2010

British Journal of Social Psychology (2010), 49, 803-826©2010 The British Psychological Society

803

TheBritishPsychological

www.bpsjoumals.co.uk

Changes in social identities over tinne: The roleof coping and adaptation processes

Catherine E. Amiot'*, Deborah J. Terry^, Dian Wirawan^and Tim A. Grice^'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada^University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

The present studies investigated the processes by which group members integrate anew social identity. Based on a newly developed theoretical model, we anticipated thatsocial factors (social support and need satisfaction) would be facilitators of this changeprocess and should have an impact on the coping and adaptation strategies groupmembers use to deal with the membership in a new group. These strategies, in turn,should predict intra-individual changes in level of identification with the new group,which should then predict enhanced psychological adjustment over time. The proposedassociations were tested among university students over the course of their firstacademic year (Study I) and among on-line gamers joining a newly established on-linecommunity (Study 2). Path analyses provided support for the hypothesized associations.The results are discussed in light of recent theoretical developments pertaining tointra-individual changes in social identities.

Whether it is through international migration, organizational change, and restructuring,national deconstruction/reconstruction, or major natural disasters, social change isomnipresent in today's world. At an individual level, joining a new social grouprepresents an important change that requires the need to respond to new in-groupnorms, at the same time as finding a way to contribute to the new group context(Hornsey, Grice, Jetten, Paulsen, & Callan, 2007; Postmes & Jetten, 2006). Cognitively,joining a new social group means that an individual's own conception of him or herselfwill possibly change to accommodate to and integrate the new group identity within hisor her overall sense of self.

The present research investigates the processes through which new social identitiesbecome important to the individual's self over time. Specifically, the research focuses onthe phenomenon of intra-individual change in social identities, which captures howsocial identities changeover time within the individual (Cervone, 2005). Doing so allowsto focus on the individual's own subjective experience in the identification process and

* Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Catherine £ Amiot, Département de psychologie, Université du Québec àMontréal, C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, PQ, Canada H3C 3P8 (e-mail: [email protected]).

DOI: 10.1348/014466609X480624

804 Catherine £ Amiot et o/.

to identify diverse trajectories of change (Nesselroade, 1991; Roberts, Caspi, & Moffitt,2001). Putting the emphasis on these intra-individual changes is important given thatmost research has concentrated on how overall samples of participants, on average,changeover time (a phenomenon referred to as inter-individual change and whichcaptures the level of change among an entire population), without considering eachindividual's pattern of change (or intra-individual change, which refers to themagnitude of increase or decrease exhibited by each individual over time).

We adopt the position that contexts of change - such as joining a new social group -trigger intra-individual changes in social identities. In such contexts, changes in socialidentities are likely to require the reorganization of the self-concept in order to integratethe new social identity (Phinney, 1993). A growing number of studies have providedevidence for the variations that occur in group members' social identities over timeGetten, Iyer, Tsivrikos, & Young, 2008; Jetten, O'Brien, & Trindall, 2002; Kessler &Mummendey, 2002). However, the specific processes that underpin intra-individualchanges in social identities remain understudied. Furthermore, past intergroup researchhas tended to focus on the short-term, situationally activated variations in socialidentities (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & WethereU, 1987) - that is, how the salienceof different social identities change from one context to another. The question of hownew social identities become part of the self is definitely worth investigating to accountfor the deeper changes taking place within the self over time and to capture groupmembers' diverse experiences in the change process. Based on a newly developedtheoretical model (Amiot, de la Sablonnière, Terry, & Smith, 2007), the first goal of thepresent studies was to investigate the processes through which social identities changeintra-individually and become part of the self over time.

A cognitive-developmental model of social identity change and integrationAt the heart of our model is the concept of social identity, which refers to 'that part ofthe individual's self-concept which derives from his or her knowledge of membership toa social group together with the value and the emotional significance attached to it'(Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). Because each of us belongs to different social groups, our sense ofself is composed of multiple social identities (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Based ondevelopmental principles, our model assumes that, over time, the self tends to becomeincreasingly complex as different social identities are integrated into the self-concept(e.g.. Harter, 1999). When identities are integrated into the self-concept, they cancoexist within the self without clashing or conflicting with one another. By definition,identity integration should therefore predict a state of enhanced psychologicaladjustment and well-being (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007).

Social faaors

Although the integration of new social identities and an increased feeling ofidentification with a new social group over time are desirable goals, the social contextalso needs to provide the nutriments that will allow a new identity to actually develop.As can be seen in Figure 1, a number of social and individual factors are proposed topredict the changes that occur in social identity over time. When joining a new socialgroup, two social factors that arise within the group - social support and needsatisfaction - are proposed to be adaptation resources that will facilitate both groupmembers' adjustment into their new group and the integration of a new social identity.This prediction is consonant with writings in developmental psychology, which have

Change in social identities 805

Social supportT1

Needsatisfaction

T1

^ -

Task-orientedcoping

T2

Disengagement-orientedcoping T2

Inclusion effortsT2

Positiveaffirmation

T2

Change insocial identity

T1-T2

Change inwell-being

T1-T2

Social factors Coping andadaptation processes

Consequence

Figure I . Hypothesized associations.

Stressed the role of the social environment and interpersonal relations in thedevelopmental process (Harter, 1999). Research conducted during changes such asimmigration and organizational mergers has revealed the importance of social supportin predicting adjustment to these changes (Ataca & Berry, 2002; Terry, Callan, & Sartori,1996). Social support also predicts the use of more adaptive strategies when copingwith life-changes (e.g., Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002; Terry ei«/., 1996). Applying asocial identity approach to social support, Haslam, O'Brien, Jetten, Vormedal, and Penna(2005) showed that informational support had a particularly positive effect inattenuating stress when it was provided by in-group members.

In addition to social support received in the group context, the extent to whichfundamental psychological needs are satisfied by the group should also be a potentpredictor of how new group members deal with and adjust to their entry into a newsocial group (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007). According to self-determinationtheory (SDT), when the fundamental needs for autonomy, competence, and relatednessare satisfied, this wül lead to optimal human functioning and well-being. More recently,research has suggested that these needs can be satisfied via our social groups. In fact,Bettencourt and Sbeldon (2001; Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002) found that satisfaction ofthe needs for autonomy (i.e., perceiving that one can be authentic in the group contextand is accepted for who one really is), competence (feeling that one's contribution tothe group is valued and that one is a competent group member), and relatedness(establishing meaningful relations with other group members) bave a positive impact onboth identification with the group and on psychological well-being. Interestingly, and inline with SDT, these three needs are not mutually exclusive and they have been found tobe positively associated with one another (e.g., Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002).

Cop/ng ar\d adaptation strategies

Coping and adaptation efforts should also play a role in predicting whether a new socialidentity will develop and be endorsed by group members (Figure 1). The process ofjoining a new group requires effort and motivation. Group members need to expandenergy and efforts to deal with the new demands, norms, and ways of functioning in

806 Catherine E. Amiot et al.

their new group context (Chen & Klimoski, 2003). Whereas coping has been formallydefined as the person's behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage the internal andexternal demands of a troubled person-environment transaction (Lazarus & Folkman,1984), coping efforts can also be conceptualized as developmental mechanisms(Brandtstädter, 1998; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995). According to Skinner and Edge(2002), prolonged negotiations with environmental demands characterize the processof self-development and integration, through which novel elements are assimilated tothe self. Based on these propositions, we propose that coping and adaptation strategiesrepresent the concrete actions through which group members actively become part oftheir new group and identify with this in-group (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007),Research conducted during changes such as an organizational merger and the transitionto university have cotifirmed that coping plays a role in predicting identification with anew social group (Amiot, Terry, Jimmieson, & Callan, 2006) and social role (Amiot,Blanchard, & Gaudreau, 2008).'

