2012-2013 literary terms to know revised in rtf

7/29/2019 2012-2013 Literary Terms to Know Revised in RTF

1/35

A Packet of

Literary Terms

Revised June 2012

__________________


2/35

Literary Terms to Know Updated June 2012Note: The following are compiled from a vast array of book and internet sources. The compiler of this list

takes no credit for the definitions, examples, etc. All she did was gather them into one packet.

abstract: existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence; not attached toanything specific or concrete; for this reason, abstract terms or ideas are sometimes difficult to understand, and

the word abstract is sometimes applied to difficult or dense works. concrete detail: descriptive, physical.

Active/Passive Voice: In active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action denoted by the verb:The goat ate the locust. In a passive voice sentence, the subject is acted upon: The locust was eaten by thegoat. Write in active voice for more powerful sentences.

Aesthetic: Relating to beauty or to a branch of philosophy concerned with art, beauty, and taste.

Allegory: A work of literature in which characters and places stand for abstract qualities, usually virtues andvices. Sometimes the characters and places in an allegory have names that describe what they symbolize, suchas a character called Mr. Mean and a place called Sea of Troubles. A form of extended metaphor in which

objects, people, and actions in a narrative are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The

purpose of an allegory is to teach a moral lesson.Examples of allegory include:

Pilgrims Progressby John Bunyan in which Vanity Fair representsthe world, and the Celestial City symbolizes Heaven.

Watership Downby Richard Adams in which the various warrens canrepresent different political systems.

Alliteration. The recurrence of initial consonant sounds. The repetition may sometimes be limited to only twowords.

Ah, what a delicious day!

Yes, I have read that little bundle of pernicious prose.

Done well, alliteration is a satisfying sensation. P eter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Allusion. A causal and brief reference to a famous historical or literary figure or event: You must borrow me Gargantua's mouth first. 'Tis a word too great for any mouth of this age's size.

--Shakespeare

If you take his parking place, you can expect World War II all over again.

Plan ahead: it wasn't raining when Noah built the ark. --Richard CushingNotice in these examples that the allusions are to very well known characters or events, not to obscure ones.

(The best sources for allusions are literature, history, Greek myth, and the Bible.) Note also that the reference

serves to explain or clarify or enhance whatever subject is under discussion, without sidetracking the reader.

Allusion can be wonderfully attractive in your writing because it can introduce a variety and energy into anotherwise limited discussion (an exciting historical adventure rises suddenly in the middle of a discussion of

chemicals or some abstract argument), and it can please the reader by reminding him of a pertinent story orfigure with which he is familiar, thus helping (like analogy) to explain something difficult. The instantaneous

pause and reflection on the analogy refreshes and strengthens the reader's mind.

Ambiguity: A quality that allows readers to interpret a story or other work in more than one way. Ambiguityis not something that can be cleared up by careful interpretation. Sometimes, writers deliberately make storiesambiguous to reinforce the idea that life itself is often ambiguous and can be interpreted in more than one way.


3/35

Anachronism: The misplacement of a person, occurrence, custom, or idea in time; also sometimes refers toan individual or thing that is incorrectly placed in time. Think rotary phones in the 21st century.

Anadiplosis. The repetition of the last word (or phrase) from the previous line, clause, or sentence at thebeginning of the next. Often combined with climax. Example: "The laughter had to be gross or it would turn to

sobs, and to sob would be to realize, and to realize would be to despair." (Howard Griffin, Black Like Me)

Analogy. The comparison of two things, which are alike in several respects, for the purpose of explaining or

clarifying some unfamiliar or difficult idea or object by showing how the idea or object is similar to somefamiliar one. While simile and analogy often overlap, the simile is generally a more artistic likening, donebriefly for effect and emphasis, while analogy serves the more practical purpose of explaining a thought process

or a line of reasoning or the abstract in terms of the concrete, and may therefore be more extended.

For answers successfully arrived at are solutions to difficulties previously discussed, and one cannotuntie a knot if he is ignorant of it. --Aristotle

You may abuse a tragedy, though you cannot write one. You may scold a carpenter who has made youa bad table, though you cannot make a table. It is not your trade to make tables. --Samuel Johnson

And hearing this, Jesus said to them, "It is not those who are healthy who need a physician, but thosewho are sick; I did not come to call the righteous, but sinners." --Mark 2:17

He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance produces, as to him

that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justly be imputed the calamities of shipwrecks.--Samuel Johnson

Notice in these examples that the analogy is used to establish the pattern of reasoning by using a familiar or less

abstract argument which the reader can understand easily and probably agree with. Some analogies simply offeran explanation for clarification rather than a substitute argument:

Knowledge always desires increase: it is like fire, which must first be kindled by some external agent,

but which will afterwards propagate itself. --Samuel Johnson

The beginning of all evil temptations is inconstancy of mind, and too little trust in God. For as a shipwithout a guide is driven hither and thither with every storm, so an unstable man, that anon leaveth his

good purpose in God, is diversely tempted. The fire proveth gold, and temptation proveth the righteous

man. --Thomas a Kempis

When the matter is complex and the analogy particularly useful for explaining it, the analogy can be extendedinto a rather long, multiple-point comparison:

The body is a unit, though it is made up of many parts; and though all its parts are many, they form onebody. So it is with Christ. [And so forth, to the end of the chapter.] --1 Cor. 12:12 (NIV)

The importance of simile and analogy for teaching and writing cannot be overemphasized. To impress this upon

you better, I would like to step aside a moment and offer two persuasive quotations:

The country parson is full of all knowledge. They say, it is an ill mason that refuseth any stone: and there is noknowledge, but, in a skillful hand, serves either positively as it is, or else to illustrate some other knowledge. He

condescends even to the knowledge of tillage, and pastorage, and makes great use of them in teaching, because

people by what they understand are best led to what they understand not. --George HerbertTo illustrate one thing by its resemblance to another has been always the most popular and efficacious art of

instruction. There is indeed no other method of teaching that of which anyone is ignorant but by means ofsomething already known; and a mind so enlarged by contemplation and enquiry that it has always manyobjects within its view will seldom be long without some near and familiar image through which an easy

transition may be made to truths more distant and obscure. --Samuel Johnson

Analysis: Separating something into the components or elements of which it is made; also skilled in usinganalysis, especially in reasoning or thinking.

Anaphora. The repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, orsentences, commonly in conjunction with climax and with parallelism:
http://rhetoric.byu.edu/figures/C/climax.htmhttp://rhetoric.byu.edu/figures/C/climax.htm


4/35

To think on death is misery,/ To think on life it is a vanity,/ To think on the world verily it is,/ To think

that here man hath no perfect bliss. --Peacham

In books I find the dead as if they were alive; in books I foresee things to come; in books warlike affairs

are set forth; from books come the forth laws of peace. --Richard de Bury

Finally, we must consider what pleasantness of teaching there is in books, how easy, how secret! Howsafely we lay bare the poverty of human ignorance to books without feeling any shame! --Ibid.

The wish of the genuine painter must be more extensive: instead of endeavoring to amuse mankind with

the minute neatness of his imitations, he must endeavor to improve them by the grandeur of his ideas;

instead of seeking praise, by deceiving the superficial sense of the spectator, he must strive for fame bycaptivating the imagination. --Sir Joshua Reynolds

Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing what they would find at the

top of the hill, not knowing that they were so near to Disneyland. They are the entertainment of minds unfurnished with ideas, and therefore easily susceptible of

impressions; not fixed by principles, and therefore easily following the current of fancy; not informed by

experience, and consequently open to every false suggestion and partial account. --Samuel JohnsonAnaphora can be used with questions, negations, hypotheses, conclusions, and subordinating conjunctions,

although care must be taken not to become affected or to sound rhetorical and bombastic. Consider these

selections:

Will he read the book? Will he learn what it has to teach him? Will he live according to what he has

learned? Not time, not money, not laws, but willing diligence will get this done.

If we can get the lantern lit, if we can find the main cave, and if we can see the stalagmites, I'll show youthe one with the bat skeleton in it.

