2010 eruptions of icelan1

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2010 eruptions of Iceland:

Volcano plume on 17 April 2010.

Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 1425 April 2010

The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajkull are a sequence of volcanic events at Eyjafjll inIcelandwhich, although relatively small for volcanic eruptions, caused enormousdisruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over an initial period of sixdays in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continued into May 2010.

Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and gradually increased in intensity until on20 March 2010, a small eruption started that was rated as a 1 on the Volcanic ExplosivityIndex.[1]

Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a second phase and created anashcloud that led to the closure of most of Europe's IFRairspace from 15 until 20 April2010. Consequently, a very high proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe werecancelled, creating the highest level ofair travel disruptionsince theSecond World War.

The second phase of the eruption started on 14 April 2010 and resulted in an estimated250 million cubic metres (330,000,000 cu yd) of ejected tephra. Theash plume rose to a

height of approximately 9 kilometres (30,000 ft), which rates the explosive power of theeruption as a 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.[2]

By 21 May 2010, the second eruption phase had subsided to the point that no further lavaor ash was being produced.

By the morning of 24 May 2010, the view from the web camera installed onrlfsfellshowed only a plume of water vapour surrounded by a blueish haze caused by the
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emission of sulphurous gases. Seismic data showed that there were still low intensityearth tremors happening, but scientists at the Icelandic Meteorological Office(IMO) andthe Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland (IES) concluded that the volcanohad returned to a dormant state.

Due to the large quantities of dry volcanic ash lying on the ground, surface windsfrequently lifted up an "ash mist" that significantly reduced visibility and made webcamera observation of the volcano impossible.[3]

Background

Main article: Eyjafjallajkull

Dust particles suspended in the atmosphere scatter light from the setting sun, generating'volcanic lavenders' like this one over the flight path ofLeeds-Bradford Airport inEngland during the aviation shutdown

Eyjafjallajkull (pronounced [jafjatlajktl],listen(helpinfo)) is one of theIceland's smallerice caps located in the far south of the island. It is situated to the northofSkgarand to the west of the larger ice capMrdalsjkull.

The ice capcovers the caldera of a volcano 1,666 metres (5,466 ft) in height that haserupted relatively frequently since the lastice age. The most recent major eruptionsoccurred in 920, 1612 (believed to have lasted only three days) and from 1821 to 1823 .[4]

Previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajkull have been followed by eruptions at its largerneighbour, Katla;[5] on 20 April 2010 Icelandic President lafur Grmsson said that "thetime for Katla to erupt is coming close ... we [Iceland] have prepared ... it is high time forEuropean governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the

eventual Katla eruption".[6]

The volcanic events starting in March 2010 are considered to be a single eruption dividedinto different phases. The first eruption phase ejected olivinebasaltic andesite lava[7]

several hundred metres into the air in what is known as an effusive eruption. Ash ejectionfrom this phase of the eruption is small, rising to no more than 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) intothe atmosphere.
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On 14 April 2010 however, the eruption entered anexplosive phase and ejected fine,glass-rich ash to over 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) into the atmosphere. The second phase isestimated to be a VEI 4 eruption, which is large, but not nearly the most powerfuleruption possible by volcanic standards. By way of comparison, the Mount St. Helenseruption of 1980 was rated as 5 on the VEI, and the 1991 eruption ofMount Pinatubo

was rated as a 6.What made this volcanic activity so disruptive to air travel was the combination of thefollowing four factors:

1. The volcano's location is directly under the Jet Stream2. The direction of the Jet Streamwas unusually stable at the time of the eruption's

second phase, maintaining a continuous south-easterly heading3. The second eruptive phase took place under 200 m (660 ft) of glacial ice. The

resulting meltwater flowed back into the erupting volcano which created twospecific phenomena:

1. The rapidly vapourising water significantly increased the eruption'sexplosive power2. The erupting lava cooled very rapidly which created a cloud of highly

abrasive, glass-rich ash4. The volcano's explosive power was sufficient to inject ash directly into the Jet

Stream.

Public observations

People observing the first fissure at Fimmvruhls

Fissure

Second fissure, viewed from the north, on 2 April 2010

The first phase of the 2010 eruption began in late evening of 20 March at theEyjafjallajkull volcanic system (known locally as Eyjafjll). This eruption has beenassigned volcano number 1702-02 by theGlobal Volcanism Program.
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The initial visual report of the eruption was at 23:52 GMT, when a red cloud wasobserved at the northern slopes ofFimmvruhlsmountain pass,[25][26] lighting up thesky above the eruptive site. The eruption was preceded with intense seismicity and highrates of deformation in the weeks before the eruption, in association with magmarecharging of the volcano. Immediately prior to the eruption the depth of seismicity had

become shallow, but was not significantly enhanced from what it had been in theprevious weeks. Deformation was occurring at rates of up to a centimetre a day since4 March at various GPSsites installed within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the eruptivesite.

