apartheid 2013...‘’decolonizing’ apartheid-biko‘banned’1973 - by 1975: saso banned from...

ApartheidApartheid

CASE STUDIES: SOUTH AFRICA

‘Building/Decolonizing’Apartheid

1960s – 1980s

‘‘Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??

1960: ‘Golden Anniversary’ Union of SA

- British Prime Minister Harold McMillan delivered speech in South Africa in which he announced ‘the wind of change’ is sweepingthe African continent

- ‘whether we like it or not – growth of National Consciousness is a Political Fact – and we must accept it!’’

“Wind of Change”

speech by British Prime Minister, Harold MacMillian

Cape Town, 1960

[excerpt audio file – “Wind of Change” Add’l Rdgs]

Speech being delivered to SA Parliament, Cape Town, 3 February, 1960


- early part of speech emphasized very clearly how important economic relations with Britain were (investment, trade)

- acknowledged ‘material progress’ of nation: most industrialized country in continent

- articulated appreciation of role in WWII and contributions to ‘recovery’ of post-war economy


- but then went on to speak of his tour of the country: emphasizing that everywhere, people were aware of and talking about ‘change’elsewhere in the continent

- ‘welcoming’ SA to play leadership role in continent as ‘most industrialized’ of all countries


- President Hendrik Verwoerd: speech was insult – refused to even extend ‘thanks’

Response to MacMillian: [‘Winds of Change’, Add’l Rdgs]


- 1961: withdrew from Commonwealth to become ‘Republic’ of SA

- (would have been voted out: Canada outspoken against continued South African membership as were others)

[Video clip: CBC digital Archives 1.35min., Add’l Rdgs]

‘‘Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??Regional Context:

- Rhodesia feeling early African resistance: would declare UDI five years later

- Mozambique: ‘renewed colonialism’, continued use forced labour

- within two years: war of resistance launched by FRELIMO


- South Africa: argued it was being ‘isolated’by threat of Communist regimes on its borders

- had no choice but to defend itself: development of ‘Greater Apartheid’

‘‘Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??African Response: Passive Resistance campaign of 1950s became ‘Active’ 1960s:

- new resistance movement Pan African Congress split from ANC

- advocated for more active resistance

- focused on liberation of ‘blacks’ – by ‘blacks’

- influenced by Nkrumah’s Pan Africanism, America’s Civil Rights Movement

SharpevilleSharpeville1960 : watershed ‘Sharpeville’

- PAC organized nation-wide demonstrations against carrying passes

-ANC supported

Pass Burning

SharpevilleSharpevilleSharpeville (south of Johannesburg):

- police opened fire on demonstrators: at least 69 killed, 185 wounded

- most shot in the back as fled from scene

- generated work stoppages, demonstrations, protests throughout country rest of year

- attracted international attention: first real view ‘Apartheid in Action’

Images ofSharpville

[see also‘Eyewitness Accounts’

Add’l Rdgs.]

SharpevilleSharpeville1960s:

- culminated march 30,000 on Parliament

- government reacted by declaring ANC and PAC illegal

- arrested more than 18,000: among them most leadership of two political parties

SharpevilleSharpevilleInternational reaction:

- horror: saw images, news footage worldwide

- longer-term response: increased economic confidence in SA

- why? Convinced of government’s ability to control unrest

- decade saw increased investment, more white immigration

‘‘Winds of change?Winds of change?’’1960s (cont.):

- government escalated ‘group areas’, other racially based legislation to ‘separate development’

- established ‘homelands’ (Bantustans), each specific to a single ‘tribe’, each administered locally

- ‘Grand Apartheid’: homelands to become independent ‘countries’

‘‘Winds of change?Winds of change?’’Verwoerd :

‘Apartheid would bring equal rights to all –each in their own part of the country’

‘‘Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??1960s: ANC officially turned to violence

- formed armed wing ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe(MK – ‘Spear of the Nation): Sharpeville had proved there was no choice!

Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??Government Response:

- 1964: Mandela, other ANC leaders captured, tried for treason

- imprisoned on Robben Island

- ANC labeled Communist, Mandela ‘terrorist’:challenged former, admitted latter as ‘necessary’

- ‘stage’: publicizing ANC battle, ideology

Prison at Prison at RobbenRobben IslandIsland

Nelson Mandela spent 25 years here, 1964-1989

Prison at Prison at RobbenRobben IslandIsland

Nelson Mandela in Prison (n.d.)

‘‘Winds of ChangeWinds of Change’’??1960s: ‘battle’ against Apartheid in exile begins

-logistical problems, difficult to physically move ‘soldiers’ in and out of South Africa

- initial bases Zambia; after 1975 also in Mozambique

- sought financial support in West: difficultmany accepted profiling of ‘communist’

- still: ANC more organized, more successful than PAC

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheidTwo decades ‘forced decolonization’ began:

1970s:

- ‘homelands-to-independence’: failure

- more than 3 million Africans would have become ‘foreigners’ in South Africa

- rights only in ‘homeland’ with ‘tribal’ passport

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid

- Transkei, Venda ‘accepted’: not recognized outside South Africa, Israel

- level international investment industry (e.g. Bata shoes) still below desired level

- shortages of labour in cities still problem

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1970s: Key Changes

- emergence first generation to pass through ‘Bantu Education’ (from 1950s/60s)

- not accepting life of servitude: formed SASO

- leader Stephen Biko: articulated powerful ideology ‘Black Consciousness’

- ‘black’ included Africans, Asians, Coloureds


“…Change the name and the story applies to you. The dignity of the Black Man has been restored in Mozambique, and so shall it be here. Black must rule. We shall drive them [‘whites’] to the sea]. Long live Azania. Revolution!! [Samora] Machelwill help! Away with Vorster Ban! We are for Afro black Power!! Viva Frelimo. Power !!! We shall overcome.”[Price, Aparthed State in Crisis, 52]

[Audio Clip: interview with Steve Biko, BBC Story of Africa]


- Biko ‘banned’ 1973

- by 1975: SASO banned from most campuses

- 1975-6: Biko arrested, tried

- used trial to spread message within South Africa and internationally: ‘Africans’ need to reject idea that all that is good, is ‘white’

- Need psychological liberation

BikoBiko and Black Consciousnessand Black Consciousness“I think basically Black Consciousness refers itself to

the black man and to his situation, and I think the black man is subject to two forces in this country.

He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalized machinery, through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy work conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him and secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself, precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good…”[Steve Biko, in court, September 1974; BBC Story of Africa]


- Death in detention 1977 sparked outrage around world

- a new generation was willing to die for freedom: Steve Biko was one of many

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid

BikoBiko and Black Consciousnessand Black Consciousness

BC poster (above)Biko’s Grave(right)

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1976 SOWETO:

- government reinforced necessity of learning/instructing in Afrikaans in all schools

- many had been teaching in English, now forced to add Afrikaans: problem for teachers

- Students: Afrikaans seen as language of ‘oppressors’ (and it was difficult)

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1976 SOWETO:

- in township SOWETO, hundreds school children protested

- fired on by police, several deaths

- reactions from other students, township residents: government buildings burned

[Listen to Audio Clip ‘SOWETO’ 1976, Add’l Rdgs ]

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid- protests spread throughout country: tear-gas, bullets in response

- world looking on

- government response ‘why do they walk with upraised fists? Surely this is a sign of the Communist Party!’[listen to Audio clip]

- 174 killed at SOWETO, hundreds more over following months: government did not back down


- parents became involved as they had not been since passive resistance 1950s

- impact began to be felt on SA stock-market

- perhaps Apartheid could be ‘decolonized’after all!