In the present research, we investigated the role of coping and adaptation strategiesat a point in time when new group members had the opportunity to realize therequirements of their new membership and when they were concretely accotnmo-dating to the demands of their new in-group (e.g,, Amiot, Terry, & Callan, 2007; Moreland &Levine, 1982), We also elected to investigate two broad types of coping and adaptationstrategies. First, those that are employed individually, as proposed by traditional stressand coping models (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), These individual-level strategies includetask-oriented coping strategies, such as investing effort, planning, and seeking relevantinformation. Such task-oriented strategies should predict increased levels ofidentification with the new group. Conversely, the individual-level disengagement-oriented coping strategies, which involve disengaging mentally and behaviourally fromthe new situation, should predict a decrease in social identification over time.

Second, the current research investigates two group-level adaptation strategies thatrelate to the efforts made by the individual in relation to joining the group (Mummendey,Kessler, Klink, & Mielke, 1999). While past studies have uncovered links between socialidentification and group-level strategies Qetten etal, 2008; Mummendey ei a/., 1999),herein we conceptualized these strategies as antecedents of social identity change, andmore precisely, as mechanisms through which new social identities take shape andbecome embedded more deeply into individuals' selves.

The first group-level strategy investigated pertains to inclusion efforts. This strategyrefers to the extent to which individuals are willing to exert efforts to fit into their newgroup and to adopt the norms of this group. This strategy differs from traditional stressand coping strategies by tapping directly into the efforts new group members make tobe accepted in their in-group and by capturing the intragroup actions that aim atestablishing relationships with other in-group members (e.g,, Moreland & Levine, 2000),It also differs from the social mobility strategy which involves leaving a lower statusgroup to join a higher status group one, and where the statuses of one's old and newsocial identities are hence directly compared (Tajfel & Turner, 1986),

The other group-level strategy we assessed pertains to positive affirmation. Thisstrategy is used by in-group members to affirm their group's positive value incomparison to other groups. It differs from traditional stress and coping strategies by

' In the original model (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al., 2007), we mentioned that coping could aaually serve as a mediator inthe association between social support and change in social identity. In the current studies, Ms proposition was tested explicitly


tapping directly into group members' intergroup behaviours. This strategy should comeinto play particularly strongly as group members seek to establish the positivedistinctiveness of their new emerging in-group within the already existing intergroupstructure (e.g., Mummendey et al, 1999). Because these two group-level strategiesconnect the individual to concrete group-related demands and involve the publicexpression of one's in-group allegiance, both of these strategies should lead to anincreased identification with the new social group.

Psychological well-being as a consequence of social identity changeAs mentioned above, an important goal of the present research was to investigate thefactors (i.e., social support, need satisfaction; coping and adaptation strategies) thatpredict the intra-individual changes in social identities that take place over time.Another goal worth pursuing aims at identifying the consequences of such changes. Inline with our model, we hypothesized that an increased sense of identification withone's new social group should predict increased psychological well-being. Socialidentity has been shown to predict enhanced well-being (e.g., Cameron, 1999) as well aswork and life satisfaction (Riketta, 2005; Riketta & van Dick, 2005), and to even act as abuffer against negative events (e.g., Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, & Haslam, 2009). In thecontext of a life-change such as the transition to university, Schmitt, Spears, andBranscombe (2003) found evidence for the mediating role of identification in theassociation between feelings of discrimination and well-being. Bettencourt, Charlton,Eubanks, and Kernahan (1999) similarly reported positive associations between an intra-individual increase in students' identification with their residence hall (over their firstacademic year) and their adjustment to college.

Hypothesized associationsGiven our interest in investigating changes over time, both of the social identificationand well-being variables were constructed so as to tap into the intra-individual changesoccurring in these variables (see also, Bettencourt et al, 1999; Brissette et al, 2002).Doing so allowed us to assess intra-individual changes in identity over time and also tocontrol for baseline (Time 1) measures when predicting the Time 2 consequences.Using such change scores also allows for a more unbiased prediction of these variablesand avoids spuriously inflated estimates of our associations. These constitute majoradvantages of our design (Cole & Maxwell, 2003).

As illustrated in Figure 1, the following associations were tested. Social support andneed satisfaction provided in the context of the new group were expected to predictcoping and adaptation strategies used as group members were actually confronting therequirements of this new context. More specifically, social support and need satisfactionrepresent resources that should facilitate the use of the more active task-oriented copingstrategies and the group-level adaptation strategies of inclusion efforts and positiveaffirmation, while predicting a lower use of the disengagement-oriented copingstrategies. In turn, these coping and adaptation strategies should lead to changes, overtime, in social identification. In line with traditional coping research (Lazarus &Folkman, 1984), it was proposed that these coping and adaptation strategies would thenmediate the associations between the social factors (i.e., social support and needsatisfaction) and the change in identity variable (see Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al,2007). Specifically, task-oriented coping, inclusion efforts, and positive affirmation

808 Catherine E. Amiot et ai

strategies were expected to lead to an increase in social identification over time,whereas disengagement-oriented coping strategies were expected to predict decreasedsocial identification. Finally, we hypothesized that an increase in social identificationwould predict enhanced psychological well-being.

These associations were tested among two samples: (1) first year university studentsand (2) members of a new on-line gaming community. Given the applicability of manysocial psychological theories to different types of social groups (e.g., Ashmore, Deaux, &McLaughlin-Volpe, 2004) and the fact that the model of social identity change andintegration aims to apply to different types of social identities (Amiot, de la Sablonnièreet al, 2007), we anticipated that the proposed associations should replicate from onestudy to the next.

STUDY IThe first study tested these associations in the context of the transition to university,which is considered an important life-change (Ruble & Seidman, 1996). In this context,coping processes are particularly important as they allow entering students to develop aplan of action for navigating through this transition and to integrate the changes broughtabout by this life stage (Brissette et al, 2002). In terms of social identity, this lifetransition involves joining a new educational institution and student body, in this case,the University of Queensland (UQ).

Method

Procedure and participantsAll participants were recruited for the Time 1 questionnaire within the first 2 months oftheir first semester at UQ. The Time 2 questionnaire was completed 4 months later.Participants received course credit for completing Time 1 questionnaire, and theyreceived a compensation of AU$10 for the completion of the Time 2 questionnaire.A total of 334 students completed the Time 1 questionnaire, and 121 participantscompleted the Time 2 questionnaire, whereas 119 students completed bothquestionnaires (98 women; 21 men). Participants' ages ranged from 17 to 45 yearsold (M = 19.07, SD = 3.83).

To investigate whether participants who completed both questionnaires of the study(TV =119) differed from those who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire(A =215), Bonferroni t tests were conducted on the Time 1 variables. These analysesrevealed one significant difference: participants who completed both questionnairesreported higher levels of identification as a UQ student at Time \ (M = 5.01) incomparison to participants who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire (M = 4.57;i(l, 333) = 3.39, p = .001). However, drop-out accounted for 3% of the variance inTime 1 identification and no other difference was found on any other variable.

MeasuresQuestiormaire 1 included the social support and need satisfaction measures, along withbaseline measures of identification as a UQ student and psychological well-being, whichwas assessed using the vitality scale (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Questionnaire 2 assessed


the coping and adaptation strategies used to deal with the transition to university andagain, measures of identification and well-being were taken.

Perceived social support

Fifteen items from the perceived availability of social support (Cohen & Hoberman,1983) were used. This instrument is well-suited to assess social support available to firstyear university students (e.g., Brissette etal., 2002). The instrument assesses three socialsupport dimensions (five-items each); tangible support (e.g., 'I know someone whowould loan me some money to help me pay my tuition'), companionship support('Lately, I often felt lonely, like I don't have anyone to reach out to' - reverse score), andemotional support 1 know someone who I see or talk to often with whom I would feelperfectly comfortable talking about any problems I might have adjusting to universitylife'. Items were completed on a scale ranging from 1 (definitely false) to 4 (definitelytrue). An overall social support score was created using all 15 items (a = .83).