Adverbs and prepositions can be used for anaphora, too:

They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry words, without clothes or money.--Richard de Bury

She stroked her kitty cat very softly, very slowly, very smoothly.

Anecdote: The brief narration of a single event or incident; good way to begin an essay.

Antagonist- A person or force that opposes the protagonist (See Protagonist.), who is the central characterin fiction. The antagonist may be an individual, a group of people, a force of nature, or a social force such as

prejudice.

Antecedent: In grammar, a substantive word, phrase, or clause whose denotation is referred to by a pronoun.In logic, the conditional element in a proposition. The noun that a pronoun refers to in a text.

Anthropomorphism: The application of human qualities to inanimate objects, animals and other life forms,and natural phenomena, such as to cars or hurricanes.

Antihero: A protagonist who is not admirable or who challenges our notions of what should be considered

admirable. The bad guy.

Antimetabole. Figure of emphasis in which the words in one phrase or clause are replicated, exactly orclosely, in reverse grammatical order in the next phrase or clause; an inverted order of repeated words inadjacent phrases or clauses (A-B, B-A). Example: "We do not stop playing because we grow old; wegrow old because we stop playing." -- Benjamin Franklin and "I don't throw darts at balloons. Ithrow balloons at darts." - Joe Montana (on his throwing velocity)

Antithesis. Establishing a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together orjuxtaposing them, often in parallel structure or balanced sentences. Human beings are inveterate systematizers


5/35

and categorizers, so the mind has a natural love for antithesis, which creates a definite and systematic

relationship between ideas:

To err is human; to forgive, divine. --Alexander Pope

I want you to be wise in what is good, and innocent in what is evil. --Romans 16:19b

That short and easy trip made a lasting and profound change in Harold's outlook.

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong

Marriage has many pains, but celibacy has no pleasures. --Samuel Johnson

Antithesis convey some sense of complexity in a person or idea by admitting opposite or nearly opposite truths:

Though surprising, it is true; though frightening at first, it is really harmless. If we try, we might succeed; if we do not try, we cannot succeed.

Success makes men proud; failure makes them wise.Antithesis, because of its close juxtaposition and intentional contrast of two terms or ideas, is also very useful

for making relatively fine distinctions or for clarifying differences which might be otherwise overlooked by a

careless thinker or casual reader:

In order that all men may be taught to speak truth, it is necessary that all likewise should learn to hear it.

--Samuel Johnson

The scribes and Pharisees sit on Moses' seat; so practice and observe whatever they tell you, but notwhat they do; for they preach, but do not practice. --Matt. 23:2-3 (RSV)

I agree that it is legal, but my question was, Is it moral? The advertisement indeed says that these shoes are the best, but it means that they are equal; for in

advertising "best" is a parity claim and only "better" indicates superiority.Note also that short phrases can be made antithetical:

Every man who proposes to grow eminent by learning should carry in his mind, at once, the difficulty of

excellence and the force of industry; and remember that fame is not conferred but as the recompense oflabor, and that labor, vigorously continued, has not often failed of its reward. --Samuel Johnson

Aphorism: A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation.Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard's Almanac" contains numerous examples, one of which is Drive thybusiness; let it not drive thee. which means that one should not allow the demands of business to take

control of one's moral or worldly commitments.

Apophasis. The rejection of several reasons why a thing should or should not be done and affirming a singleone, considered most valid. Apophasis was originally and more broadly a method oflogical reasoning or

argumentby denial - a way of describing what something is by explaining what it is not, or a process-of-

elimination way of talking about something by talking about what it is not.

A useful inductive technique when given a limited universe of possibilities, the exclusion of all but the one

remaining is affirmation through negation. The familiar guessing-game ofTwenty Questions is an example of

apophatic inquiry.

Apostrophe. The direct address of a person or personified thing, either present or absent. Its most common

purpose in prose is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back. Thus anapostrophe often interrupts the discussion:

O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing, that cleanseth its possessorfrom all venom! O heavenly gift of the divine bounty, descending from the Father of lights, that thou

mayest exalt the rational soul to the very heavens! Thou art the celestial nourishment of the intellect. . . .

--Richard de Bury

With how sad steps, O Moon, thou climb'st the skies! --Sidney

O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve

you faithfully! --Ibid.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_argumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_Questionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_argumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_Questions


6/35

O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those sent to her! How often I wanted

to gather your children together, just as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you would nothave it! --Luke 13:34 (NASB)

Apostrophe does not appear very often in argumentative writing because formal argument is by its nature intel-

lectual and restrained rather than emotional; but under the right circumstances, an apostrophe could be useful:

But all such reasons notwithstanding, dear reader, does not the cost in lives persuade you by itself that

we must do something immediately about the situation?

Appositive: A noun ornoun phrase that identifies or renames another noun--is a handy way of adding detailsto a sentence. The term comes from the Latin word for "placing close by," and an appositive usually appears

right after the word or phrase that it renames. Example: Francis, [1]the head jailer, [2]a fat Dravidianin a white drill suit and gold spectacles, waved his black hand.

Archetype: A term used to describe universal symbols that evoke deep and sometimes unconsciousresponses in a reader. In literature, characters, images, and themes that symbolically embody universal

meanings and basic human experiences, regardless of when or where they live, are considered archetypes.Common literary archetypes include stories of quests, initiations, scapegoats, descents to the underworld, and

ascents to heaven. See also mythological criticism.

Argument: The expression of a position or claim supported by reasons; also a discourse intended to persuadeor convince.

Assonance. The use of similar vowel sounds repeated in successive or proximate words containing differentconsonants: "A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid." --Matthew 5:14b (KJV) or "Let your light so shine before

men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven." --Matthew 5:16 (KJV)

Asyndeton: A sentence that leaves out conjunctions: I want pancakes, waffles, eggs, bacon.

Audience: the readers of a piece of literature or text. One of the three points on which an essay rests.

Author's Purpose- A writer's reasons for creating a literary work; these may includeentertaining, informing, or persuading an audience. Sometimes an author's purpose may just be to express a

personal opinion or convey a sense impression. For example, Voltaire's main purpose in writing Candide wasto satirize the widely held 18th century philosophical view that "this is the best of all possible worlds."

Authority, Appeal to: In an argument, a person cited because his or her opinion carries special weight orcredibility.

Autobiography: The nonfictional story of a person's life, told by that person.

Bildungsroman: A novel abut the education or psychological growth of the protagonist (or main character).Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison;Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte;The Catcher in the Ryeby J.D.

Salinger.

Biography: The story of a person's life written by someone other than the subject of the work. KatherineDrinker Bowen's "Yankee from Olympus" which details the life and work of the great jurist Oliver WendellHolmes, Jr. is an example. A biographical work is supposed to be rigorously factual. However, since the

biographer may by biased for or against the subject of the biography, critics, and sometimes the subject of the

biography himself or herself, may come forward to challenge the trustworthiness of the material.

Biographical approach:: The use of a writer's life experiences to help analyze and respond to a text.Writers often draw on their own backgrounds to create a piece of literature.
http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nounterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nounphraseterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nounterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/nounphraseterm.htm


7/35

Biographical knowledge: Information about a writer's life that helps the reader understand the text.

Black Comedy: Disturbing or absurd material presented in a humorous manner, usually with the intentionof confronting uncomfortable truths. Example: the movie Dr. Strangelove or How I Learned to StopWorrying and Love the Bomb.

Caesura. A pause, metrical or rhetorical, occurring somewhere in a line of poetry. The pause may or may notbe typographically indicated.

Canon: An evolving group of literary works considered essential to a culture's literary tradition.

Carpe diem The Latin phrase meaning "seize the day." This is a very common literary theme, especially inlyric poetry, which emphasizes that life is short, time is fleeting, and that one should make the most of present

pleasures. Robert Herricks poem "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time" employs the carpe diem theme.

Cause/Effect- A basic mode of thinking that answers the question why, as well as an organizational pattern.Cause examines the reasons why certain actions, events, or attitudes exist; while effect examinesconsequences. Since cause/effect are inseparable, the two together create causation. Historical writing relies

heavily on cause and effect. Ex. What were the economic and political causes of the American Revolution

(effect)?