A fissure opened up about 150 metres (490 ft) in length running in a north-east to south-west direction, with 10 to 12 erupting lavacraters ejecting lava at a temperature of about1,000 C (1,800 F) up to 150 metres (490 ft) into the air. The lava is alkali olivinebasalt[27] and is relatively viscouscausing the motion of the lava stream to the west and east ofthe fissure to be slow. The molten lava has flowed more than 4,000 metres (2.5 mi) to thenorth-east of the fissure and into Hrunagilcanyon, forming a lava fall more than

200 metres (660 ft) long and is slowly approaching rsmrk, but has not yet reached theflood plains ofKross.[28][29][30]

On 25 March 2010, while studying the eruption,scientists witnessed, for the first time inhistory, the formation of apseudocraterduring asteam explosion.[31] Crustal expansioncontinued at orvaldseyri for two days after the eruption began, but has been slowlydecreasing whilst the volcanic activity increased. This indicates that the rate at whichmagma is flowing into the magma chamber roughly equals the rate at which it is beinglost due to the eruption, giving evidence that this phase of volcanic activity has reachedequilibrium.[32]

A new fissure opened on 31 March, around 200 metres (660 ft) north-west of the originalfissure.[33] Many witnesses were present while the new fissure opened. It is a bit smaller,around 300 metres (980 ft) long according to witnesses, and lava coming from it has nowstarted to flow into Hvannrgil canyon. These two erupting fissures share the samemagma chamber according to geophysicists. No unusual seismic activity was detected atthe time the new fissure appeared, nor any crustal expansion according to manyseismometersand GPS recorders situated in nearby areas.[34][35]

Phase 2: Explosive eruption

Photograph from satellite Aqua showing the ash plume over North Atlantic at13:30 GMT on 15 April

The estimated ash cloud at 18:00 GMT on 15 April.Date Status Images

April 2010
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14 April Eyjafjallajkull resumed eruptingafter a brief pause. This marks thestart of theexplosive phase of theeruption as the main eruption site isnow under the centre of the glacier.

The sudden release ofmeltwatercaused flooding in nearby rivers as ittravelled in two flows down eitherside of the volcano, forcing theevacuation of around 800 people. Asecondjkulhlaup/lahartraveleddown theMarkarfljot valleythatevening.[44] The road along theMarkarfljt riverhad been washedaway in several places.[45]

Depiction of the estimated ash cloudat 18:00 UTC on 14 April 2010.

15 April Explosive eruption continues. Due to

the unusually stablejet stream presentat the time, the ash cloud reachesmainland Europe, forcing the closureof airspace over a large part of theUK, Scandinavia and NorthernEurope. Eruption tremors continue ata similar level to those observedimmediately before the start of thesecond eruption phase.

MODIS image of the ash cloud at11:39 GMT on 15 April 2010.

Volcano

For mountain formation in general, see Mountain formation.For other uses, see Volcano (disambiguation).
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Cleveland Volcanoin the Aleutian Islands ofAlaska photographed from the InternationalSpace Station, May 2006

Cross-section through a stratovolcano (vertical scale is exaggerated):

1. Large magma chamber2. Bedrock3. Conduit (pipe)4. Base5. Sill6. Dike7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano8. Flank

9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano10. Throat11. Parasitic cone12. Lava flow13. Vent14. Crater15. Ash cloud

Pinatubo ash plume reaching a height of 19 km, 3 days before the climactic eruption of15 June 1991

A volcano is an opening, orrupture, in a planet's surface orcrust, which allows hotmagma,ashand gases to escape from below the surface. The word volcano is derived
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from the name ofVulcano island offSicilywhich in turn, was named afterVulcan, theRoman god of fire.[1]

Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic platesare diverging orconverging. Amid-oceanic ridge, for example theMid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by

divergent tectonic platespulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Firehas examples of volcanoescaused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usuallynot created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also formwhere there is stretching and thinning of theEarth's crust (called "non-hotspot intraplatevolcanism"), such as in the African Rift Valley, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic fieldand the Rio Grande Riftin North America and the European Rhine Graben with itsEifelvolcanoes.