Need satisfaction

Items from Sheldon and Bettencourt's (2002) measure were used to assess how eachof three psychological needs where satisfied in the context of being part of tbe UQstudent body (Deci & Ryan, 2000); autonomy (e.g., 'How free and choiceftil do youfeel when being in this group?'), relatedness How close and connected do you feel toother members of the group?', and competence To what extent do people at UQmake you feel as a valuable member of this group?'. The items were completed using aseven-point response format, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Three itemswere used to assess each need. An overall need satisfaction score w as created using allof the 9 items (a = .92).

Coping

The COPE inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) has been successfully used toassess coping strategies used by students experiencing the transition to university(Brissette et al, 2002). When completing the COPE, participants were asked to rate howeach item reflected how they were dealing with the transition to university (1 = not atall; 7 = very strongly). The COPE subscales pertaining to active coping, planning,seeking of social support for emotional and instrumental reasons, positivereinterpretation of the transition, and acceptance were used to assess task-orientedcoping. The COPE subscales measuring behavioural disengagement, denial, andventilation of negative emotions were used to assess disengagement-oriented coping.The disengagement-oriented coping strategy of other-blame (blaming the others forone's difficulties in the transition) was also included.

Identification as a university student

This 12-item instrument was designed to measure strength of social identity Gackson,2002) and was adapted to measure three aspects of participants' degree of identificationas a UQ student (1 = not at all; 7 = very strongly). First, the cognitive dimension ofidentity was assessed by asking participants how strongly they identified as a universitystudent (e.g., I identify myself as a UQ student'). Second, the affective component ofidentity was measured by asking participants bow positive they felt as a university

810 Catherine £ Amiot et ai

student 'I am glad to be a UQ student'. Third, to tap into how this new identity wasembedded and well-integrated within one's overall life, questions were included toassess how being a university student provided a sense of purpose and direction 'Being aUQ student helps me achieve things that are important in my life'. An overallidentification score was created using these 12-items (Time 1, a = .92; Time 2, a = .93).

Psychological well-being (vitality)

The seven-item vitality scale was employed to measure the energization aspect ofpsychological well-being (Ryan & Frederick, 1997). This dimension of well-being,which captures enthusiasm and spirit, is considered an important and relevant indicatorof eudemonic well-being (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2001). This well-being measure is alsocontent-free with respect to external criteria of well-being (e.g., objective success,health, social support). Given that the transition to university can be stressful andrequires energy, this well-being indicator is well-suited and pertinent. Participantsindicated the extent to which each of the items corresponded to how they hadgenerally felt over the past 2 weeks (e.g., 'I felt alive and vital'). Each item was rated ona seven-point Likert scale (1 = not agree at all, 7 = very strongly agree; Time 1, a = .93;Time 2, a = .66}.

Results

Main analysesTable 1 presents descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables.

Table I . Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables (Study I )

1. T l social support2. T l need satisfaction3. T2 task-oriented coping4. T2 disengagement-oriented coping5. Change in social identity6. Change in vitality

M

3.104.224.922.240.000.00

SD

0.531.030.840.921.001.00

1

.49***

.36***- . 3 1 * *- . 01

.20*

2

_48***

- . 0 6.11.04

3

_

.05

.36**

.21*

4

—

- .03.04

5

_.23*

Note. M, mean; SD, standard deviation.*p < .05; **p < .01 ; ***f) < .001.

Inter- and intra-individual changes over time

Because of our conceptual interest in changes occurring over time, patterns of inter-individual changes (mean-level changes) in identification and well-being were firstinspected. Inter-individual change refers to an overall population's pattern of change.Repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) allow to tap into inter-individualchange (e.g., Roberts etal, 2001). Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no significantchange in identification as a UQ student (M at Time 1 = 5.01; M at Time 2 = 4.96;F(l, 118) = 0.54, p = .465, f]^ = .005) and in vitality (M at Time 1 = 388; M atTime 2 = 3.88; F(l, 118) = 0.01,p = .977, T]^ = .000).

While these mean-level analyses revealed no significant inter-individual changes inour overall sample, we needed to look at each individual's intra-individual pattern ofchange in order to determine whether the scores of some people were significantly


increasing over time, whereas others' were significantly decreasing. Indeed, even in theabsence of significant inter-individual change, there can be significant intra-individualchange. Furthermore, the correlation between social identification at Times 1 and 2 was:r = ,73 (p < .001), indicating that the continuity and consistency of the socialidentification variable over time was far from perfect and that we need to account forsuch change (Roberts et al, 2001).

Specifically, intra-individual change refers to the magnitude of increase or decreaseexhibited by each individual over time. To assess whether a given participant exhibitedreliable change on the identification and well-being (i.e., vitality) variables, wecalculated the reliable change index (RCI; Christensen & Mendoza, 1986), a procedurethat has been employed to assess the psychological changes occurring during lifetransitions among normal populations (e.g., Amiot et al, 2008; Roberts et al, 2001).One major advantage of the RCI is that it allows to compensate for the unreliability of thechange scores. The RCI is also informative for nonintervention or natural history studies(Robert et al, 2001), such as in the current studies.

The specific formula used to obtain RCI scores is as follows (Christensen & Mendoza,1986): RC = ^2 - Xi/5diff, where Xi represents a person's score at Time 1,X2 represents that same person's score at Time 2, and Sdift is the standard error ofdifference between the two test scores, which can be computed using the standarderror of measurement: 5diff = (2(5E)^)'^^ The standard error of the difference scorerepresents the spread of the distribution of change scores that would be expected if noactual change has occurred. RCI scores smaller than -1.96 or larger than 1,96 areunlikely to occur without true change and are thus considered reliable. Furthermore, ifchange were random, then we would expect the distribution of RCI scores to be normal,with approximately 2,5% below - 1.96, 2.5% above 1.96, and 95% of the participantsremaining the same. Based on this formula, we can then use the RCI to identify theproportions of participants from our sample who significantly increased, significantlydecreased, or showed no appreciable change (Christensen & Mendoza, 1986; Robertsetal, 2001).

Based on the RCI, we observed that 22% of participants decreased their identificationas a UQ student from Times 1 to 2, whereas 20.2% increased their identification,and 57.8% stayed the same. Chi-squared statistics revealed that on the identificationvariable, the distribution of decreasers, nonchangers, and increasers differedsignificantly from the pattern that would be expected by chance (x^(2) = 291.98,p < .001), suggesting that significant proportions of participants displayed reliable intra-individual change in social identification over time. On the vitality variable, 16.9% ofparticipants displayed a decrease, 16.9% displayed an increase, and 66.2% stayed thesame, again representing significant intra-individual change (x^(2) = 174.62,p < .001).Taken together, these results suggest that significant proportions of participantsdisplayed intra-individual changes on the social identification and well-being(i.e., vitality) variables.

The next step was to examine whether the coping variables predicted these intra-individual changes. To do so, residualized difference scores were computed.To compute these scores, each Time 2 variable was regressed on to its correspondingTime 1 variable and the residual values for these predictions were saved as distinctvariables (Cronbach & Furby, 1970). Residualized change scores are particularly useftilto use in the current context given that they represent the intra-individual change thatexists in the targeted variables (Roberts etal, 2001). These change variables were thenembedded into a path analysis.

812 Catherine E, Amiot et ai

Path analysesThe maximum-likelihood estimation procedure was used to estimate model fit. Weassessed the model's goodness of fit by using the chi-squared ratio, the comparativefit index (CFI), the root mean residual (RMR), and the root mean square ofapproximation (RMSEA). The chi-squared should ideally be non-significant. CFI valuesgreater than .90 serve as the lower cut-off (Hu & Bentler, 1999). RMR values below.10 are acceptable. Values smaller than .08 on the RMSEA indicate acceptable fit ofthe model, whereas values smaller than .05 represent good fit (Byrne, 1994; Hoyle,1995). Statistics that adjust for the amount of non-normality in the data were alsocomputed (i.e., Satorra-Bentler (S-B) chi-squared; adjusted CFI, and RMSEA). The LaGrange multiplier test (LM-test) was used to identify parameters that, if added to themodel, would yield a significantly better fit. The Wald test was used to identify non-significant parameters.

