jpwe;j

Kiwikfs; ,ilj;njhlu;G js cld;gL newpKiw

tbtikg;igg; ghtpg;ghu;.



• jpwe;j Kiwik> %ba KiwikapdpilNa cs;s tpj;jpahrj;ij njspTgLj;Jthu;.

• jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhFg;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;ghL (OSI) newpKiwapd;

mLf;Ffisg; ngaupLthu;.

• jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhFg;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;gL newpKiwapd; Kf;fpa

flikfisAk;> nghWg;Gf;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;.

• tiyg;gpd;dypd; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhlu;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;ghL newpKiw

tbtikg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij ntspf;nfhzUthu;.



• jghy; epiya%lhf ed;gndhUtDf;F jghy; xd;iw mDg;Gtij tFg;gpd;

ftdj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L tuTk;.

• fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw

Nkw;nfhs;sTk;.

• jghy; epiya%lhf jghnyhd;iw mDg;Gk; nraw;ghL gy gFjpfshf eil

ngWk; vd.

• ,jpy; mDg;Ggtu;> ngWgtu;> mDg;Gk; Clfk; kw;Wk; nfhz;L nry;gtu;

cs;shu;fs; vd.

• fbjj;jpid vOJjy;> Kftupia vOjp ciwapypl;L jghy; ngl;bapy; NghLjy;>

jghy; nfhz;L nry;gtu; jghy; ngl;bapypUe;J jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F nfhLj;jy;>

jghy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J fbjj;ij vLj;J cupa jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F mDg;Gjy;

Nghd;w mDg;Ggtupd; gFjp NkypUe;J fPohf cg gFjpfshfg; gpupf;f KbAk;

vd.

• ngWgtu; kpf njhiytpy; cs;stuhapd; mf;fbjj;ij kj;jpa jghy; gupkhw;W

epiya%lhf mDg;g Ntz;Lk; vd.

• kj;jpa jghy; gupkhw;W epiya%lhf ngWgtupd; jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F jghiy

mDg;GtJ ngWtjw;F jghiy nfhLj;jy;> kw;Wk; ngw;wtu; jghiy jpwf;fTk;

thrpf;fTk; vd ngWgtupd; ghfKk; fPopUe;J Nkyhd %d;W gFjpfshf gpupf;f

KbAk; vd.

35

• xt;nthU cg gFjpf;Fk; rupahd egUf;Fj; jghiy nfhLg;gjpy; cupa flikAk;

nghWg;Gk; kw;Wk; cghaKk; cs;sd vd.

• vg;NghJk; Nky; cggFjp fPo; cg gFjpapd; Nritiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tJld;

fPo; cggFjpapd; mr;Nrit Nky; cg gFjpapw;F ngw;Wf; nfhLf;Fk; vd.

• ,NjNghyNt fzpdp tiyg;gpd;dypd;NghJk; gy mLf;FfSf;$lhd jpwe;j

Kiwik tbtikg;Gfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd.


• fPo;tUk; jiyaq;fq;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Fupa jiyg;igg; gw;wpf;$ba ftdk;

nrYj;jTk;.

• ru;tNjr ju epu;za epWtdk; (ISO) kw;Wk; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhlu;G

khjpup (ISO) mwpKfk;.

• OSI tbtikg;gpd; xt;nthU mLf;fpd; mbg;gil flikfs;> nghWg;Gf;fs; ghtpf;Fk;

cghaq;fs;.

• OSI tbtikg;gpd; xt;nthU mLf;fpw;Fupa mbg;gil newpKiwfs;.

• thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij KOikahfTk; ckJ jiyg;gpw;Fupa gFjpia Kf;fpakhfTk;

ftdpf;f.

• jpwe;j Kiwik kw;Wk; %ba Kiwikf;fpilapyhd mbg;gil NtWghLfisj;

NjLf.

• thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;jpy; cs;sitfSf;Fg; Gwk;ghf ckJ jiyg;igg; gw;wp ckf;Fj;

njupe;jtw;iw Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;f.