Volcanoes can be caused by mantle plumes. These so-calledhotspots, for example atHawaii, can occur far from plate boundaries. Hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewherein the solar system, especially on rocky planets and moons.

Plate tectonics and hotspots

Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (OSR Oceanic Spreading Ridges) andrecent sub aerial volcanoes.

Mount Rinjani outbreak in 1994, in Lombok, Indonesia

Convergent plate boundaries

Main article: Convergent boundary

Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continentalplate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continentalplate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. Water released from the subducting platelowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This
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magma tends to be very viscous due to its high silicacontent, so often does not reach thesurface and cools at depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typicalexamples for this kind of volcano areMount Etna and the volcanoes in thePacific Ringof Fire.

Lava enters the Pacific at the Big Island of Hawaii

.

Volcanic features

Conical Mount Fuji in Japan, at sunrise from Lake Kawaguchi (2005)

The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lavaandpoisonous gases from a craterat its summit. This describes just one of many types ofvolcano, and the features of volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure andbehavior of volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have ruggedpeaks formed by lava domesrather than a summit crater, whereas others presentlandscapefeatures such as massiveplateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (lava,

which is what magma is called once it has escaped to the surface, and ash) and gases(mainlysteam and magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many ofthese vents give rise to smaller cones such as Puu on a flank ofHawaii's Klauea.
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Lakagigarfissure vent in Iceland, source of the major world climate alteration of 1783-84.Volcanic eruptions are experienced somewhere in Iceland on an average of once everyfive years.[2]

Skjaldbreiur, a shield volcano whose name means "broad shield"

January 2009 image of the rhyolitic lava dome ofChaitn Volcano, southern Chile duringits 2008-2009 eruption

Holocene cinder cone volcano on State Highway 18 nearVeyo, Utah
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Mayon, near-perfectstratovolcano in the Philippines

The Lake Toba volcano created a caldera 100 km long.

Pillow lava (NOAA)

Herubrei, one of the tuyas in Iceland
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Mud volcano on Taman Peninsula,Russia

Fissure vents

Main article: Fissure vent

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear cracks through which lavaemerges.

Shield volcanoes

Main article: Shield volcano

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by theeruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent, but notgenerally explode catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica,shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiianvolcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland, as well.

Lava domes

Main article: Lava dome

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lavas. They are sometimesformed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint Helens), butcan also form independently, as in the case ofLassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, theycan produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lavas generally do not flow far fromthe originating vent.

Cryptodomes

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava forces its way up and causes a bulge. The1980 eruption of Mount St. Helenswas an example. Lava was under great pressure andforced a bulge in the mountain, which was unstable and slid down the north side.

Volcanic cones (cinder cones)
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Main articles: volcanic cone and Cinder cone

Volcanic cones orcinder cones are the result from eruptions that erupt mostly smallpieces ofscoria andpyroclastics(both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcanotype) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that

produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters high. Most cinder cones erupt onlyonce. Cinder cones may form asflank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.Parcutin in Mexico and Sunset Craterin Arizona are examples of cinder cones. InNewMexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones.

Supervolcanoes

Main article: Supervolcano

A supervolcano is a large volcano that usually has a large caldera and can potentiallyproduce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such eruptions would

be able to cause severe cooling of global temperatures for many years afterwards becauseof the huge volumes ofsulfurand ash erupted. They are the most dangerous type ofvolcano. Examples includeYellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National ParkandValles Caldera inNew Mexico (both western United States),Lake TaupoinNewZealand, Lake Tobain Sumatra, IndonesiaandNgorogoro Craterin Tanzania.Supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries later, given the enormous areas they cover.Large igneous provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast amountofbasalt lava erupted, but are non-explosive.

Submarine volcanoes

Disadvantages of Volcano

Best Answer - Chosen by Asker

Disadvantages:Sea - during a volcanic eruption earthquakes happen, and tsunamis may be created. Also,if it is a volcanic island, the island may be destroyed, and there is no escape.Lava flow - these are very slow moving, but destructive as they cannot be stopped and

they set fire to everything in their path.Pyroclastic flow - these are impossible to outrun, travelling at about 300 km/h, and areextremely destructiveMudflow/lahar - these are mud rivers that have the consistency of cement, and destroyeverything in their path, including buildings

2010 eruptions of Iceland
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Volcano plume on 17 April 2010.

Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 1425 April 2010

The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajkull are a sequence of volcanic events at Eyjafjll inIcelandwhich, although relatively small for volcanic eruptions, caused enormousdisruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over an initial period of sixdays in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continued into May 2010.

Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and gradually increased in intensity until on20 March 2010, a small eruption started that was rated as a 1 on the Volcanic ExplosivityIndex.[1]

Beginning on 14 April 2010, the eruption entered a second phase and created anashcloud that led to the closure of most of Europe's IFRairspace from 15 until 20 April2010. Consequently, a very high proportion of flights within, to, and from Europe werecancelled, creating the highest level ofair travel disruptionsince theSecond World War.

The second phase of the eruption started on 14 April 2010 and resulted in an estimated250 million cubic metres (330,000,000 cu yd) of ejected tephra. Theash plume rose to aheight of approximately 9 kilometres (30,000 ft), which rates the explosive power of theeruption as a 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.[2]

By 21 May 2010, the second eruption phase had subsided to the point that no further lavaor ash was being produced.

By the morning of 24 May 2010, the view from the web camera installed onrlfsfellshowed only a plume of water vapour surrounded by a blueish haze caused by theemission of sulphurous gases. Seismic data showed that there were still low intensityearth tremors happening, but scientists at the Icelandic Meteorological Office(IMO) and
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the Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland (IES) concluded that the volcanohad returned to a dormant state.

Due to the large quantities of dry volcanic ash lying on the ground, surface windsfrequently lifted up an "ash mist" that significantly reduced visibility and made web

camera observation of the volcano impossible.[3]

Background

Main article: Eyjafjallajkull

Dust particles suspended in the atmosphere scatter light from the setting sun, generating'volcanic lavenders' like this one over the flight path ofLeeds-Bradford Airport inEngland during the aviation shutdown

Eyjafjallajkull (pronounced [jafjatlajktl],listen(helpinfo)) is one of theIceland's smallerice caps located in the far south of the island. It is situated to the north

ofSkgarand to the west of the larger ice capMrdalsjkull.

The ice capcovers the caldera of a volcano 1,666 metres (5,466 ft) in height that haserupted relatively frequently since the lastice age. The most recent major eruptionsoccurred in 920, 1612 (believed to have lasted only three days) and from 1821 to 1823 .[4]

Previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajkull have been followed by eruptions at its largerneighbour, Katla;[5] on 20 April 2010 Icelandic President lafur Grmsson said that "thetime for Katla to erupt is coming close ... we [Iceland] have prepared ... it is high time forEuropean governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for theeventual Katla eruption".[6]

The volcanic events starting in March 2010 are considered to be a single eruption dividedinto different phases. The first eruption phase ejected olivinebasaltic andesite lava[7]

several hundred metres into the air in what is known as an effusive eruption. Ash ejectionfrom this phase of the eruption is small, rising to no more than 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) intothe atmosphere.

On 14 April 2010 however, the eruption entered anexplosive phase and ejected fine,glass-rich ash to over 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) into the atmosphere. The second phase is
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estimated to be a VEI 4 eruption, which is large, but not nearly the most powerfuleruption possible by volcanic standards. By way of comparison, the Mount St. Helenseruption of 1980 was rated as 5 on the VEI, and the 1991 eruption ofMount Pinatubowas rated as a 6.

What made this volcanic activity so disruptive to air travel was the combination of thefollowing four factors:

5. The volcano's location is directly under the Jet Stream6. The direction of the Jet Streamwas unusually stable at the time of the eruption's

second phase, maintaining a continuous south-easterly heading7. The second eruptive phase took place under 200 m (660 ft) of glacial ice. The

resulting meltwater flowed back into the erupting volcano which created twospecific phenomena:

1. The rapidly vapourising water significantly increased the eruption'sexplosive power

2. The erupting lava cooled very rapidly which created a cloud of highlyabrasive, glass-rich ash8. The volcano's explosive power was sufficient to inject ash directly into the Jet

Stream.

Without the specific combination of the above factors, the eruption of Eyjafjallajkullwould have been a medium sized, somewhat non-descript eruption that would have beenof little interest to those outside the scientific community or those living in the immediatevicinity. However, the above factors were precisely those required for the Jet Stream tocarry the ash directly over Northern Europe into some of the busiest airspace in theworld.