Cause/effect is used frequently in such questions as this:What will be the effects on the student body if a strict dress code is instituted for the school?

Patterns in cause/effect relationships are often complex: single cause to multiple effects, multiple causes tomultiple effects, multiple causes to single effect, etc. The complexity of a writer's topic will determine the

organizational complexity of the cause/effect essay.

Character traits: The special qualities of a character, such as his or her behaviors, values, habits, likes, anddislikes.

Characterization: The way writers reveal how and why characters think, feel, and act. In directcharacterization, the writer explains straight out, or directly, what the characters are like. In indirect

characterization, the writer provides clues to what the characters are like. Clues are often found in thecharacters' words, private thoughts, and actions, as well as in the ways they look and dress.Characters: People (and sometimes animals) who play the roles and/or parts in a story or play.

Flat Character: A character who has only one or two key personality traits.Round Character: A character who has many personality traits.

Stock Character: A one-sided character whom we think of as a "type"for example, the absent-minded

professor.Dynamic Character: A character who changes in an important way during the story.

Static Character: A character who is the same at the end of the story as at the beginning; static

characters are most often subordinate characters.

Main Character: The character who drives the action in a story. How the main character changes during

the story provides clues to the story's theme.

Chiasmus. Two phrases in which the syntax is the same but the placement of words is reversed. A crossingparallelism, where the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or paralleled by the first part, onlyin reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g., "learned unwillingly") paralleled by another A,B structure

("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So instead of writing "What is

learned unwillingly is forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten."

Similarly, the parallel sentence, "What is now great was at first little," could be written chiastically as, "What isnow great was little at first." Here are some examples:

He labors without complaining and without bragging rests.

When the going gets tough, the tough get going.


8/35

Polished in courts and hardened in the field, Renowned for conquest, and in council skilled. --Joseph

Addison

For the Lord is a Great God . . . in whose hands are the depths of the earth; the peaks of the mountains

are his also. --Psalm 95:4

Chiasmus is easiest to write and yet can be made very beautiful and effective simply by moving subordinateclauses around:

If you come to them, they are not asleep; if you ask and inquire of them, they do not withdraw

themselves; they do not chide if you make mistakes; they do not laugh at you if you are ignorant.

--Richard de BuryPrepositional phrases or other modifiers can also be moved around to form chiastic structures. Sometimes the

effect is rather emphatic:

Tell me not of your many perfections; of your great modesty tell me not either. Just as the term "menial" does not apply to any honest labor, so no dishonest work can be called

"prestigious."

At other times the effect is more subdued but still desirable. Compare the versions of these sentences, writtenfirst in chiastic and then in strictly parallel form. Which do you like better in each case?

Claim: A statement or assertion that is open to challenge and that requires support.

Clich An idea or expression that has become tired and trite from overuse, its freshness and clarity havingworn off. Clichs often anesthetize readers, and are usually a sign of weak writing. See also sentimentality,

stock responses. "That's the way the cookie crumbles." "A picture is worth a thousand words."

Climax (in a story): The most exciting part of a storythe moment when the outcome of the conflict isdetermined. The climax usually occurs near the end of a short story. (IR)

Climax (gradatio) consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance,weight, or emphasis. Parallelism usually forms a part of the arrangement, because it offers a sense of continuity,

order, and movement-up the ladder of importance. But if you wish to vary the amount of discussion on eachpoint, parallelism is not essential.

The concerto was applauded at the house of Baron von Schnooty, it was praised highly at court, it wasvoted best concerto of the year by the Academy, it was considered by Mozart the highlight of his career,

and it has become known today as the best concerto in the world. At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave. Windows rattled; then they broke. Objects started falling from

shelves. Water heaters fell from their pedestals, tearing out plumbing. Outside, the road began to break

up. Water mains and gas lines were wrenched apart, causing flooding and the danger of explosion.Office buildings began cracking; soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of concrete were diving at the helpless

pedestrians panicking below.

To have faults is not good, but faults are human. Worse is to have them and not see them. Yet beyondthat is to have faults, to see them, and to do nothing about them. But even that seems mild compared to

him who knows his faults, and who parades them about and encourages them as though they were

virtues.In addition to arranging sentences or groups of short ideas in climactic order, you generally should also arrange

the large sections of ideas in your papers, the points in your arguments, and the examples for your

generalizations climactically; although in these cases, the first item should not be the very least important

(because its weakness might alienate the reader). Always begin with a point or proof substantial enough togenerate interest, and then continue with ideas of increasing importance. That way your argument gets stronger

as it moves along, and every point hits harder than the previous one.

Closure: An ending or completion, or something that gives a sense of finality.


9/35

Colloquial Refers to a type of informal diction that reflects casual, conversational language and often includesslang expressions. See also diction. Example: "All the other lads there were/Were itching to have a bash."

Comparison/Contrast- In comparison, two or more objects or concepts are considered together for theirlikenesses; in contrast, the objects or concepts are considered together to show their differences. The thought

processes are often used together and complement one another. Commonly, both processes are referred to

simply as comparison. The two main organizational patterns are block or whole-to-whole (all of "A" andthen all of "B"), or point-to-point (A1, Bl, A2, B2, etc.). Comparison/contrast is used to point out similarities or

differences that are interesting in themselves, to explain the familiar in terms of the unfamiliar, or to evaluate-toshow that one idea or object is better than another in its same class. This is a basic thought process that is used

daily in judging friends, buying products, making decisions. Teachers often ask students to compare and/orcontrast one literary work (a poem, short story, novel, essay) with another to draw a conclusion or make an

evaluation.

Complications: The problems that come up during the story as the characters try to resolve, or deal with, theconflict. (IR)

Conceit. An elaborate, usually intellectually ingenious poetic comparison or image, such as an analogy ormetaphor in which, say a beloved is compared to a ship, planet, etc. The comparison may be brief or extended.

See Petrarchan Conceit. (Conceit is an old word for concept.) See John Donne's "Valediction: ForbiddingMourning," for example: "Let man's soul be a sphere, and then, in this, / The Intelligence that moves, devotion

is." concrete detail

Conclusion: The end of an argument, the function of which is to summarize or draw together what has comebefore and/or to draw final inferences from what has already been stated.

Conflict/Plot is the struggle found in fiction. Conflict/Plot may be internal or external and is best seen in (1)Man in conflict with another Man: (2) Man in conflict in Nature; (3) Man in conflict with self.

Conflict- A major element of plot, it is a struggle between opposing forces. An external conflict exists when a

character is at odds with another character, the rules of society, or another force (as in Star Wars). Internalconflict occurs when a character is at war within himself over a moral or ethical problem. Main characters in

longer works of fiction often experience both types of conflicts. Another way of looking at conflict is by type:man vs. himself, man vs. society, man vs. nature, or man vs. the universe. The decisive moment in

a series of conflicting actions constitutes the climax in the plot.

Connotation (KAH-nuh-TAE-shun): an association that comes along with a particular word. Connotationsrelate not to a word's actual meaning, ordenotation, but rather to the ideas or qualities that are implied by thatword. A good example is the word "gold." The denotation of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element. The

connotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Another example

occurs in the Book of Genesis. Jacob says: Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that

bites the horses heels so that its rider tumbles backward" (Gen 49:17). In this passage, Dan is not literally goingto become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and "viper" forces the reader to associate him with

the negative qualities that are commonly associated with reptiles, such as slyness, danger, and evil. Danbecomes like a snake, sly and dangerous to the riders. Writers use connotation to make their writing more vivid

and interesting to read.

Consequence: An inference or conclusion derived through logic, or the result following from a cause.

Consonance: The repetition of consonant sounds with differing vowel sounds in words near each other in aline or lines of poetry. Consider the following example from Theodore Roethke's "Night Journey:"

We rush into a rain
http://livepage.apple.com/http://livepage.apple.com/


10/35

That rattles double glass.

The repetition of the r sound in rush, rain, and rattles, occurring so close to each other in these two lines,would be considered consonance.

Convention: In writing, a practice or principle (such as a rule of spelling, grammar, or usage), that isaccepted as true or correct.

