2008 memory revision

Area of Study #1

MEMORY

Unit 4 Exam Structure - Memory

First section on Exam40% of questions on Memory – every dot

point will be coveredThis equates to

22 MCQsAbout 12-14 marks of SAQs

dp 1- encoding, storage and retrieval

Encoding – formatting information so it can be processed and retained how you put it in (visual, auditory,

kinaesthetic processing, elaborative encoding)

Storage - which system will it go in? What will it be linked to?

Retrieval - getting it out of memory, bringing it from LTM into STM for use.

dp 2 - measures of retention: recall, recognition,

relearning and the relative sensitivity of each measure

Relearning (MOST SENSTIVE)know the formulasavings score = %age of info saved

RecognitionDefinition vs example

Recall (LEAST SENSITIVE)Different types: serial, free & cued

dp 2 - measures of retention: recall, recognition,

relearning and the relative sensitivity of each measure

Recall typesCued recall

(more sensitive than free recall)Free recallSerial recall

dp 3 - relationship between, and properties of, sensory memory (iconic and echoic), short-term memory and long-term memory;

Atkinson-Shiffron Model

Long Term

Memory

Short Term

Memory

Information is Forgotten!

Maintenance rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal/ encoding

AttentionSensory Memory

dp – 3 cont.,

Comparison Table

Sensory Memory

Short Term Memory

Long Term Memory

Duration

Iconic Echoic

1/3 3 – 4

Sec sec

12 – 30 seconds

Unlimited/ forever

Capacity unlimited 7±2 ‘pieces’ of info

unlimited

dp – 3 cont….sensory memory (iconic and echoic)

• Unlimited capacity• Limited duration (1/3- 4 secs)

If you hear this lion roar, your echoic memory would retain the auditory info for 3 to 4 secs. However if you see the lion, your iconic memory would hold the visual info for only about 1/3 sec.

ICONIC MEMORY ECHOIC MEMORY

dp 4 - short-term memory capacity, effects of rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative), chunking, consolidation theory

STM Duration – how long it lasts?About 20 seconds (12-30 secs)Rehearsal to keep in STM

Maintenance Rehearsal - Involves going over and over information (using rote repetition) without adding any meaning to keep the information in STM

(keeps the info. in STM to increase the duration, but with enough rote repetition/rehearsal the info. may go through to LTM)

dp 4 - short-term memory capacity, effects of rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative), chunking, consolidation theory

Maintenance Rehearsal Eg: Looking up and repeating a phone

number over and over until you dial the number and then it is quickly forgotten/replaced

Rehearsal to move info. from STMElaborative Rehearsal - Involves

going over and over information whilst adding meaning by linking to information already in LTM

(transfers the info. from STM to LTM)

Sample Exam question MR v ER

Question 3 (Section B VCAA 2004)

State one similarity and one difference between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal. (2 marks)

Possible Answer:Similarities – any of:

both involve mental repetition of the items both improve memory both may lead to encoding.

Differences – any of: E.R. active, M.R. more passive E.R. involves meaning, M.R. no meaning E.R. involves linking to other material in LTM, M.R. no linking E.R. transfers to LTM, M.R. often stays in STM.

dp 4 –cont. Capacity of STM

Capacity – how much can STM hold?Average person: 7±2 units/items (5-9 items)

Chunking increases capacityDefinition of chunking: grouping single units

into a meaningful complete whole unit - can use an example:

544157226638 chunked to 5441 5722 6638weallenjoychocolate ----- We all enjoy chocolate

Digit Span Test developed magic number 7±2

dp 4 –cont. Consolidation theory

Consolidation theoryPhysical/chemical changes take place in the

brain (neurons) when something new is learnt and a memory is made

This process takes time

(approx 30 minutes) If interrupted during this time period –

consolidation of the memory may not occur!Theory supported by research – ECT patients

dp 5 - working memory

Baddeley’s model: a function of STM in which small amounts of information can be processed

Central Executive

Phonological Loop

Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad

Forms associations with other components

Enables the retrieval if items from LTM to be associated with other items in

working memory

Hold traces of acoustic or speech-based material for about two seconds unless it is maintained through the use of the second part, articulatory sub-vocal rehearsal

Visual working memory is

responsible for the temporary

storage and manipulation of

visual and spatial

information.

dp 6 - long-term memory types (procedural, declarative, episodic, semantic) and …