The model was specified as illustrated in Figure 2. When testing the hypothesizedmodel, fit indices were marginal (x^(7) = 15.911,j5 = .026, S-B x^ = 14.111,CFI = .911,adjusted CFI = .910, RMR = .066, RMSEA = .105, adjusted RMSEA = .094). The LM-testsuggested that a path between social support and change in vitality should be added. Thisaddition is in line with prior research that has shown the importance of social support inpredicting increased vitality and well-being (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2000) The addition of thisassociation resulted in a significantly better model (x^A(l) = 5.221,p = .022) that alsoyielded satisfactory fit indices (x^(6) = 10.690, p = .098, S-B x^ = 9.465, CFI = .953,adjusted CFI = .956, RMR = .060, RMSEA = .082, adjusted RMSEA = .071). As can beseen in Figure 2, most of the hypothesized associations were supported. Only twoassociations were found to be non-significant, namely, the associations between needsatisfaction and disengagement-oriented coping and between disengagement-orientedcoping and change in identification. A final model that did not include these non-significant links did not significantly differ from the prior one (x^A(2) = 0.783,p = .676)and presented satisfactory fit indices (x^(8) = 11.473, p = .176, S-B x^ = 10.252,CFI = .965, adjusted CFI = .971, RMR = .059, RMSEA = .061, adjusted RMSEA = .049).

Tests of mediation

To test for the mediating role of the coping and change in identification variables, andin line with the procedures proposed by Holmbeck (1997), we first tested a model in

.49*

Needsatisfaction

Tl

.19*

\ . .38*

X-.07

/

Task-orientedcoping

T2

36*

\ Disengagement-oriented coping

T2

.20*

Change insocial identity

T1-T2

.24* Change invitalityT1-T2

Consequence

Social factors Coping andadaptation processes

Figure 2. Path model for Study I.


which the direct paths between both social support and need satisfaction to changes inidentification and in vitality was compared to the final model that did not include all ofthese direct paths (Holmbeck, 1997). Results revealed that the model that included alldirect links did not present a significantly better fit (x^A(5) = 8.508, p = .150]X^(l) = 2.182, p = .139, CFI = .988, adjusted CFI = .987, RMSEA = .101, adjustedRMSEA = .093, RMR = .027). These results suggest that the coping and change in socialidentity variables significantly mediated the associations from the social factors to thewell-being (i.e., vitality) variable.

A second procedure was employed to test for mediation. To this aim, indirect effectswere investigated. As can be seen in Figure 2, our model suggests that the effects ofsocial support and need satisfaction on the change in social identity and in well-being(i.e., vitality) are mediated by the coping variables. As well, the change in identityvariable should mediate the association between the coping variables and change invitality. Each of these relationships can be broken down into direct and indirect effectstbat are amenable to tests of significance. Whereas a direct effect represents the directassociation between an independent variable and a dependent variable, an indirecteffect corresponds to the effects of one or more mediating variables in that relationship.In structural equation modeling (SEM), mediated paths are considered indirectassociations (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). If the paths representing the indirect associationsare significant, then (at least partial) mediation exists. Results of the indirect testsindicated that coping strategies significantly mediated the impact of social support onchange in social identity (ß = 0.08, p = .038). Coping strategies also significantlymediated the impact of need satisfaction on change in social identity (ß = 0.13,p = .007). The mediating role of change in social identity in the association betweentask-oriented coping and change in vitality was also significant (ß = 0.08, p = .030).The only non-significant indirect effect to emerge revealed that change in social identitydid not significantly mediate the effect of disengagement-oriented coping on change invitality (ß = -0.01, p = .562). These findings suggest that the majority of theassociations from the social factors to the well-being (i.e., vitality) variable weremediated through the coping and change in identification variables.

DiscussionThis first study provided support for most of our hypothesized associations and forthe mediating role of coping strategies and change in social identification in theassociations between the social factors (i.e., social support and need satisfaction) andpsychological well-being (i.e., vitality) as a consequence of this change. In terms ofidentity change, ANOVAs revealed that the sample as a whole did not changesignificantly on the identification and well-being variables (inter-individual change).However, results from the intra-individual change analyses (i.e., RCI) revealed thatsignificant proportions of participants changed by either increasing or decreasingtheir level of identification as a UQ student from the beginning of their first year to4 months later. Significant intra-individual changes were also observed in the well-beingvariable. Together, these results confirm the existence of intra-individual changes insocial identity and well-being over time (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007).

Change variables were then created (through residualized change scores) andembedded in path analyses in order to test whether coping processes predicted theseintra-individual changes. While most of the hypothesized associations were supported.


the association between disengagement-oriented coping and changes in identificationwas not sigtiificant (see also, Amiot etal, 2008). It thus seems that coping strategies thatreflect a disengagement from the new social context do not impact negatively onidentity. In contrast, strategies that connect the individual to the demands of thesituation (task-oriented coping) play a more potent role in facilitating the developmentof a new social identity.

Together, these results provide support for some of the basic premises of ourmodel (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007). To test these links in another lifecontext. Study 2 was conducted among members of an emerging on-line gamingcommunity. This second study added to Study 1 by investigating the role playedby group4evel adaptation strategies as additional mediators in the associationsbetween the social factors and changes in identification. The investigation of thesegroup-level strategies in Study 2 appeared particularly relevant. In fact, according tosocial identity theory, collective strategies can be quite useful when group membersseek to acquire a positive position in the intergroup structure (Tajfel & Turner,1986). This was indeed the case in Study 2, where group members were in theprocess of building cohesion within the new group and were establishing a positivestanding for this new in-group relative to other on-line communities. In comparison,in Study 1, the intergroup situation (UQ vs. other universities) was well established.These group-level strategies should hence be particularly potent in a situation wheregroup members have all to gain as they are building intragroup cohesionand establishing the positivity and distinctiveness of their new in-group relativeto out-groups.

STUDY 2The second study was conducted among on4ine gamers in the context of theemergence of a new on-line gaming community. Virtual communities can be vividand important social identities for their members. There is growing empiricalevidence to suggest that group processes play an important role in Internetcommunities, including gaming communities (Hornsey et al., 2007; Reicher, Spears,& Postmes, 1995).

In this study, we aimed to replicate the hypothesized model presented earlier.Furthermore, in an effort to account more fully for the processes through which socialidentity changes over time, we assessed two group-level adaptation strategies(Mummendey etal, 1999). These included inclusion efforts, which refer to the effortsmade by group members to adopt the norms of the new in-group and to fit into thisgroup, z.nápositive affirmation, which reflects the extent to which players are activelyaffirming the positive aspects of their new group in comparison to other groups.Including these group-level strategies allows to capture a dimension of adaptation that isdistinct from traditional stress and coping strategies. In fact, while individual-levelstrategies tap into the individuals' own actions to deal with the change (withoutreference to their social group), group4evel adaptation strategies capture behavioursperformed at the intragroup and intergroup levels of analysis. Including these strategiesin Study 2 brings further nuances to the coping and adaptation processes involved asindividuals are joining and establishing a new social group, while also allowing a directcomparison of how efficient individual-level versus group4evel adaptation strategies arein predicting change in social identity.


Method

Procedure and participantsTo facilitate the recruitment of our participants, the official website of the emerginggaming community advertised the study and displayed a link to our on-line survey ontheir introductory web page. All participants were recruited for the Time 1questionnaire within the first 3 months after the opening of the game on the Internet.The link to the second questionnaire was sent to each participant through e-mail3 months after they had completed the Time 1 questionnaire. A total of 1,399 on-linegamers completed the Time 1 questionnaire, whereas 447 participants completed theTime 2 questionnaire, and 4l4 participants completed both questionnaires (36l men;53 women). Participants' ages ranged from 13 to 58 years old (M = 28.78, SD = 8.02).The sample included participants from a range of different nationalities: 70.5% ofparticipants were American, 9% European, 8% Canadian, 4% Australian, and 2% Asian. Interms of education, 40% of the sample had obtained a diploma or certificate, 31% had auniversity degree, 16% had completed high school, 9% had graduate qualifications, and4% had completed primary school.