Delayed Sentence: A sentence that delays introducing the subject and verb (or independent clause) until

the end. Also known as a periodic sentence: In the prime of his life, he was cut down.

Denotation (DEE-no-TAE-shuhn): the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that theword may imply. It is the opposite of connotation in that it is the dictionary meaning of a word, without

attached feelings or associations. Some examples of denotations are:

1. heart: an organ that circulates blood throughout the body. Here the word "heart" denotes the actual organ,while in another context, the word "heart" may connote feelings of love or heartache.2. sweater: a knitted garment for the upper body. The word "sweater" may denote pullover sweaters orcardigans, while sweater may also connote feelings of warmness or security.

Denotation allows the reader to know the exact meaning of a word so that he or she will better understand the

work of literature.

Denouement (day-noo-mon): literally meaning the action of untying, a denouement is the final outcome ofthe main complication in a play or story. Usually the climax (the turning point or "crisis") of the work has

already occurred by the time the denouement occurs. It is sometimes referred to as the explanation or outcome

of a drama that reveals all the secrets and misunderstandings connected to the plot. In the drama Othello, thereis a plot to deceive Othello into believing that his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him. As a result ofthis plot, Othello kills his wife out of jealousy, the climax of the play. The denouement occurs soon after, when

Emilia, who was Desdemona's mistress, proves to Othello that his wife was in fact honest, true, and faithful to

him. Emilia reveals to Othello that her husband, Iago, had plotted against Desdemona and tricked Othello intobelieving that she had been unfaithful. Iago kills Emilia in front of Othello, and she dies telling Othello his wife

was innocent. As a result of being mad with grief, Othello plunges a dagger into his own heart. The denouement

helps the reader see how the final end of a story unfolds, and how the structure of stories works to affect ouremotions.

Deus ex Machina: In some ancient Greek drama, an apparently insoluble crisis was solved by theintervention of a god, often brought on stage by an elaborate piece of equipment. This "god from the machine"

was literally a deus ex machina. Few modern works feature deities suspended by wires from the ceiling,but the term deus ex machina is still used for cases where an author uses some improbable (and oftenclumsy) plot device to work his or her way out of a difficult situation. When the cavalry comes charging over

the hill or when the impoverished hero is relieved by an unexpected inheritance, it's often called a deus exmachina.

Dialect A type of informational diction. Dialects are spoken by definable groups of people from a particulargeographic region, economic group, or social class. Writers use dialect to contrast and express differences in

educational, class, social, and regional backgrounds of their characters. See also diction.

Dialectic: A form of reasoning that proceeds by juxtaposing contradictory ideas and synthesizing or findingareas of agreement between them.

Dialogue: A conversation between two or more speakers; also an exchange of ideas.

Diction: A writers choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language, which combine tohelp create meaning. Formal diction consists of a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of language; it follows
http://livepage.apple.com/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/antiquity.htmlhttp://livepage.apple.com/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/antiquity.html


11/35

the rules of syntax exactly and is often characterized by complex words and lofty tone. Middle diction maintains

correct language usage, but is less elevated than formal diction; it reflects the way most educated people speak.Informal diction represents the plain language of everyday use, and often includes idiomatic expressions, slang,

contractions, and many simple, common words. Poetic diction refers to the way poets sometimes employ an

elevated diction that deviates significantly from the common speech and writing of their time, choosing wordsfor their supposedly inherent poetic qualities. Since the eighteenth century, however, poets have been

incorporating all kinds of diction in their work and so there is no longer an automatic distinction between the

language of a poet and the language of everyday speech. See also dialect.

Didactic [tone word]: Intended to instruct or to educate.

Discourse: The wider social and intellectual context in which communication takes place.

Drama Vocabulary and Terminology:

Play: A story acted out live, using dialogue and action.

Tragedy: A play that presents serious and important actions that end unhappily for the main character.Tragic hero: An admirable figure who has a personal failing that leads to his or her downfall.

Tragic flaw: A failing that leads a character to make choices that result in tragedy.

Comedy: A play that ends happily, in which the main character gets what he or she wants.

Character foil: A character who contrasts dramatically with another character. A "foil" serves to

highlight the qualities of the characters he or she is contrasted with.Dialogue: Conversations between characters in a play.

Monologue: A long speech made by one character to one or more other characters onstage.

Soliloquy: A speech made by a character who is alone onstage, speaking to himself or herself or to theaudience. Usually speaks the truth.

Aside: A short speech delivered to the audience or to another character that others onstage are not

supposed to hear.

Dramatic Monologue: A poem in which one character speaks directly to one or more listeners. From adramatic monologue you can learn everything about the setting, the situation, supporting characters, and the

speaker's own personality. "My Last Duchess" and "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" are two such poems.

Elegy: A formal statement of praise.

Ellipsis: omission or suppression of parts of words or sentences; the dots indicating such omissions". . . ."

Emblem: A concrete object that represents something abstract; unlike a symbol, an emblem has a fixedmeaning that does not vary in different contexts.

Emphasis: Force or intensity of expression brought to bear on a particular text or speech. Emphasis can alsobe achieved by placement of points in a text.

Enthymeme: An informal method of argument in which one of the major premises is implied or assumedrather than stated. Example: The sentence We cant trust this article because its actually an advertisementassumes, rather than states, that advertisements cannot be trusted.

Enumeratio. Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and mayinclude a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or detailing of

the parts of something. "Since our founding, American Muslims have enriched the United States. They have


12/35

fought in our wars; they have served in our government; they have stood for civil rights; theyhave started businesses; they have taught at our universities; they've excelled in our sportsarenas; they've won Nobel Prizes, built our tallest building, and lit the Olympic Torch." --Barack Obama, Speech at Cairo University

Epanalepsis: repetition of the same word or clause after intervening matter. More strictly, repetition at theend of a line, phrase, or clause of the word or words that occurred at the beginning of the same line, phrase, or

clause. In times like these, it is helpful to remember that there have always been times like these. Paul

Harvey

Epiphany In fiction, when a character suddenly experiences a deep realization about himself or herself; a truthwhich is grasped in an ordinary rather than a melodramatic moment.

Epistle: a letter.

Epistrophe. The repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences.Epistrophe (also called antistrophe) is thus the counterpart to anaphora. Examples: What lies behind usand what lies before us are tiny matters compared to what lies within us. Ralph Waldo Emerson;When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. 1Corinthians 13

Epitaph: A brief statement to memorialize a deceased person or a thing, time, or event that has ended.

Epithet. An adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key orimportant characteristic of the subject, as in "laughing happiness," "sneering contempt," "untroubled sleep,"

"peaceful dawn," and "life-giving water." Sometimes a metaphorical epithet will be good to use, as in "lazy

road," "tired landscape," "smirking billboards," "anxious apple." Aptness and brilliant effectiveness are the keyconsiderations in choosing epithets. Be fresh, seek striking images, pay attention to connotative value.

A transferred epithet is an adjective modifying a noun which it cannot logically modify, yet which worksbecause the metaphorical meaning remains clear:

At length I heard a ragged noise and mirth of thieves and murderers. . . . --George Herbert Blind mouths! that scarce themselves know how to hold/ A sheep hook . . . --John Milton

In an age of pressurized happiness, we sometimes grow insensitive to subtle joys.

The striking and unusual quality of the transferred epithet calls attention to it, and it can therefore be used tointroduce emphatically an idea you plan to develop. The phrase will stay with the reader, so there is no need to

repeat it, for that would make it too obviously rhetorical and even a little annoying. Thus, if you introduce the

phrase, "diluted electricity," your subsequent development ought to return to more mundane synonyms, such as"low voltage," "brownouts," and so forth. It may be best to save your transferred epithet for a space near the

conclusion of the discussion where it will be not only clearer (as a synonym for previously stated and clearly

understandable terms) but more effective, as a kind of final, quintessential, and yet novel conceptualization ofthe issue. The reader will love it.

Eulogy: A formal statement of praise given at funerals about the deceased.