Spirit of the 1970s: studentsSpirit of the 1970s: students

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1980s:

- dominated by rise of ‘black-on-black’violence

- ANC/PAC still in exile

- 1983: emergence United Democratic Front --umbrella organization representing community organizations, some national groups

- 1985: emergence Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU)

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheidInkatha: politicization Zulu

- ‘cultural’ society, largest single ethnic group

- leader: Mangosothu Buthelezi

- previously ANC (youth league): rejected decision to use violence in 1960s

- 1970s, 80s: strategy -- work with government, increase power for Africans

- but rejected independence for Zululand

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1980s: escalation of violence

-ANC ‘supporters’ (most of UDF) against Inkatha

- former accused latter of ‘government support’, weakening resistance movemen

t- targeted ethnic violence in townships: Zulu migrants in hostels, ‘necklacing’ of informers

- culture of violence, intimidation, fear

‘’‘’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheidGovernment lost control:

- some argue deliberately ‘turned state over’to police: practiced indiscriminate raids, rape

- and to Inkatha/Zulu: accusations government funding, inciting Inkathaviolence

- although Inkatha denied accusations, ANC stocking arms for major urban warfare


1986: Government declared State of Emergency

- country demonstratively ungovernable

- 1987: secret talks began between government and Mandela

- Buthelezi feared power sharing ‘deal’ that would exclude him: violence escalated


Opposition Becomes Public, including Media Censorship

1980s1980s

“State of…

EMERGENCY!”

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid‘‘Wider context:

- increasingly effective international demands for divestment, boycotting South African goods

- economy beginning to ‘hurt’

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid‘‘

- involvement in wars Angola(conscripted white South

Africans), and Mozambique (backingRENAMO): expensive!!

- doubts that military service across borders really about protecting society from Communism surfacing among whites-- very publicly!

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheid1989 ‘the wall came down’ (Berlin):

- symbolic and real end to ‘communist’USSR

- SA’s pretense of ‘protecting democracy’against communist southern Africaundermined

- led to: Pres. De Klerk’s famous 1990 ‘State of the Union’ address[see ‘De Klerk Speech’, Add’l Rdgs]

’’DecolonizingDecolonizing’’ ApartheidApartheidStunned the Nation (no one forewarned):

- announced ‘de-banning’ ANC and other political groups currently illegal

- announced need to ‘take lead in developing Africa, working with African leaders’(almost echoed MacMillan’s 1960 ‘Wind of Change’ speech)

- Most Unexpected and Controversial: Announced imminent freeing Nelson Mandela!

What was once unthinkable…

Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, Robben Island

(above)

Nelson Mandela & Walter Sisulu, together again in

Freedom (below)[

Jurgen Schadeberg.NelsonMandela and the rise of the

ANC. (London) 187.

’’Free At LastFree At Last’’

Feb.11, 1990 [see ‘Mandela’s Address, Add’l Rdgs]

Celebrating Mandela’s Freedom

Hillbrough, Johannesburg [Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 187]

Orlando Stadium, Soweto [Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 184].

Youth and the Future

ANC supporters outside Victor Verster prison waiting to greet Nelson Mandela[ Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 189.]

Post ApartheidPost Apartheid

The following slides/information are for your own interest, they will NOT be included in the information you are responsible for on the Final Examination.

Post-Apartheid

“The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue.”

Called for:- freeing all, not only some, political prisoners-end to white monopoly political power - fundamental restructuring political, economic systems -addressing inequalities of apartheid,-full democracy

Post-Apartheid1992:

- negotiated peace arranged (sticking point had been disarmament of ANC!)

[de Klerk (left); Mandela (right)]

1990--1994:

Negotiations continued with the government, leading towards democratic elections:

Key pillars of Apartheid removed:- Land Acts of 1913 and 1936 - Group Areas Act of 1950- Population Registration Act of 1950

1990--1994:

Transition Period:

- Violent conflict increased between ANC , Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP – now self-presenting as viable political opponent)- party continued to receive military, logistical, financial support from former apartheid regimeInter-group conflict daily in townships, on commuter trains-more than 15,000 people died

- death toll was more than twice the entire death toll recorded since 1950

Inkatha Freedom Party

Revolution of Goodwill“The IFP has committed itself to becoming the champion of a revolution of goodwill, which spreads throughout the building blocks of our society promoting individual and collective dedication to our families, work places and communities.