• ckJ fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fis $l;lhfTk; Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f

Maj;jkhfTk;.


ntsp cyfj;Jld; ,ize;J nrayhw;wf;$baJk; trjpfis nfhz;lJkhd

Kiwikapid jpwe;j Kiwiknad miof;fg;gLtJld; mt;thW ntsp cyFld;

,izahJ mjd; midj;J nray;ghLfSk; mk; KiwikapDs;NsNa elhj;Jk;

Kiwikapid %ba KiwiknadTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

tiyg;gpd;dypd;NghJ nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; td;nghUspd; tupaiuapNyNa (Specifica-

tion) jq;fpapuhJ VjhtJ xU tpj;jpahrkhd jsq;fspypUe;Jk; njhlu;ghlYf;F ,lk;

nfhLf;Fk; Kiwik tbtikg;G jpwe;j Kiwik vdf; fUjg;gLk;.

jpwe;j Kiwik tbtikg;G vz;zf;fUthdJ ru;tNjr tpahghuj;ij xU rpwe;j

topf;Ff; nfhz;LtUk;. ,izaj;jpNy xNu khjpupahd tpahghu Nehf;Fldhd

tpahghupfSk; kw;Wk; gadu;fs; jw;fhy myFfisf; nfhz;l fzpdp Kiwikfisg;

ghtpg;gu;.

36

Kw;fhyq;fspy; fzpdp njhlu;ghly; ghupa fzpdpfis ikakhff; nfhz;L mike;

jpUe;jd. mf;fzpdpAld; NtW cgfuzq;fs; gy ,izf;fg;gl;bUe;jd.

tiyg;gpd;dypd; nraw;ghLfs; mjpfupj;jjd; fhuzkhf mr; nraw;ghLfis gFjpfshfg;

gpupf;f Ntz;b Vw;gl;lJ.

mf;fhyj;jpy; fzpdp tiy Kiwikfspd; njhlu;ghly; td;nghUs; kw;Wk;

nkd;nghUl;fspd; tupaiuapNy jq;fpapUe;jJ NghyNt mur rhu;gpNyh (Arpanet) my;yJ

jdpahu; fzpdp tpw;gidahsu;fshy; gutyhd mstpy; tiyaikg;G nra;ag;gl;lJ.

,t; tiyfspy; njhlu;ghlypd; NghJ gpur;rpidfs; vOe;jjdhy; nghJ tiyj;

jug;gLj;jypd; Kf;fpaj;jJk; Vw;gl;ljdhy; mjw;F jPu;thf [dPthtpd; ru;tNjr juepu;za

epWtdj;jpd; %yk; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilKiw njhlu;G tbtikg;G mwpKfg;gLj;jg;

gl;lJ. xt;nthU tiyaikj;j fzpdp ,d;DnkhU tiyapd; fzpdpAld; njhlu;Ggl;L

jfty; gupkhw;Wk; Kiw ,r;ru;tNjr juepu;za epWtdj;jpd; tbtikg;gpy;

tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J VO mLf;FfSldhd xg;gPl;L tbtikg;G MFk;. ep[ cyf

tiyaikg;gpy; ,jid xg;gpLk; NghJ ,jpy; cs;s mLf;Ffs; rpytw;iw xd;whfr;

Nrfupj;J NtnwhU mLf;F jahu;nra;J nfhs;s KbAk;. ,J xU gupe;JiuNaad;wp

rl;lKiwikay;y vd;gij ftdpf;f Ntz;Lk;.

jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilKfj;njhlu;G tbtikg;gpd; VO mOf;Ffs; fPo; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.

7' gpuNahf mLf;F (Application Layer)

6' Kd;itg;G mLf;F (Presentation Layer)

5' njhlu; mLf;F (Session Layer)

4' Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F (Transport Layer)

3' gzpg;gpd;dy; mLf;F (Network Layer)

2' juT ,izg;G mLf;F (Data Link Layer)

1' ngsjpf epiy mLf;F (Physical Layer)

njhlu;ghlypd; NghJ Kiwikfs; ,uz;bw;fpilapy; ,ilKfj;njhlu;G cs;s mLf;Ffs;

cs;sd. mt; mLf;FfSf;Ff; nfhLf;fg;gl;l tpNrl flikAk; nghWg;Gk; cs;sd.

mjw;Fr; rpy cghaq;fSk; cs;sd.

mDg;Ggtu; KidmDg;Ggtu; KidmDg;Ggtu; KidmDg;Ggtu; KidmDg;Ggtu; Kid (Senders end)mDg;Ggtuhy; ngWgtUf;F juTfis mDg;Gk;NghJ mDg;Gk; KidapypUe;J juTfs;

Vu; tupirahfr; nry;Yk;. juTfs; Nky; mLf;fpypUe;J fPo; mLf;fpw;Fr; nry;Yk;.

(cjhuzk;: 7Mk; mLf;fpypUe;J Kjyhk; mLf;fpw;F)

37

7

6

5

4

3

2

1 ngsjpf mLf;F01000110

mDg;Ggtu; ngWgtu;

ngWgtu; KidngWgtu; KidngWgtu; KidngWgtu; KidngWgtu; K

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