Euphemism. The substitution of a mild or less negative word or phrase for a harsh or blunt one, as in the useof "pass away" instead of "die." The basic psychology of euphemistic language is the desire to put somethingbad or embarrassing in a positive (or at least neutral light). Thus many terms referring to death, sex, crime, and

excremental functions are euphemisms. Since the euphemism is often chosen to disguise something horrifying,

it can be exploited by the satirist through the use of irony and exaggeration.

Evidence: Specific facts or examples used to support a claim in a piece of writing.
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/barackobama/barackobamacairouniversity.htmhttp://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/barackobama/barackobamacairouniversity.htm


13/35

Expletive:1. an interjectory word or expression, frequently profane; an exclamatory oath.2. a syllable, word, or phrase serving to fill out.

3. Grammar. a word considered as regularly filling the syntactic position of another, as it in It is his dutyto go, orthere inThere is nothing here. In grammar, a construction that begins with the word here,there or it and is followed by a form of the verb to be.

Explication: The detailed analysis of a literary work.

Exposition: The basic situation of a story. (IR) An explanation of the meaning or purpose of a piece ofwriting, especially one that is difficult to understand.

Fable: An allegory in which animal characters who usually symbolize vices and virtues act out a story in orderto teach a practical lesson about how to succeed in life.

Figurative language (fig-YOOR-a-tive LAN-gwije): a type of language that varies from the norms ofliteral language, in which words mean exactly what they say. Also known as the "ornaments of language,"

figurative language does not mean exactly what it says, but instead forces the reader to make an imaginative

leap in order to comprehend an author's point. It usually involves a comparison between two things that maynot, at first, seem to relate to one another. In a simile, for example, an author may compare a person to ananimal: "He ran like a hare down the street" is the figurative way to describe the man running and "He ran very

quickly down the street" is the literal way to describe him. Figurative language facilitates understanding

because it relates something unfamiliar to something familiar. Some popular examples of figurative languageinclude a simile and metaphor. Also, language that describes one thing in terms of another and is not meant to

be understood on a literal level. Common figures of speech include similes, metaphors, and personification.

Flashback: A scene that interrupts the story to introduce an event that took place in the past. (IR)

Flash-forward: A scene that jumps ahead of the story to narrate an event that happens in the future. (IR)

Foil: A character who illuminates the qualities of another character by means of contrast.

Foreshadowing: Hints in the story that certain events are going to happen later. (IR)

Free verse: Poetry that does not follow a regular, or steady, pattern of rhyme and meter.

Generalization: A statement that conveys a general truth, based on several specific details. A statementabout a story's theme is a kind of generalization.

Genre (ZHAHN-ruh): The different forms of literature, such as stories, novels, plays, essays, and poems. We

say a poem, novel, story, or other literary work belongs to a particular genre if it shares at least a fewconventions, or standard characteristics, with other works in that genre. For example, works in the Gothic genre

often feature supernatural elements, attempts to horrify the reader, and dark, foreboding settings, particularly

very old castles or mansions. Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" belongs to theGothic genre because it takes place in a gloomy mansion that seems to exert supernatural control over a man

who lives in it. Furthermore, Poe attempts to horrify the reader by describing the man's ghastly face, the burial

of his sister, eerie sounds in the house, and ultimately the reappearance of the sister's bloody body at the end of

the story. Other genres include the pastoral poem, epic poem, elegy, tragic drama, and bildungsroman. Anunderstanding of genre is useful because it helps us to see how an author adopts, subverts, or transcends the

standard practices that other authors have developed.
http://grammar.about.com/od/correctingerrors/a/formstobe.htmhttp://livepage.apple.com/http://livepage.apple.com/http://livepage.apple.com/http://grammar.about.com/od/correctingerrors/a/formstobe.htmhttp://livepage.apple.com/http://livepage.apple.com/http://livepage.apple.com/


14/35

Hamartia (tragic flaw): A "tragic" or "fatal" character flaw that causes the downfall of a person of highstatus.

Historical approach [literary criticism]: The use of historical context to help analyze and respond to a work.

Historical context/setting: The historical periods that shapes a work of literature.

Hyperbole. Exaggeration used for emphasis. Hyperbole can be used to heighten effect, to catalyzerecognition, or to create a humorous perception. Example:

It is a maxim among these lawyers that whatever hath been done before may legally be done again: and

therefore they take special care to record all the decisions formerly made against common justice and the

general reason of mankind. These, under the name of precedents, they produce as authorities, to justifythe most iniquitous opinions; and the judges never fail of decreeing accordingly. Swift

Hypophora. Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often atlength, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one's own question(s). "What is George Bushdoing about our economic problems? He has raised taxes on the people driving pickup trucks and lowered taxeson the people riding in limousines." -- William Jefferson Clinton, 1992 DNC Acceptance Address

Note: Can you spot the antithesis?

Hypothetical: Involving a hypothesis (an assumption granted for the sake of argument).

Idiom. An idiom is a combination of words that has a meaning that is different from the meanings of theindividual words themselves. It can have a literal meaning in one situation and a different idiomatic meaning inanother situation. It is a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar.

To sit on the fence can literally mean that one is sitting on a fence.I sat on the fence and watched the game. However, the idiomatic meaning ofto sit on thefence is that one is not making a clear choice regarding some issue.The politician sat on the fence and would not give his opinion about the tax issue.

Many idioms are similar to expressions in other languages and can be easy for a learner to understand. Other

idioms come from older phrases which have changed over time.To hold one's horses means to stop and wait patiently for someone or something. It comes from a timewhen people rode horses and would have to hold their horses while waiting for someone or something."Hold your horses," I said when my friend started to leave the store.

Other idioms come from such things as sports that are common in the United Kingdom or the United States and

may require some special cultural knowledge to easily understand them.To cover all of one's bases means to thoroughly prepare for or deal with a situation. It comes from theAmerican game of baseball where you must cover or protect the bases.

I tried to cover all of my bases when I went to the job interview.

Image: A description of anything we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell. The image of a spaniel's floppyears, for example, appeals to the senses of sight and touch.

Imagery: A word or group of words in a literary work which appeal to one or more of the senses: sight, taste,touch, hearing, and smell. The use of images serves to intensify the impact of the work. The following exampleof imagery in T. S. Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,"

When the evening is spread out against the sky

Like a patient etherized upon a table.
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/antithesis.htmhttp://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/antithesis.htm


15/35

uses images of pain and sickness to describe the evening, which as an image itself represents society and the

psychology of Prufrock, himself.

In Medias Res: In medias res is Latin for "into the middle of things." It usually describes a narrative thatbegins, not at the beginning of a story, but somewhere in the middle usually at some crucial point in the

action. The term comes from the ancient Roman poet Horace, who advised the aspiring epic poet to go straightto the heart of the story instead of beginning at the beginning.

Irony. A mode of expression, through words (verbal irony) or events (irony of situation), conveying a realitydifferent from and usually opposite to appearance or expectation. A writer may say the opposite of what he

means, create a reversal between expectation and its fulfillment, or give the audience knowledge that a character

lacks, making the character's words have meaning to the audience not perceived by the character. In verbalirony, the writer's meaning or even his attitude may be different from what he says: "Why, no one would dare

argue that there could be anything more important in choosing a college than its proximity to the beach." An

example of situational irony would occur if a professional pickpocket had his own pocket picked just as he wasin the act of picking someone else's pocket. The irony is generated by the surprise recognition by the audience

of a reality in contrast with expectation or appearance, while another audience, victim, or character puts

confidence in the appearance as reality (in this case, the pickpocket doesn't expect his own pocket to be picked).

The surprise recognition by the audience often produces a comic effect, making irony often funny. An example

of dramatic irony (where the audience has knowledge that gives additional meaning to a character's words)would be when King Oedipus, who has unknowingly killed his father, says that he will banish his father's killer

when he finds him.Irony is the most common and most efficient technique of the satirist, because it is an instrument of truth,

provides wit and humor, and is usually at least obliquely critical, in that it deflates, scorns, or attacks.