The revolution is about building and reconstructing a new country. It is about creating a constant liaison between the government and its communities. And calls for sacrifices, social discipline and hard work."

Dr. MangosuthuButilezi, President of the IFP

1990--1994: political violence

April 1993: Chris Hani assassinated

Former Sec.-Gen. South African Communist Party Umkonto we Sizwe

19941994--19951995

May 10, 1994: first ever democratic elections

- Nelson Mandela ‘terrorist’, now President- Government of National Unity (GNU)- ministers ANC, IFP (Inkatha Freedom Party, Nationalist Party

First Democratic Election, 1994

Queue of Voters (Argus, Cape Town) 1994

Patricia Schonstein Pinnock.Saturday in Africa: living history through poetry.(Cape Town: Africa Sun Press, 1996) 24.

19941994--19951995

Nov 1995: Local Government Elections

- ANC victory [67%] - 40% local seats filled by proportional representation- 30% by whites-only towns- 30% by black townships.

1996

June 1996: - Municipal elections in KwaZulu-Natal - Inkatha FP won 35% (mainly regional councils)

- ANC took 32% (mainly towns) - turnout was only 44%: people living in fear and increasingly, disillusionment

PostPost--Apartheid South AfricaApartheid South Africa

Even as violence continued local levels, first challenge for new government: how to move ‘past’atrocities of Apartheid, violence of 1980s, ethnic as well as racial hatred?

[same problem faced same time in neighbouringMozambique]

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

[based on the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, No. 34]

1995 Establishment of TRC

Led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, TRC began proceedings :

"... a commission is a necessary exercise to enable South Africans to come to terms with their past on a morally accepted basis and to advance the cause of reconciliation.”

[Mr Dullah Omar, former Minister of Justice]

Truth and ReconciliationTruth and Reconciliation

“Because of this nation's unbelievable history, it is absolutely vital for us to try to come to grips with what happened --to try to deal with the past rather than be trapped by it.

As individuals and as a nation, we need accountability, transformation, healing.

We need full disclosure, and truth against the lies of the past. …

[Alex Boraine, vice-chair under Bishop Desmond Tutu]


…The evils of apartheid affected us all.

Most White South Africans participated in it, at least indirectly, simply by benefiting from its inequities.

So all of us, White and Black, need to express our sorrow, regret, and forgiveness. ”

[Alex Boraine, vice-chair under Bishop Desmond Tutu]


TRC conducted intensive investigations:

-1995-8: heard testimonies of rapes, murders, massacres, all forms human rights abuses committed under apartheid (by government, military, police, ANC and IFP)- 80% of applicants for disclosure, amnesty were Black citizens- few white state security personnel applied

TRC Report, Nov.1998

JOHANNESBURG, Nov 6 (IPS) -It is still unclear whether prosecutions will follow the work of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).

“High on the list of those found guilty of gross human rights violations are former apartheid-era president P.W. Botha, ruling African National Congress's Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, leader of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) MangosuthuButhelezi, and the controversial right wing leader Eugene Terreblanche. …


… They all did not apply for amnesty under the provisions of the TRC. Those who did not seek amnesty and are guilty of gross human rights violations will face legal action.

It is, however, politically inconceivable for the mavericks of South African politics to face the law.”

(Report released 21 March 2003)


- while cathartic for many, ultimately question raised: what did TRC really accomplish?- if no punishment administered, often no regret expressed (‘operating under orders…’), was simply listening to ‘truths’of Apartheid really meaningful route to reconciliation?

[see full TRC website, in ‘Resources’]

19991999--20002000

Second elections 1999-2000:

- Mandela stepped down- ANC took 66.35% national vote -Thabo Mbeki new President

In acceptance speech acknowledged:- “millions of our people expect that we will move faster in pursuit of the goal of a better life for all. …

19991999--20002000

Many of the problems we face require the greatest possible unity among ourselves as South Africans so that we use our massed strength for the benefit of the country as a whole.

And yet all of us are aware that our country continues to be divided along racial and other lines.