Types

Procedural Declarative

Episodic Semantic

Long Term Memory


Types

Procedural

Long Term Memory

‘How to’ type memories•Eg: Our memory of the actions required for:

•how to ride a bike or •how to tie your shoe laces

•These memories are less likely to be forgotten with age


TypesDeclarative

Episodic

Semantic

Long Term Memory

Episodic LTMs Autobiographical

factual memories which are personal and are linked to a time and place

Semantic LTMs General knowledge

factual information and rules about the world


Examples of types of LTMs

Episodic Semantic Procedural

Last birthday? Name the largest How to play mountain in Aust. baseball

Sample Exam Question

Question 4 (Section B VCAA 2003) In which form of long-term memory would the following

pieces of information be stored? (3 marks) Indicate your answer by placing a tick () in the

correct boxes.

Semantic Episodic Procedural

i. your name

ii. how to knit

iii. your seat on an aeroplane

OR

dp 6 cont…..organisation of information in LTM (as illustrated by semantic network theory)

Semantic Network TheoryProposes that information in LTM is

stored in an organised way involvingNodes (concepts) Links Hierarchies

node

nodenode

links

node nodenodenode

Types

Definition

Attention

Encoding

relies on

ofTypes

Serial Position Effect

Types

Types

capacity

increases capacity

to extend

can lead to

process

Done through

Consolidation Theory

MEMORY

Sub-systems Measures

of retention

Active information Processing System that recieves, organises, stroes and retreives info

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term

memory

Recognition

Recall

Relearning

Procedural

Declarative

SemanticEpisodic

Free

Serial

Cued

Iconic

Echoic

Magic Number

Chunking 20 Seconds

Rehearsal

MaintenanceElaborative

Encode

Stores

Retrieves


Eg >>>


Eg >>>

dp 7 - Serial position effect;

Primacy effect Items at the beginning of the list may be

rehearsed and retained in LTM = recall

Recency effect Items at the end of the list may still be in STM

(only if recall is immediate and Recall is not in serial order) = recall

The Percentage recall rate of words given in a serial list

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Position of word in the list

Per

cen

tag

e o

f p

eop

le w

ho

re

calle

d t

he

item

co

rrec

tly

Percentage recall rate for items recalled immediately after learning from a serial list

Average

61%

Average

79%

Average 27%

dp 7 - Serial position effect cont;

Sample exam question

Question 9 (Section A VCAA 2004) The primacy effect occurs because the items

at the beginning of a serial list areA. more likely to be transferred to long-term

memory.B. still held in short-term memory at the time of

immediate recall of the list.C. forgotten as new items enter short-term

memory.D. interfered with by the later items in the list.

dp 8 -theories of forgetting (retrieval failure theory, interference theory, motivated forgetting, decay)

Forgetting: inability to retrieve previously stored information

Organic causes - AmnesiaNon-organic causes

Cue dependant forgetting Retrieval failure theory

Trace dependant forgettingMotivated Forgetting Interference TheoryDecay Theory

Cont.,

Retrieval failure theory Forget because the cue used does not

lead us to the information (memory) Linked to semantic network theory Cue dependant forgetting May lead to partial retrieval Theory supported by the tip of

the tongue phenomena

Cont.,

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

A state or feeling that occurs when individuals are aware of knowing something, confident they will eventually remember it, but are not able to retrieve it from memory at that particular time.

Cont.,

Motivated Forgetting Blocking of memory from conscious

awareness usually due to emotional reaction to memory Based on Repression (unconscious

blocking) and/or Suppression (conscious blocking)

Freud - defence mechanisms

Interference theoryWhen recall of information is interrupted

by other memoriesOccurs more frequently when the

information is similar in natureWhen the information is learned and

remembered close in time

Cont.,

Proactive Interferencepreviously (old) learnt info interferes with

encoding and storage of recently (new) learnt info….trouble recalling new info!

Eg: Old pin no. stays in your memory and stops you from retrieving your new one

Retroactive Interference recently learnt (new) info interferes with

ability to retrieve previously learnt (older) info…trouble recalling old info!

Eg: New class names stops me from retrieving names of last year’s class members

Cont.,

Decay Theory: If neural pathway that stores memory trace is not frequently activated then it begins to decay (and fades with disuse over time) “use it or lose it”

Cont.,

Decay Theory EXAMPLE OF DECAY THEORY: While Emma is at

University she studies Escher’s work. 20 years later, her memory has faded considerably because she has not recalled the information since her days at University.