The ability to detect irony is sometimes heralded as a test of intelligence and sophistication. When a textintended to be ironic is not seen as such, the effect can be disastrous. Some students have taken Swift's "Modest

Proposal" literally. And Defoe's contemporaries took his "Shortest Way with the Dissenters" literally and jailed

him for it. To be an effective piece of sustained irony, there must be some sort of audience tip-off, through style

tone, use of clear exaggeration, or other device.Verbal ironyoccurs when someone says one thing but means the opposite. Example: "Thanks for

your support," said the basketball player to the coach when he was cut from the team.Situational ironyan event is not just surprising but is the opposite of what we had expected. Example:

A thief is hired to guard the palace treasures.

Dramatic ironytakes place when we know what is going to happen to the character but the characer

does not know. Example: we know that Oedipus married his mother and killed his father, but he does not yetknow.

Romantic ironyAn author's persistent presence in his or her work, meant to ensure that the audience

will maintain critical detachment and not simply accept the writing at face value.Cosmic ironyThe depiction of fate or the universe as malicious or indifferent to human suffering,

creating a painful contrast between our purposeful activity and its ultimate meaninglessness. ThinkLord ofthe Flies.

Legend: Stories that are based on historical events and take on elements of fantasy as they are retold over theyears.

Literal: Focusing on the explicit meaning of words only, and not dealing with context, connotation, figurativelanguage, or other elements that add deeper shades of meaning to a text.

Litotes. Understatement for rhetorical effect, especially when achieved by using negation with a term in placeof using an antonym of that term, as in "She was not a little upset" for "She was extremely upset." The term

meiosis means understatement generally, and litotes is considered a form of meiosis.
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/narrative.htmlhttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/antiquity.htmlhttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/epic.htmlhttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/narrative.htmlhttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/antiquity.htmlhttp://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/epic.html


16/35

Local color: A detailed setting forth of the characteristics of a particular locality, enabling the reader to "see"the setting.

Loose/Cumulative Sentence: If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you arewriting a loose sentence:

I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada, considering thefree health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the

wonderful winters.

The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada, and the writer makes the point at the

very beginning: everything which follows is simply extra information. When the readers read about the free

health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderfulwinters, they will already know that these are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more

likely to understand the sentence on a first reading.

Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the

most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences. While

a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it is also much

more difficult to read, and often requires readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand themain point.

Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose sentence as carefully as you wouldstructure a periodic sentence: it is very easy to lose control of a loose sentence so that by the end the reader has

forgotten what your main point was.

The Periodic Sentence

If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic sentence:

Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs,

and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living inCanada.The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the

reader does not know what point the writer is going to make: what about the free health care, cheap tuition fees,

low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and wonderful winters? The reader has to read all of thisinformation without knowing what the conclusion will be.

The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over the past hundred years, and it has

never been common in informal spoken English (outside of bad political speeches). Still, it is a powerful

rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do notagree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with

hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence.

Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are likeexclamatory sentences: used once or twice

in a piece of writing, they can be very effective; used any more than that, they can make you sound dull and

pompous.

Main Idea: The central meaning, purpose, or concept around which a piece of writing is organized.

Malapropism \mal-uh-PROP-iz-uhm\, noun:The usually unintentionally humorous misuse of a word, especially by confusion with one of similar sound;

also, an example of such misuse.
http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/sntpurps.html#exclamatory%20sentencehttp://www.uottawa.ca/academic/arts/writcent/hypergrammar/sntpurps.html#exclamatory%20sentence


17/35

At 15, Rachel, the whiny would-be beauty queen who "cares for naught but appearances," can think only of

what she misses: the five-day deodorant pads she forgot to bring, flush toilets, machine-washed clothes andother things, as she says with her willful gift formalapropism, that she has taken "for granite."-- Michiko Kakutani, "The Poisonwood Bible': A Family a Heart of Darkness", New York Times, October16, 1998

He also had, as a former colleague puts it, "a photogenic memory"--a malapropism that captures his gift forthe social side of life, his Clintonian ability to remember names of countless people he has met only briefly.

-- Eric Pooley and S.C. Gwynne, "How George Got His Groove",Time, June 21, 1999

A malapropism is so called after Mrs. Malaprop, a character noted for her amusing misuse of words inRichard Brinsley Sheridan's comedyThe Rivals.

Maxim: a saying that widely accepted on its own merits.

Mediation: The process of bringing opposing parties or positions into a state of accord or compromise; alsorefers to negotiation.

Melodrama: The use of sentimentality, gushing emotion, sensational action, or plot twists to provokeaudience or reader response. Popular in Victorian England, melodrama is now considered manipulative andhokey.

Meter: A pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. Meter gives poetry rhythm. You can hear themeter of a poem when you read it aloud. Stressed syllables are emphasized more than unstressed syllables.

Analyzing the meter of a poem is called scanning. Special marks are used to scan a poem. The stress mark (')is placed over each stressed syllable. The "short" mark ( ) is placed over each unstressed syllable. SeePoetry Terms.

Metaphor. A comparison which imaginatively identifies one thing with another dissimilar thing, andtransfers or ascribes to the first thing (the tenor or idea) some of the qualities of the second (the vehicle or

image). Unlike a simile or analogy, metaphor asserts that one thing is another thing, not just that one is likeanother. Very frequently a metaphor is invoked by the to be verb:

Affliction then is ours; / We are the trees whom shaking fastens more. --George Herbert Then Jesus declared, "I am the bread of life." --John 6:35

I am the door; if anyone enters through me, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and find pasture.

--John 10:9

But I will sing of your strength, / In the morning I will sing of your love; / For you are my fortress, / My

refuge in times of trouble. --Psalm 59:16 Their works are worthless; / Their molten images are wind and emptiness. --Isaiah 41:29

The name of the Lord is a strong tower; / The righteous run to it and are safe. --Proverbs 18:10

Thus a mind that is free from passion is a very citadel; man has no stronger fortress in which to seekshelter and defy every assault. Failure to perceive this is ignorance; but to perceive it, and still not to

seek its refuge, is misfortune indeed. --Marcus Aurelius

The mind is but a barren soil; a soil which is soon exhausted and will produce no crop, or only one,unless it be continually fertilized and enriched with foreign matter. --Joshua Reynolds

Another common method of constructing a metaphor is to use the possessive, where the image is expressed as

being a part of the idea, usually in the form of "the x of y":

A writer's river of words will dry up unless it is continuously replenished by streams of new learning.

The first beam of hope that had ever darted into his mind rekindled youth in his cheeks and doubled the

lustre of his eyes. --Samuel Johnson

The furnace of affliction had softened his heart and purified his soul.

[I] therefore determined to gratify my predominant desire, and by drinking at the fountains of

knowledge, to quench the thirst of curiosity. --Samuel Johnson
http://www.nytimes.com/http://www.time.com/timehttp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0198319088/ref%3Dnosim/lexicohttp://www.nytimes.com/http://www.time.com/timehttp://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0198319088/ref%3Dnosim/lexico


18/35

Stand firm, therefore, having girded your loins with truth, and having put on the breastplate of

righteousness, and having shod your feet with the preparation of the gospel of peace; in addition to all,taking up the shield of faith with which you will be able to extinguish all the flaming missiles of the evil

one. And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God. --Eph.

6:14-17

The most learned philosopher knew little more. He had partially unveiled the face of Nature, but her

immortal lineaments were still a wonder and a mystery. . . . I had gazed upon the fortifications and

impediments that seemed to keep human beings from entering the citadel of nature, and rashly and

ignorantly I had repined. --Mary ShelleyIn fact, there is a whole range of different degrees of direct identification between image and idea (vehicle and

tenor). There is fully expressed:

The eye is the lamp of your body; when your eye is sound, your whole body is full of light; but when itis not sound, your body is full of darkness. --Luke 11:34

There is semi-implied:

And he said to them, "Go and tell that fox, 'Behold, I cast out demons and perform cures today andtomorrow, and the third day I finish my course.'" --Luke 13:32

There is implied:

. . . For thou hast been my help, and in the shadow of thy wings I sing for joy. --Psalm 63:7And there is very implied:

For if men do these things when the tree is green, what will happen when it is dry? --Luke 23:31Like simile and analogy, metaphor is a profoundly important and useful device. Aristotle says in his Rhetoric,"It is metaphor above all else that gives clearness, charm, and distinction to the style." And Joseph Addison saysof it:

By these allusions a truth in the understanding is as it were reflected by the imagination; we are able to see

something like color and shape in a notion, and discover a scheme of thoughts traced out upon matter. And herethe mind receives a great deal of satisfaction, and has two of its faculties gratified at the same time, while the

fancy is busy in copying after the understanding, and transcribing ideas out of the intellectual world into the

material.