To investigate whether participants who completed both questionnaires of the studydiffered from those who completed only the Time 1 questionnaire, Bonferroni t testswere conducted on the Time 1 variables. These analyses revealed no significantdifferences between the two samples.

MeasuresQuestionnaire 1 included the social support and need satisfaction measures, along withbaseline measures of identification as a member of the on-line gaming community andpsychological well-being (assessed using a measure of positive emotions in the contextof the game). Questionnaire 2 measured the coping and adaptation strategies used byparticipants as they were joining the new gaming community and again, identificationand well-being were assessed. In this study, the measures and items were chosen withparsimony in mind so as to maximize participation and minimize the drop-out of ourvirtual participants.

Perceived social support

Three items were adapted to assess social support in the context of the on-line game(e.g., 'Since you started playing the game, how often did other players go out of theirway to help you in the game?'; a = .85). Each item was responded to on a 1 (not at all) to7 (very much) Likert scale.

Need satisfaction

Three items from Sheldon and Bettencourt (2002) were used to assess how each of thethree psychological needs were satisfied in the context of the on-line community:autonomy (e.g., 'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-linegame, how free and able to make decision do you feel in this gaming community?'),competence 'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-line game, towhat extent do other players make you feel like a competent player?', and relatedness'When you think about your experience of joining the new on-line game, how much of

816 Catherine £ Amiot et al.

a sense of relatedness do you feel w ith other players of the gaming community?'. Theitems used a seven-point response format, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely).

Coping and adaptation

Items from the COPE inventory (Carver et al, 1989) were adapted to assess howparticipants dealt with joining the new gaming community (1 = not at all; 7 = verymuch). Three COPE items pertaining to task-oriented coping were included. One itemassessed expending effort 'I concentrated my efforts on learning the rules and norms ofthe game', one assessed planning 'I came up with a strategy to really get to know howthe game works', and one assessed seeking of social support for instrumental reasons'I sought advice from people who could help me in the game', A fourth task-orienteditem was included to assess goal-oriented behaviour: I focused on the goals I have in thegame and tried to achieve them'. The alpha for this four-item task-oriented copingmeasure was ,6l.

Two group-level adaptation strategies were also assessed. First, three-items assessedthe adaptation strategy of inclusion efforts (a = ,62), One item was adapted fromMummendey et al (1999; 'I make efforts to be considered as a valuable played of theon-line community'), and two other items were included: 'I adopt behaviors that allowme to fit into the on-line community'; 'I adapted my style of playing so I could meet thegame's norms and rules'. Second, two items were included to assess positive affirmation.These items were: When I can, I tell people how good the new on-line game is incomparison to other on-line games'; 'I sincerely think that the new on-line gamecompares positively to other on-line games and I find myself expressing this to otherpeople' (a = ,84),

Identification as a member of the on-line community

Three items from Jackson (2002) were employed to measure identification as amember of the new on-line community (1 = not at all; 7 = very strongly). First, thecognitive dimension of identity was assessed by asking participants how strongly theyidentified themselves as a player of the new on-line community. Second, the affectivecomponent of identity was measured by asking participants how proud they were tobe a player of the new on-line community. Third, participants were asked howconnected they felt to other players of the on-line community, A fourth identificationitem was included based on the 'Inclusion of the Other in the Self Scale' (Aron, Aron, &SmoUan, 1992), When completing this measure, participants were asked to select,among seven pictures representing circles overlapping to differing degrees, the onethat best illustrated the relationship between themselves and their new on-linecommunity. An overall identification score was created using these four items (Time 1,a = .86; Time 2, a = .84).

Psychological well-being (positive emotions)

Three items assessed positive emotions in the context of the new on-line game (e.g.,'In general, I like playing the new on-line game'; 1 = strongly disagree; 7 = stronglyagree; Time 1, a = ,83; Time 2, a = .85). Positive emotions are considered importantindicators of well-being (e.g,, Fredrickson, 1998), This indicator of well-being waschosen for Study 2 given that it is directly tied to the context of the on-linecommunity and that it represents a more direct and specific outcome of this social


identity (see also, Riketta & van Dick, 2005). In fact, while membership to on-linecommunities is important for their members (Hornsey et al, 2007; Reicher et al,1995), such an identity may have a more limited impact on overall well-being than anidentity that represents a dimension of the self in which significant amounts of timeand energy are invested and that guides important life outcomes such as choice offtiture career and earning potential (i.e., being a member of the UQ student body;Campbell, Assanand, & Di Paula, 2000).

Results

Main analysesTable 2 presents descriptive statistics and correlations for the main variables.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the main variables (Study 2)

1. T l social support2. T1 need satisfaction3. T2 task-oriented coping4. T2 inclusion efforts5. T2 positive affirmation6. Change in social identity7. Change in positive emotions

M

4.765.134.423.754.780.000.00

SD

1.49l . l lI.OI1.251.501.001.00

1

_65***

.34***

.30**33***

.18***

.12*

2

—34***3 1 * * *

.44***

.20**

.11*

3

-

.60***44***

.31***15**

4

_

.30***27***13**

5

—42***

.27***

6

-

.37***

Note. M, mean; SD, standard deviation.*p < .05; **f) < .01 ; ***/) < .001.

Inter- and intra-individual changes over time

First, patterns of inter-individual changes in the variables of identification as a memberof the gaming community and positive emotions in the context of the game wereinspected in order to test for the changes occurring in our sample over time. Repeatedmeasures ANOVAs revealed significant inter-individual decreases in positive emotions(M at Time 1 = 5.94; M at Time 2 - 5.58; F<il,4l5) = 44,14, p < .001, ti^ = .097).Identification as a member of the on-line community decreased marginally over time(M at Time 1 = 4.37; M at Time 2 = 4.29; F(1,415) = 2,75, p = .099, ti^ = .007).

As in Study 1, we looked at the correlation between social identification at Times 1and 2, which was r = .65 (p < .001), suggesting a far from perfect degree of consistencyand continuity in this social identification variable (Roberts etal, 2001). A RCI was thencalculated to assess whether a given participant exhibited reliable changes over time(Christensen & Mendoza, 1986). Based on the RCI, we observed that 14.5% ofparticipants decreased in their identification as a member of the on-line communityfrom Times 1 to 2, while 7.2% increased in their identification, and 78.3% stayed thesame. Chi-squared statistics revealed that on the identification variable, the distributionof decreasers, nonchangers, and increasers differed significantly from the pattern thatwould be expected by chance (x^(2) = 69372,/» < .001). With respect to the positiveemotions variable, 25.1% of participants decreased reliably on this variable, while 8.9%increased, and 66% stayed the same. This pattern of intra-individual change was againsignificant (x^(2) = 229541,/? < .001). Together, these results suggest that a significantproportion of participants displayed intra-individual changes on the identification and

818 Catíierine £ Amiot et ai

positive emotions variables. To examine which variables predicted such changes,residualized difference scores were computed. These change variables were thenembedded into a path analysis.

Patíi analyses

The model was specified as illustrated in Figure 3. Because of the significant correlationobserved between task-oriented coping and inclusion efforts, the error terms of thesetwo variables were allowed to intercorrelate. When testing the hypothesized model, fitindices were satisfactory (x^(9) = 55.273, p < .001, S-B x = 46.069, CFI = .940,adjusted CFI = .943, RMR = .070, RMSEA = .112, adjusted RMSEA = .100). The LM-testrevealed no additional paths that would improve model fit.

As can be seen in Figure 3, most of the hypothesized associations were supported.One association was found to be non-significant, namely the one between task-orientedcoping and change in identification. A model that did not include this non-significantlink did not significantly differ from the prior one (x^A(l) = 2.291, p = .130) andpresented satisfactory fit indices (x^(lO) = 57.564, p < .001, S-B x = 48.045,CFI = .938, adjusted CFI = .941, RMR = .073, RMSEA = .107, adjusted RMSEA = .096).