Public observations

People observing the first fissure at Fimmvruhls

"Volcano tourism" quickly sprang up in the wake of the eruption, with local tourcompanies offering day trips to see the volcano.[8]
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However tourists should note that the Civil Protection Department of the Icelandic Policeproduce regular reports about access to the area, including an updated map of theRestricted Area around Eyjafjallajokull, from which the public is excluded.

Vodaphone and the Icelandic telecommunications company Mla installed webcams

giving views of the eruption from Valahnkur,Hvolsvllurand rlfsfell. The view ofthe eruption from rlfsfell also includes a thermal imaging camera.

Iceland (Icelandic:sland) is an islandcountry in the North Atlantic, betweenGreenlandandNorway, formerly a possession ofDenmark. It is in Europe. Iceland is 300 kilometreseast ofGreenland and 1000 kilometres west ofNorway. There are about 320,000 peoplewho live in Iceland in an area of 103,000 km.

[change] History

The first people who lived on Iceland were Irishmonks. They came to Iceland around theyear800.

In the 9th century,Norsemenwent to live in Iceland. The first Norseman who lived inIceland was Flki Vilgerarson. He was also the one who gave Iceland its name. InglfurArnarson, a chieftain fromNorway went to live in South West Iceland. He founded thecity ofReykjavk.

In 930, the Icelandic rulers wrote aconstitution. They created the Althing, a kind ofparliamentin a place called ingvellir. Therefore, Iceland is the oldest existing republic.

In 985, Erik the Red was sent away from the island because he had killed someone. Hesailed to the west and discovered Greenland. Eric's son Leif Ericson discoveredAmericain the year1000. He called it Vinland. The voyages of Eric, Leif and others were writtendown in the sagas (long stories).

In 1262, Iceland became part ofNorway. In 1662it became part ofDenmark. In the19thcentury, many Icelanders wanted to be independent from Denmark. In 1918, Iceland gotmany powers of its own, but the king of Denmark was still king of Iceland.

When Germanytook over Denmark onApril 91940, the Althing decided that Icelanders

should rule the country themselves, but they didn't declare independence yet.British andlaterAmerican soldiers occupied Iceland to prevent it from being attacked by theGermans. In 1944Iceland finally became fully independent.

AfterWorld War II, Iceland became a member of theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organisation(NATO), but not of the European Union. Between 1958 and 1976 there were threedebates between Iceland and the United Kingdomabout the rights to catchcodfish. Theywere called theCod Wars.
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In 1980, Vigds Finnbogadttirwas electedpresident of Iceland. She was the first womanever to be elected president of a country.

[change] People

The people in Iceland are mostly ofScandinavianorigin. The language they speak isIcelandic. The language has not changed much in 1,000 years, so Icelanders are still ableto read the sagas about the Vikings without many problems.

Most people in Iceland are Christian. Most of them are Lutheran.

[change] Names

There are no realsurnames on Iceland. Children get the first name of their father(sometimes mother) with -s+son if it's a boy, and -s+dttir if it's a girl. For example, aman named Jn Stefnsson has a son named Fjalar. Fjalar's last name will not beStefnsson like his father's, it will become Fjalar Jnsson. The same goes for women. JnStefnsson's daughter Kata would not have the last name Stefnsson, she would have thename Jnsdttir. In most countries people use to call other people by their surname, butin Iceland people call other people by their first name. So when people talk about Halldrsgrmsson they do not call him sgrmsson, but Halldr.

[change] Towns and cities

Reykjavkis the capitalcity of Iceland. Reykjavk is also the most important port inIceland. Other important towns in Iceland are Akureyri,Kpavogur,Hafnarfjrur,

Keflavk, andVestmannaeyjar.

[change] Geography

Iceland is very geologically active and combined with large amounts of rain and snowcaused by the warm waters of the gulf stream current which flow toward it, manyinteresting and unusual geographic features have developed which make it different fromany other island so close to the Arctic Circle.

Some of these features are Iceland's numerous mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, rivers,small lakes, waterfalls, glaciers, and geysers. The word geyser is, in fact, derived from

Geysir, the name of a particularly famous geyser on the southern side of the island.Glaciers cover approximately 11% of the island and the largest, Vatnajkull, is up to 1km thick and, by far, the largest glacier in Europe.

Iceland, though considered to be a European country, sits partly in North America since itstraddles the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which marks the boundary between the Eurasian andNorth American tectonic plates. The ridge runs directly through the populated Reykjavik
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and Thingvellir historic areas, and the tectonic activity of these plates separating is thesource of the abundant geothermal energy in the region.

2010 eruptions of icelan1

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