So metaphor not only explains by making the abstract or unknown concrete and familiar, but it also enlivens bytouching the reader's imagination. Further, it affirms one more interconnection in the unity of all things by

showing a relationship between things seemingly alien to each other.And the fact that two very unlike things can be equated or referred to in terms of one another comments uponthem both. No metaphor is "just a metaphor." All have significant implications, and they must be chosen

carefully, especially in regard to the connotations the vehicle (image) will transfer to the tenor. Consider, for

example, the differences in meaning conveyed by these statements:

That club is spreading like wildfire.

That club is spreading like cancer.

That club is really blossoming now.

That club, in its amebic motions, is engulfing the campus.And do you see any reason that one of these metaphors was chosen over the others?

The harvest is plentiful, but the laborers are few. --Luke 10:2

The pile of dirt is high, but we do not have many shovels. The diamonds cover the ground, but we need more people to pick them up.

So bold and striking is metaphor that it is sometimes taken literally rather than as a comparison. (Jesus' disciples

sometimes failed here--see John 4:32ff and John 6:46-60; a few religious groups like the Jehovah's Witnessesinterpret such passages as Psalm 75:8 and 118:15 literally and thus see God as anthropomorphic; and even

today a lot of controversy surrounds the interpretation of Matthew 26:26.) Always be careful in your own

writing, therefore, to avoid possible confusion between metaphor and reality.

Metonymy. Another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche (and, in fact, some rhetoricians do notdistinguish between the two), in which a closely associated object is substituted for the object or idea in mind:

The orders came directly from the White House.


19/35

In this example we know that the writer means the President issued orders, because the "White House" is quite

closely associated with "President," even though it is not physically a part of him. Consider these substitutions,and notice that some are more obvious than others, but that in context all are clear:

You cannot fight city hall.

This land belongs to the crown.

In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread. . . . --Genesis 3:19

Boy, I'm dying from the heat. Just look how the mercury is rising.

The checkered flag waved and victory crossed the finish line.

The use of a particular metonymy makes a comment about the idea for which it has been substituted, and

thereby helps to define that idea. Note how much more vivid "in the sweat of thy face" is in the third example

above than "by labor" would have been. And in the fourth example, "mercury rising" has a more graphic,physical, and pictorial effect than would "temperature increasing." Attune yourself to such subtleties of

language, and study the effects of connotation, suggestion, substitution, and metaphor.

MLA formatparenthetical citationssee Handbook or MLA format on the internet.

Modes of Discourse: types of writing, including narration, exposition, description, persuasion, cause andeffect, classification, process analysis, definition, comparison/contrast, analogy, extended metaphor.

Mood: The atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work, partly by a description of the objects or by thestyle of the descriptions. A work may contain a mood of horror, mystery, holiness, or childlike simplicity, to

name a few, depending on the author's treatment of the work.

Motif(moh-TEEF): a recurring object, concept, or structure in a work of literature. A motif may also be twocontrasting elements in a work, such as good and evil. In the Book of Genesis, we see the motif of separationagain and again throughout the story. In the very first chapter, God separates the light from the darkness.

Abraham and his descendants are separated from the rest of the nation as God's chosen people. Joseph is

separated from his brothers in order that life might be preserved. Another motif is water, seen in Genesis as ameans of destroying the wicked and in Matthew as a means of remitting sins by the employment of baptism.

Other motifs in Genesis and Matthew include blood sacrifices, fire, lambs, and goats. A motif is importantbecause it allows one to see main points and themes that the author is trying to express, in order that one might

be able to interpret the work more accurately.

Motivation: The reasons why a character acts or thinks in a certain way.

Myth: Stories that are closely linked to a particular society and reflect is values and religious beliefs.

Narrative (na-RAH-tiv): a collection of events that tells a story, which may be true or not, placed in aparticular order and recounted through either telling or writing. One example is Edgar Allen Poe's "The Tell-

Tale Heart." In this story a madman resolves to kill his landlord because he fears the man's horrible eye. One

night he suffocates the landlord and hides the body beneath the floorboards of the bedroom. While fieldingquestions from the police in the bedroom where the body is hidden, the madman thinks he hears the heart of the

victim beating beneath the floorboards. Scared that the police hear the heartbeat too, the madman confesses.

This is a narrative because of two things, it has a sequence in which the events are told, beginning with murderand ending with the confession, and it has a narrator, who is the madman, telling the story. By understanding

the term "narrative, one begins to understand that most literary works have a simple outline: the story, the plot,

and the storyteller. By studying more closely, most novels and short stories are placed into the categories of

first-person and third-person narratives, which are based on who is telling the story and from what perspective.Other important terms that relate to the term "narrative, are "narrative poetry," poetry that tells a story, and

"narrative technique" which means how one tells a story.


20/35

Narrator : The voice of the person telling the story, not to be confused with the authors voice. With a first-person narrator, the I in the story presents the point of view of only one character. The reader is restricted to theperceptions, thoughts, and feelings of that single character. For example, in Melvilles "Bartleby, the

Scrivener," the lawyer is the first-person narrator of the story. First-person narrators can play either a major or a

minor role in the story they are telling. An unreliable narrator reveals an interpretation of events that is

somehow different from the authors own interpretation of those events. Often, the unreliable narratorsperception of plot, characters, and setting becomes the actual subject of the story, as in Melvilles "Bartleby, the

Scrivener." Narrators can be unreliable for a number of reasons: they might lack self-knowledge (like Melvilles

lawyer), they might be inexperienced, they might even be insane. Naive narrators are usually characterized byyouthful innocence, such as Mark Twains Huck Finn or J. D. Salingers Holden Caulfield. An omniscient

narrator is an all-knowing narrator who is not a character in the story and who can move from place to place and

pass back and forth through time, slipping into and out of characters as no human being possibly could in reallife. Omniscient narrators can report the thoughts and feelings of the characters, as well as their words and

actions. The narrator of The Scarlet Letter is an omniscient narrator. Editorial omniscience refers to an intrusion

by the narrator in order to evaluate a character for a reader, as when the narrator of The Scarlet Letter describes

Hesters relationship to the Puritan community. Narration that allows the characters actions and thoughts tospeak for themselves is called neutral omniscience. Most modern writers use neutral omniscience so that readers

can reach their own conclusions. Limited omniscience occurs when an author restricts a narrator to the single

perspective of either a major or minor character. The way people, places, and events appear to that character is

the way they appear to the reader. Sometimes a limited omniscient narrator can see into more than onecharacter, particularly in a work that focuses on two characters alternately from one chapter to the next. Short

stories, however, are frequently limited to a single characters point of view. See also persona, point of view,stream-of-consciousness technique.

Neologism: A new or invented word, expression, or usage.

Occasion: the event or activity that engenders a piece of literature or text; i.e., political campaign would needa speech; funeral would need an elegy.

Ode: A serious lyric poem, often of significant length, that usually conforms to an elaborate metrical structure.

Onomatopoeia. The use of words which in their pronunciation suggest their meaning. "Hiss," for example,when spoken is intended resemble the sound of steam or of a snake. Other examples include these: slam, buzz,screech, whirr, crush, sizzle, crunch, wring, wrench, gouge, grind, mangle, bang, blam, pow, zap, fizz, urp, roar,

growl, blip, click, whimper, and, of course, snap, crackle, and pop. Note that the connection between sound and

pronunciation is sometimes rather a product of imagination ("slam" and "wring" are not very good imitations).

And note also that written language retains an aural quality, so that even unspoken your writing has a sound toit. Compare these sentences, for instance:

Someone yelled, "Look out!" and I heard the skidding of tires and the horrible noise of bending metal

and breaking glass.