Tests of mediation

To test for the mediating role of the coping and change in identification variables, amodel in which the direct paths between social support and need satisfaction tochanges in identification and to positive emotions (the outcome variable) was comparedto a model in which these direct paths were not included (Holmbeck, 1997). Resultsrevealed that the model that included the direct links did not present a significantlybetter fit (x^A(7) = 8.973, p = .255; x^(2) = 46.300, p < .001, S-B x = 33.881,CFI = .943, adjusted CFI = .951, RMSEA = .232, adjusted RMSEA = .196, RMR = .064),hence confirming the mediating role of the coping and adaptation variables as well asthe change in identity variable in the associations between the social factors and positiveemotions as a well-being indicator.

Social factors

Change inpositive

emotions T1-T2

Coping andadaptation processes

Consequence

Figure 3. Path model for Study 2.


Second, indirect effects provided by the EQS program were investigated tofurther test for mediation. As can be seen in Figure 3, tbe model tested if the effectof social support and need satisfaction on the change in social identity and in well-being (i.e., positive emotions) is mediated by the coping and adaptation variables. Aswell, the change in identity variable should mediate the association between thecoping variables and change in positive emotions. Results of the indirect testsindicated that coping and adaptation strategies significantly mediated the impact ofsocial support on change in social identity (ß = 0.10, p=.OO2). Coping andadaptation strategies also significantly mediated the impact of need satisfaction onchange in social identity (ß = O.l6, p < .001). While change in social identity did notsignificantly mediate the effect of task-oriented coping on change in positiveemotions (ß = 0.03, p — .147), the change in social identity variable marginallymediated the effect of inclusion efforts on positive emotions (ß = 0.04, p = .060)and significantly mediated the effect of positive affirmation (ß = 0.13, p < .001) onpositive emotions. These findings suggest that the majority of the associations fromthe social factors to the well-being consequence were mediated through the copingand change in social identity variables.

Alternative model

Somewhat unexpectedly, when we tested the hypothesized model, the associationbetween task-oriented coping and change in social identity was found to be non-significant. In order to test tbe unique role played by task-oriented coping as anindividuaHevel coping strategy, an alternative model was tested, in which only task-oriented coping was included as a coping process, and where the group adaptationstrategies of inclusion efforts and positive affirmation were excluded from the model.This alternative model presented satisfactory fit indices; x^(5) = 6.532, p = .258,S-Bx = 5.825, CFI = .996, adjusted CFI = .997, RMSEA = .027, adjusted RMSEA = .020,RMR = .043. In this model, tests of indirect effects also confirmed the mediating role ofthe change in social identity variable in the association between task-oriented copingand change in positive emotions (ß = 0.12, p < .001). Most importantly, the directassociation betw^een task-oriented coping and change in social identity was significant(ß = 0.51, p < .001). However, as demonstrated above, when the two group-levelstrategies are included in the model, this association becomes non-significant. Together,these findings suggest that, over and above the effect of individuaHevel copingstrategies (task-oriented coping), the group4evel strategies of inclusion efforts andpositive affirmation are potent predictors of change in identification.

DiscussionConducted in a different life context and among members of a different type of socialgroup (i.e., a virtual community), the second study provided support for most of thehypothesized associations and for the mediating role of adaptation strategies and socialidentity change in the relationships between the social factors (i.e., social support andneed satisfaction) and psychological well-being (assessed by measuring positive emotionsin the context of the on4ine game) as an outcome variable. As in Study 1, significant intra-individual changes were observed in social identification and in well-being. While most of


the hypothesized associations were confirmed in the path analyses, the associationbetween task-oriented coping and changes in identity was not significant.

Before concluding that task-oriented coping does not play any significant role, analternative model was tested in which only task-oriented coping was included as anadaptation process. This alternative model revealed a significant association betweentask-oriented coping and change in social identification. This finding suggests that task-oriented coping does impact on intra-individual changes occurring over time in identity,but that when compared with group-level adaptation strategies, task-oriented copingloses its predictive power These results replicate past findings showing how, inchanging contexts, group-level processes predict adjustment to such changes, over andabove individual-level coping processes (Terry, Carey, & Callan, 2001). In fact, whileinvesting efforts into fitting in the new group proved particularly useful in terms ofincreasing one's sense of identification with the group, talking positively about thisgroup was another group-level strategy that increased social identification.

GENERAL DISCUSSIONThe present studies are among the first to investigate intra-individual changes occurringin social identities over time and the processes predicting these changes (Amiot et al,2008). Based on a recently developed model (Amiot, de la Sablonnière etal, 2007), thestudies tested how two social factors (i.e., social support and need satisfaction)represent intragroup resources (i.e., facilitators) that predict which coping andadaptation strategies will be employed by new group members to adjust to the groupcontext. In turn, these coping and adaptation processes were expected to predict intra-individual changes in levels of identification with the new group, which should thenpredict enhanced psychological well-being. Two studies were conducted that involvedchanges in quite different social identities. Study 1 was conducted in the context of thetransition to university and focused on the integration of the new institutional identityinto the self-concept and on individual-level coping strategies. Study 2 was conductedamong on-line gamers joining an emerging new on-line community and investigatedboth individual- and group-level adaptation strategies. Despite the different nature ofthese groups, convergent findings emerged across the studies.

Different statistical techniques - some v hich w ere imported from thedevelopmental and personality psychology domains (e.g., RCT) - were used toinvestigate both inter- and intra-individual changes in social identities and to test for thesignificance of these changes. In both studies, evidence of intra-individual changes insocial identification and psychological well-being was found. Interestingly, individualsdisplayed both increases and decreases in these variables, indicating that change maytake different directions and that we need to account for these different change patternsand trajectories. In order to identify the variables that predicted these intra-individualchanges, residualized change scores were then embedded in path analyses. Results ofthese analyses confirmed most of the hypothesized associations and provided supportfor the mediating role of adaptation strategies and change in social identification in theassociations between the social support variables and well-being. Across the twostudies, social support and need satisfaction predicted a greater reliance on both task-oriented coping strategies and group-level adaptation strategies, and a lower use of thedisengagement-oriented coping strategies. These results suggest that providing socialsupport to new^comers and valuing these new group members' individuality and


contribution to the new group not only predicts their enhanced use of strategies thatallows them to individually and actively deal with the transition (i.e., task-orientedcoping), but also leads them to attempt to fit into this group (i.e., inclusion efforts) andto affirm its positivity (i.e., positive affirmation).

In Study 1, which focused on individual-level coping strategies, task-oriented copingin turn predicted increased identification as a member of one's new university whereasdisengagement-oriented coping did not significantly predict change in socialidentification. In Study 2, the group-level strategies of inclusion efforts and positiveaffirmation were investigated, along with the individual-level strategy of task-orientedcoping. Results revealed that when the individual-level task-oriented coping strategieswere included in the same model as the group-level strategies (i.e., inclusion efforts;positive affirmation), it was only the two group strategies that predicted increased socialidentification. However, when task-oriented coping was included on its own as amediating factor, these individual-level strategies accounted significantly for the changesin social identification. These results indicate that, over and above individual-level copingstrategies, it is important to account for group-level adaptation processes in order tounderstand how individuals develop a sense of identification with a new group context(Terry et al, 2001). The impact of these group-level adaptation strategies could beparticularly potent in a context where the emerging social group aims to position itselfwithin the existing intergroup structure and establish its distinctiveness and positivity.