19991999--20002000

The new Presidency will have to focus on all these matters, in the interests of the country as a whole. ”

"I was born into the struggle…" .He was born in Transkei, 1942.

From 1989, headed ANC Dept. of International Affairs

[see Biography: http://www.anc.org.za/ancindex.html]

2121stst Century Apartheid LegaciesCentury Apartheid Legacies

‘Racialized Thinking’:

- conceptualizing ‘life’ in terms of ‘race’ (as defined by Apartheid since 1948) shaped between two and three generations- determination of government to ‘reject’ race in ‘rainbow nation’ leads to bizarre situations: social problems created by Apartheid are by definition ‘racially determined’ but today, cannot formulate any social issue in terms of race- even language of society constricted: what replaces ‘racial distinctions’ in communication?


‘Black Expectations’:

- older generation remembers 1955 ‘Freedom Charter’: promised economic equality, ‘socialist’principles- younger generation remembers struggle 1970s, 1980s: educational, employment, housing equality- not possible in short term


‘Black Expectations’:- celebrating appearance small elite of Black Africans: sitting on industrial boards, acquiring ‘voice’, influence- local level entrepreneurial talent flourishing- clear emergence of ‘middle class’- seen as beginnings of gradual ‘equalizing’ races economically, socially


‘Lost Generation’:- those who can benefit (in short run) few- whole generation (post-SOWETO) lacking in education, training- 1980s ‘schools’ were streets of townships- also need to incorporate those who lived abroad, trained as soldiers- not sure of place in SA- two different generations, both alienated from ‘normal’ society: grew up in culture of violence


Consequences of ‘affirmative action’: - even as many Black Africans think progress too slow, rewards too few- others see policy of ‘affirmative action’ in employment, education, housing as ‘reverse racism’- currently one of largest problems facing country: poor whites- while thousands Afrikaners fled, many those who stayed (lacked resources to leave) now reduced to absolute poverty


Consequences of ‘affirmative action’: - lost jobs to Black Africans- competing viciously for positions post-secondary education (‘quota system’)- living in squalor not known since 1930s- like that situation: politicizing ‘the right’- re-emergence of White Right


“Poor Whites”(Afrikaners)


‘Xenophobia’ (linked to long-standing labourmigration and current ‘relative’ economic stability SA vis-à-vis rest of Africa)- violent attacks on ‘foreigners’: Somali shopkeepers, Mozambican workers, Zimbabwean refugees (2008-2009) – some are legal, most are not- 2010 world cup: ‘fear’ that Africans who came for Cup would stay- threatened attacks on ‘foreign’ Africans following event: many ‘normal’ migrants, foreign residents fled in fear

South Africa & MozambiqueSouth Africa & Mozambique

Mozambique(right),South Africa(below) …

…. shared borders, shared histories,shared futures!

ZIMBABWE


Zimbabweanscross illegallyinto South Africadaily…

Agents specializein smugglingthem across fencedborder


‘… or they risk crocodiles, danger, crossing Limpopo River’


Government/Police crack down on ‘illegals’’


Local South African Blacks attack ‘foreigners’


‘Foreign’ township in flames: “Go Home!”


- those who supported Black Struggle through Apartheid resent fact they’re not welcome in South Africa (especially Zimbabweans, Nigerians)

- irony: South African blacks defining themselves, country in terms of exclusivity

- even as government draws upon Pan-African rhetoric to situate itself as ‘leader’ of African Development


Essential Problem:- two generations grew up under Apartheid- ‘youth’ of 1970s part of violence 1980s- many know nothing but violence, hatred: have little, no education/training- unemployed and unemployable: expecting ‘miracles’ from economy, government- economy needs people fleeing country (whites, coloureds)


Vicious circle in which legacy Apartheid continues to shape society!

That said: in context of economic, political and social crises (if not collapse) many other sub-Saharan African countries, South Africa still seen as ‘land of opportunity’- issues of ‘foreigners’ (legal and illegal) will continue to plague society- many ways, South Africa ‘microcosm’ of challenges of post-colonial Africa

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