Someone yelled, "Look out!" and I heard a loud screech followed by a grinding, wrenching crash.

Onomatopoeia can produce a lively sentence, adding a kind of flavoring by its sound effects:

The flies buzzing and whizzing around their ears kept them from finishing the test at the swamp.

No one talks in these factories. Everyone is too busy. The only sounds are the snip, snip of scissors and

the hum of the sewing machines.

But I loved that old car. I never heard the incessant rattle on a rough road, or the squeakity-squeak

whenever I hit a bump; and as for the squeal of the tires around every corner--well, that was macho. If you like the plop, plop, plop of a faucet at three in the morning, you will like this record.

Overstatement: An exaggeration of fact; also called hyperbole.


21/35

Oxymoron. A paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjective-noun ("eloquent silence") or adverb-adjective ("inertly strong") relationship, and is used for effect, to emphasize contrasts, incongruities, hypocrisy,or simply the complex nature of reality. Examples: wise fool, ignorantly learned, laughing sadness,pious hate. Some others:

I do here make humbly bold to present them with a short account of themselves and their art. . . .--Jonathan Swift

The bookful blockhead, ignorantly read, With loads of learned lumber in his head. . . . --Alexander Pope

He was now sufficiently composed to order a funeral of modest magnificence, suitable at once to the

rank of a Nouradin's profession, and the reputation of his wealth. --Samuel JohnsonOxymoron can be useful when things have gone contrary to expectation, belief, desire, or assertion, or when

your position is opposite to another's which you are discussing. The figure then produces an ironic contrastwhich shows, in your view, how something has been misunderstood or mislabeled:

Senator Rosebud calls this a useless plan; if so, it is the most helpful useless plan we have ever enacted.

The cost-saving program became an expensive economy.

Other oxymorons, as more or less true paradoxes, show the complexity of a situation where two apparentlyopposite things are true simultaneously, either literally ("desirable calamity") or imaginatively ("love

precipitates delay"). Some examples other writers have used are these: scandalously nice, sublimely bad,

darkness visible, cheerful pessimist, sad joy, wise fool, tender cruelty, despairing hope, freezing fire. Anoxymoron should preferably be yours uniquely; do not use another's unless it is relatively obvious formulation

(like "expensive economy") which anyone might think of. Also, the device is most effective when the terms arenot common opposites. So, instead of "a low high point," you might try "depressed apex" or something.

Parable: An allegory in the form of a brief story, set in the everyday world, told to teach a lesson about ethicsor morality.

Paradox A statement that initially appears to be contradictory but then, on closer inspection, turns out to makesense. For example, John Donne ends his sonnet "Death, Be Not Proud" with the paradoxical statement "Death,thou shalt die." To solve the paradox, it is necessary to discover the sense that underlies the statement. Paradox

is useful in poetry because it arrests a readers attention by its seemingly stubborn refusal to make sense.

Parody. A satiric imitation of a work or of an author with the idea of ridiculing the author, his ideas, or work.The parodist exploits the peculiarities of an author's expression--his propensity to use too many parentheses,certain favorite words, or whatever. The parody may also be focused on, say, an improbable plot with too many

convenient events. Fielding's Shamela is, in large part, a parody of Richardson's Pamela.

Parallelism Repeated grammatical

structure: parallelism often

helps to make the messagememorable. Parallelism

often helps establish that

particular items belong in a

list.

1. "Shallow understanding

from people of good will is

more frustrating than absolutemisunderstanding from people

of ill will" (King 189).

2. "First there is what may be

called case poverty. . . .Second, there is what may becalled insular poverty"(Galbraith 251).

1. The parallel sounds of

"[whatever] understanding from

people of [whatever] will" helpthis statement to stick in the

reader's mind.

2. The parallel structure (and

wording) of these two sentenceshelp the reader to see the

organization of Galbraith'sideas. These two sentences

stand out as the main points of

his argument.

6. Parallelism (parallel structure) is recurrent syntactical similarity. Several parts of a sentence orseveral sentences are expressed similarly to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in

importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence.


22/35

Any sentence elements can be paralleled, any number of times (though, of course, excess quickly becomes

ridiculous). You might choose parallel subjects with parallel modifiers attached to them:

Ferocious dragons breathing fire and wicked sorcerers casting their spells do their harm by night in the

forest of Darkness.

Or parallel verbs and adverbs:

I have always sought but seldom obtained a parking space near the door.

Quickly and happily he walked around the corner to buy the book.

Or parallel verbs and direct objects:

He liked to eat watermelon and to avoid grapefruit.Or just the objects:

This Arab owns three pastel Cadillacs, two gold Rolls Royces, and ten assorted Mercedes.

Or parallel prepositional phrases: He found it difficult to vote for an ideal truth but against his own self interest.

The pilot walked down the aisle, through the door, and into the cockpit, singing "Up, Up, and Away."

Notice how paralleling rather long subordinate clauses helps you to hold the whole sentence clearly in yourhead:

These critics--who point out the beauties of style and ideas, who discover the faults of false

constructions, and who discuss the application of the rules--usually help a lot in engendering anunderstanding of the writer's essay.

When, at the conclusion of a prolonged episode of agonizing thought, you decide to buy this car; when,after a hundred frantic sessions of begging stonefaced bankers for the money, you can obtain sufficient

funds; and when, after two more years of impatience and frustration, you finally get a driver's license,then come see me and we will talk about a deal.

After you corner the market in Brazilian coffee futures, but before you manipulate the price through the

ceiling, sit down and have a cup of coffee with me (while I can still afford it).It is also possible to parallel participial, infinitive, and gerund phrases:

He left the engine on, idling erratically and heating rapidly.

To think accurately and to write precisely are interrelated goals.

She liked sneaking up to Ted and putting the ice cream down his back, because he was so cool about it.

In practice some combination of parts of speech or sentence elements is used to form a statement, depending as

always on what you have to say. In addition, the parallelism, while it normally should be pretty close, does nothave to be exact in its syntactical similarity. For example, you might write,

He ran up to the bookshelves, grabbed a chair standing nearby, stepped painfully on his tiptoes, and

pulled the fifty-pound volume on top of him, crushing his ribs and impressing him with the power of

knowledge.Here are some other examples of parallelism:

I shall never envy the honors which wit and learning obtain in any other cause, if I can be numbered

among the writers who have given ardor to virtue, and confidence to truth. --Samuel Johnson

They had great skill in optics, and had instructed him to see faults in others, and beauties in himself, that

could be discovered by nobody else. . . . --Alexander Pope

For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical science is performance. --Aristotle

Parenthesis. An explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence; often used in farces, especially in theearly 17th century. Examples: "The English (it must be owned) are rather a foul-mouthed nation."

(William Hazlitt) and "In the valley of the jolly--ho-ho-ho!--Green Giant."

Pathetic fallacy: In the arts, the presentation of natural events and objects as controlled by human emotions,so that in some way they express human sorrow or joy (a brave little snowdrop; the heavens smiled on our

enterprise). The phrase was coined by the English critic John Ruskin in Modern Painters (184360), todescribe the ascription of human feelings to the outside world. poetic practice of attributing human emotion or

responses to nature, inanimate objects, or animals. The practice is a form of personification that is as old aspoetry, in which it has always been common to find smiling or dancing flowers, angry or cruel winds, brooding
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0013711.htmlhttp://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0013711.html


23/35

mountains, moping owls, or happy larks. The term was coined by John Ruskin in Modern Painters (184360). It is a rhetorical figure nearly identical topersonification.Examples of the pathetic fallacy include:

"The stars will awaken / Though the moon sleep a full hour later" ( Percy Bysshe Shelley)

"The fruitful field / Laughs with abundance" (William Cowper)

"Lo, the most excellent sun so calm and haughty" (Walt Whitman)

"Nature abhors a vacuum" (John Ruskin's translation of the well-known Medieval saying naturaabhorret a vacuo, in his workModern Painters.)

Persona. The person created by the author to tell a story. Whether the story is told by an omniscient narratoror by a character in it, the actual author of the work often di

2012-2013 literary terms to know revised in rtf

Documents