A note must also be made about the social support measures used across studies andthe differences between these measures. Whereas in Study 1, social support wasassessed broadly (i.e., by referring to different sources of social support - family, peopleat university, social groups), in Study 2, the social support variable was more specific(i.e., support received by other members of the gaming community). An iiiterestingquestion that could be raised is as follows: in an important life-change such as thetransition to university (e.g., Brissette et al., 2002), is it more useful to receive socialsupport from broader sources (rather than a more specific, university-based socialsupport)? Whereas past research has shown that social support provided by the in-groupspecifically is particularly beneficial in reducing stress (Haslam etal., 2005), in major lifetransitions (e,g,, organizational mergers; immigration; Ataca & Berry, 2002; Terry etal.,1996), broader social support may prove necessary (e,g,. Harter, 1999). In suchsituations, the individual may resort to more 'distal' and global sources of social support,and benefit from all of these sources. Perhaps, a superordinate identity (i,e,,identification with a very inclusive and broad social category) becomes salient inthese situations so as to capture as much social support as it is possible and ftilly benefitfrom this support. In comparison, joining a new virtual leisure group stills involves thedevelopment of an important social identity (e,g,, Hornsey et al., 2007; Reicher et al.,1995), but may require less global life adjustments. In such a context, a more targetedand specific form of social support may prove sufficient and may fill more efficiently newgroup members' needs. Definitely, these interesting questions deserve furtherinvestigation.

The two studies presented in this paper focused on the intragroup factors thatfacilitate the integration of new social identities. However, other factors may inhibit thedevelopment of a new social identity, including threat to one's original (pre-existing)social identities and intergroup power/status asymmetries (Amiot, de la Sablonnièreet al, 2007), In fact, when group members feel that some of their pre-existing identitiesare threatened by a change and that the new identity to be integrated 'pushes' asidethese identities, it should be more difficult for the new identity to become integrated

822 Catherine £. Amiot et al,

without causing conflicts within the self. In the context of the present studies, threat toone's pre-existing social identities might not have been particularly salient given that thechanges participants experienced were presumably based on voluntary decisions (i.e.,choosing to attend university; choosing to become part of a new on-line gamingcommunity - a leisure group). However, many life-changes are imposed and canthreaten the individual's pre-existing social identities (e.g., organizational mergers thatrequire employees to relinquish their pre-existing organizational identity). Futurestudies should investigate the inhibiting role of threat in relation to intra-individualchanges in social identities in such contexts.

Intergroup status and power asymmetries represent another factor that may inhibitthe integration of a new social identity (Amiot, Terry et al, 2007). Social identities thatdiffer markedly in terms of their statuses or the power they provide will be more difficultto integrate in comparison to social identities that are more simüar in their statusesand the power associated with each (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007). Morespecifically, the social identity associated with higher levels of status or power couldpredominate the person's overall sense of self, and hence preclude identity integration.

Despite the advantages of the longitudinal design used in both studies to investigatesocial identity change (e.g., decreased common method variance; assessment of intra-individual changes over time), future research could also employ even more elaboratelongitudinal designs to further capture the change dynamics taking place over time.As well, the current longitudinal design did not allow to test for the assumptions ofstationarity (i.e., when one set of variables produce the same change in another set ofvariables at different time points) and equilibrium (i.e., when associations betweenvariables stabilize over time). Testing for these assumptions would have provided morestringent evidence for the consistency and stability of the associations observed in thecurrent studies (Cole & Maxwell, 2003). To address these issues and directly test theseassumptions, cross-lagged panel analyses could be employed in future research. Suchanalyses would also require a greater number of time points given the nature of themodel tested and the number of mediators included (e.g.. Cole & Maxwell, 2003). Dailydiary methodologies could also be useful to tap more extensively into the changeprocess and the interplay between short-term and long-term changes involved as a newidentity is becoming part of the self (Amiot, de la Sablonnière et al, 2007). In thiscontext, hierarchical liner modelling analyses (which also tap into intra-individualchanges; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) could also be employed.

Future research should also aim at including more diverse measures of psychologicalwell-being as consequences of social identity change. The current research assessedvitality and positive emotions as consequences of change in social identity.^ Thesewell-being measures are considered tw o valid and relevant indicators of psycbologicalwell-being (Fredrickson, 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryan & Frederick, 1997). To furtherensure the generalizabuity of our findings, other well-being measures could be included

Other well-being measures had been included in the current studies (i.e., identity conflict; psychological growth). However,path models that included tí)ese other well-being measures presented less adequate fit indices. However, in the path analysesthat included these other well-being measures, the associations observed between the change in social identity variable andthese well-being measures were nearly all significant Furthermore, bivariate correlations revealed significant associationsbetween change in identity and these other well-being measures. More precisely, in Study I, the correlation between change insocial identity and change in identíty conflict was r = -.22, p = .009, whereas the correlation between change in socialidentity and change in psychological growth was r = .23, p = .012. As reported in the manuscript, the correlation betweenchange in identity and change in vitality (Study / j is r = .23, p = .0/2, whereas the correlation between change in socialidentity and change in positive emotions (Study 2) is r = .37, p < .001.


in ftiture research to cover diverse dimensions of psychological well-being. For instance,the hedonic and eudomanic forms of well-being have been proposed (Ryan & Deci,2001). While hedonic well-being refers to itnmediate happiness and an emphasis on thepresence of positive affect and the absence of negative affect, eudemonic well-beingrefers to living a complete human life and realizing valued human potentials. These twoforms of well-being are also assessed using different instruments. For example, hedonicwell-being can be measured using scales such as the positive and negative affectschedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), whereas eudemonic well-being can beassessed using Ryff's (1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995) psychological well-being measure.Using more diverse well-being scales will greatly contribute to the growing literatureinvestigating the association between social identity and psychological well-being (e.g.,Haslam et al, 2009). Eudamonic measures of well-being may also be particularly well-suited to capture the idea that social groups provide individuals with a sense of meaning,purpose, and belonging (Haslam et al, 2009). This dimension of well-being could beparticularly impacted in the context of social change.

Another area for future studies concerns the multiplicity of identities issue and howthese multiple identities are cognitively organized within the overall self. Social identitytheory explicitly recognizes that each individual belongs to a variety of social groups(Tajfel & Turner, 1979). In the context of the integration of new social identities, it isrelevant to consider what is already in place within the self to understand how the newidentity will fit into this overall portrait (e.g., Jetten et al, 2008). Future research shouldthus assess how the self-structure reorganizes to make 'cognitive space' for the newsocial identity and whether some identities become less important as a new onebecomes integrated. For new university students, this could be determined byconsidering the other groups to which they belong (e.g., family, friends, people fromwork, prior school), and how these are conjugated within their global sense of self.To test these ideas, intra-individual change techniques that focus on ipsative changewould be particularly relevant. In fact, such analyses capture whether there is stabilityover time in the person's tendency to display a preference for one identity relative to theother. Such analyses also allow to identify each person's repertoire of multiple identitiesand to evaluate the consistency and change of the intra-individual organization of theseidentities over time (e.g., Caspi & Herbener, 1990; Roberts et al, 2001). Definitely,different domains of psychology (e.g., social, personality, developmental, health) cancomplement one another nicely and provide a more integrated and original perspectiveon important psychological phenomena such as social identity change.

AcknowledgementsThis research w as facilitated thanks to postdoctoral fellowships from Fond québécois pour larecherche sur la société et la culture (FQRSC) and Social Sciences and Humanities ResearchCouncil of Canada (SSHRC) and to a University of Queensland New Staff Start-Up Grant toCatherine E. Amiot.

ReferencesAmiot, C. E., Blanchard, C. M., & Gaudreau, P. (2008). The self in change: A longitudinal

investigation of coping and self-determination processes. Seif and Identity, 2, 204-224.


Amiot, C. E., de la Sablonnière, R., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2007). Integration of social identitiesin the self; Toward a cognitive-developmental model. Personality and Sociai PsychoiogyReview, 4, 364-388.

Amiot, C. E., Terry, D. J., & Callan, V. J. (2007). Status, fairness, and social identification during anintergroup merger. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 557-577.doi;10.1348/0l4466606Xl46015

Amiot, C. E., Terry, D. J., Jimmieson, N. L., & Callan, V. J. (2006). A longitudinal investigation ofstress and coping processes during an organizational merger./owrwa/ of Management, 32,552-574.

Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992). Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure ofinterpersonal closeness. Joumai of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 596-612.

Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughUn-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collectiveidentity; Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychologicai Buiietin, 130,80-114.

Ataca, B., & Berry, J. W. (2002). Psychological, sociocultural, and marital adaptation of Turkishimmigrant couples in Canada. International Joumai of Psychology, 37, 13-26.

Bettencourt, B. A., Charlton, K., Eubanks, J., & Kernahan, C. (1999). Development of collectiveself-esteem among students; Predicting adjustment to college. Basic and Applied SociaiPsychoiogy, 21, 213-222.

Bettencourt, B. A., & Sheldon, K. (2001). Social roles as mechanisms for psychological needsatisfaction within social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81,1131-1143.

Brandtstädter, J. (1998). Action perspectives on human development. In J. Brandtstädter,W. Damon, & R. M. Lemer (Eds.), Handbook of chiid psychoiogy, volume 1: Theoreticaimodeis of human development (5th ed., pp. 807-863). Hoboken, NJ; Wiley.

Brissette, I., Scheier, M. E, & Carver, C. S. (2002). The role of optimism in social net vorkdevelopment, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition. Journal ofPersonality and Sociai Psychoiogy, 82, 102- 111.

Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structurai equation modeling with EQS. Newbury Park, CA; Sage.Cameron, J. E. (1999). Social identity and the pursuit of possible selves; Implications for the

psychological well-being of university students. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, andPractice, 3, 179-189.

Campbell, J. D., Assanand, S., & Di Paula, A. (2000). Structural features of the self-concept andadjustment. In A. Tesser, R. B. Eelson, & J. M. Suis (Eds.), Psychoiogicai perspectives on setfand identity (pp. 67-87). Washington, DC; American Psychological Association.

Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. E, & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies; A theoreticallybased approach./owrw«/ of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 267-283.

Caspi, A., & Herbener, E. S. (1990). Continuity and change; Assortative marriage and theconsistency of personality in adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 250-258.

Cervone, D. (2005). Personality architecture; Within person structures and processes. AnnualReview of Psychology, 56, 423-452.

Chen, G., & Klimoski, R. J. (2003). The impact of expectations on newcomer performancein teams as mediated by work characteristics, social exchanges, and empowerment. Academyof Management Joumat, 46, 591-607.

Christensen, L., & Mendoza, J. L. (1986). A method of assessing change in a single subject;An alteration of the RC index. Behavior Therapy, 17, 305-308.

Cohen, S., & Hoberman, H. M. (1983). Positive events and social supports as buffers of life changestress. Joumai of Applied Social Psychology, 13(2), 99-125.

Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data; Questionsand tips in the use of structural equation modeling./owrw«/ of Abnormal Psychology, 112,558-577.

Cronbach, L. J., & Eurby, L. (1970). How should we measure 'change'; Or should we?Psychologicai Buiietin, 74, 68-80.


Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal pursuits: Human needs and theself-determination of behavior. Psychoiogical Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.

Freddckson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology,2, 300-319.

Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the seif New York: Guilford Press.Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social identity, health and well-being:

An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review,58, 1-23.

Haslam, S. A., O'Brien, A., Jetten, J., Vormedal, K., & Penna, S. (2005). Social identity, socialsupport, and the experience of stress. British Joumai of Social Psychoiogy, 44, 355-370.doi:10.1348/0l4466605X37468

Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychoiogicai Review, 102,284-304.

Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study ofmediators and moderators./owrw«/ of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599-610.

Hornsey, M. J., Grice, T. A., Jetten, J., Paulsen, N., & Callan, V J. (2007). Group-directed criticismand recommendations for change. Personality and Sociai Psychology Bulletin, 33,1036-1048.

Hoyle, R. H. (1995). Structural equation modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P M. (1999). Cut-off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis.

Structurai Equation Modeiing, 6, 1-55.Jackson, J. W. (2002). Intergroup attitudes as a function of different dimensions of group

identification and perceived intergroup conflict. Self and Identity, 1(1), 11-33.Jetten, J., Iyer, A., Tsivrikos, D., & Young, B. M. (2008). When is individual mobility costly? The role

of economic and social identity factors. European Joumai of Social Psychology, 38, 866-879.Jetten, J., O'Brien, A., & Trindall, N. (2002). Predicting adjustment to organizational restructure as

a function of subgroup and superordinate identification. British Journal of Sociai Psychoiogy,41, 281-297. doi:10.1348/0l4466602760060l47

Kessler, T., & Mummendey, A. (2002). Sequential or parallel processes? A longitudinal field studyconcerning determinants of identity-management strategies. Joumai of Personality andSociai Psychoiogy, 82, 75-88.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.Moreland, R. L., & Levine, J. M. (1982). Socialisation in small groups: Temporal changes in

individual-group relations. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology(Vol. 15, pp. 137-192). New York: Academic Press.

Moreland, R. L., & Levine, J. M. (2000). Socialisation in organizations and work groups. InM. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp. 69-112). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mummendey, A., Kessler, T., Klink, A., & Mielke, R. (1999). Strategies to cope with negative socialidentity: Predictions by social identity theory and relative deprivation theory. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 76, 229-245.

Nesselroade, J. R. (1991). Interindividual differences in intraindividual change. In L. M. Collins &J. L. Horn (Eds.), Best methods for the analysis of change: Recent advances, unansweredquestions, future directions (pp. 92-105). Washington, DC: American PsychologicalAssociation.

Phinney, J. S. (1993). Multiple group identities: Differentiation, conflict, and integration. InJ. Kroger (Ed.), Discussions on ego identity (pp. 47-73). Mahwab, NJ: Erlbaum.

Postmes, T., & Jetten, J. (2006). Individuaiity and the group: Advances in social identity.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Raudenbush, S. W, & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchicai iinear models: Applications and dataanalysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Reicher, S. D., Spears, R., & Postmes, T. (1995). A social identity model of deindividuation. European Review of Sociai Psychoiogy, 6, 161-198.

826 Catherine E. Amiot et al.

Riketta, M. (2005). Organizational identification: A meta-analysis./owrwa/ of Vocational Behavior,66, 358-384.

Riketta, M., & van Dick, R. (2005). Foci of attachment in organizations: A meta-analytic comparisonof the strength and correlates of workgroup versus organizational identification andcommitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 490-510.

Roberts, B. W, Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2001). The kids are alright: Growth and stability inpersonality development from adolescence to adulthood./owr««/ of Personality and SocialPsychology, 81, 670-683.

Ruble, D. N., & Seidman, E. (1996). Social transitions: Windows into social psychologicalprocesses. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basicprinciples (pp. 830-856). New York: Guilford Press.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research onhedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166.

Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health./OMwa/ of Personality,65, 529-565.

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological-weü-htín^. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-1081.

Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited./owm«/of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.

Schmitt, M. T., Spears, R., & Branscombe, N. R. (2003). Constructing a minority group identity outof shared rejection: The case of international students. European Journal of SocialPsychology, 33, 1-12.

Sheldon, K. M., & Bettencourt, B. A. (2002). Psychological need-satisfaction and subjective well-being within social groups. British foumal of Social Psychology, 41, 25-38. doi:10.1348/014466602165036

Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies:New procedures and recommendations. Psychologicai Methods, 7, 422-445.

Skinner, E., & Edge, K. (2002). Self-determination, coping, and development. In E. L. Deci &R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 297-337). Rochester,NY: University of Rochester Press.

Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroupbehaviour (pp. 144-167). Oxford: Blackwell.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin &S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA:Brooks-Cole.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel &W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.

Terry, D. J., Callan, V J., & Sartori, G. (1996). A test of a stress-coping model of adjustment to alarge-scale organizational change. Stress Medicine, 12, 105-122.

Terry, D. J., Carey, C. J., & Callan, V J. (2001). Employee adjustment to an organizational merger.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 267-280.

Turner, J. C, Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering thesocial group. Oxford: Blackwell.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measuresof positive and negative affects: The PANAS scales, foumal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 54, 1063-1070.

Received 20 July 2008; revised version received 3 November 2009

Copyright of British Journal of Social Psychology is the property of British Psychological Society and its

content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's

express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

2010

Documents