Cont.,

Original Memory Faded Memory

dp 9 - The features of the forgetting curve

Shows the pattern (rate and amount) of forgetting over time- in a graphical representation

dp 9 - The features of the forgetting curve

Shows the pattern (rate and amount) of forgetting over time

Studied by Ebbinghaus using nonsense syllables

dp 10 - Organic causes of forgetting (amnesia both anterograde and retrograde) and….

Organic – means physical damage to the brain causing memory lossAmnesia: 2 types…

Anterograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia

Time of Head Trauma

ANTEROGRADEAMNESIA

RETROGRADE AMNESIA

Types of memories affected???

Effect on STMSimple (OK) vs Complex task (not OK)

Effect on LTMType of memory more susceptible… EpisodicCaused by

Lack of motivationLack of confidenceSlowing of CNS (cognitive slowing)Measure of retention used (recall worse than recognition)

dp 10 cont,….memory decline over the life span

Researchers found that participants became less able to recall class mates names as they got older, but their ability to recognise names and faces differed little in relation to age.

dp 10 cont,….memory decline over the life span

dp 11 - Memory enhancement through quality of encoding (organisation) and…

Elaborative encoding Self Referencing

More meaningful the material the more memory…

05

101520253035404550

Students Adults

Nonsensesyllables

made up words

real words

dp 11 - The use of context dependent cues, state dependent cues and…

Relying on prompts to aid retrieval Context = external environment such as

sights, sounds, temperature, objects etc.

State = internal environment such as stress levels, mood etc

Can increase memory by 20%

dp 11 - Mnemonic devices (narrative chaining and method of loci)

Mnemonic – tool used to enhance memory

Rely on Association with info already in LTM and Visualisation

Examples:Narrative Chaining: creating a storyMethod of Loci:

Narrative Chaining

Linking unrelated items to form a meaningful sequence (story) or narrative (relates to organisation of words) “One day Snow white took the 7 dwarfs on a holiday

to STM land. 2 of the dwarfs decided to stay behind (-2) but along the way they picked 2 extra dwarfs (+2) with them so it was a tight squeeze in the car. When she arrived at the hotel there were only 3 chunky beds so the Manager had to ‘group’ the dwarfs, 3 to a bed to make sure he could accommodate them all….”

Method of Loci

Uses a familiar sequences of locations (already in LTM) to associate (link) information to and relies on visualisation of the location to act as a cue to the information as it is already in LTM. We visualise each item (to be remembered) as placed

in each position along the location path (eg: around your house) and then take a

mental walk along the path to collect

each item

I can fool people into believing I cooked a great dinner!

I would like to have volunteers to come and clean the dishes

What goes on in there will remain confidential!

Set of scales in the bathroom remind me of legal systems based on Justice

Respect people and don’t leave it smelly!

If you get kicked out of Bedroom 1 you have to withdraw to here

Last thing I do is get out of the car – debriefing comes at the end!

I can see the benefits of washing and ironing!

Where I keep my documentation and would sign papers!

When I have guests I act very ‘professional’ – on my best behaviour!

EG. Method of Loci

dp 12 - Formation of operational hypotheses and…

Operation definitionsexplains the methods/procedures used to

measure the variables Eg. aggression – measured by the number of times a

child kicks another child Operational Hypothesis – needs to

incorporate population, operationalised IV and DV and a change/direction. An apple a day keeps the doctor away: VCE students from

Shepparton who eat least 1 apple per day for three weeks will reduce by at least 20% the number of times they visit the doctor in a year compared to those who don’t eat an apple a day.

dp 12 - Interpretation of p values

Probability that ‘chance’ caused the change in DV instead of the IV

p≤0.05 – probability that chance caused the change in the DV is less than 5 in every 100 results (5%)

Can use stricter ‘rules’ (eg p<0.01, p<0.001 etc)

Hint: the smaller the p-value the better the results are!

Statistical testsT-tests produce p (probability) values

The difference in the mean scores is statistically significant (if the p value is set at a significance level of .05) and the p value comes out at anything .05 or lower

Chi- squared Test

dp 12 - Interpretation of p values cont,

P valuesWhich are significant at an acceptance

level of .05?

.09 .045 .05 .07 .001 .051 .006

Put in order of significance level .07 .035 .08 .05 .003 .051 .0001

dp 12 - Interpretation of p values cont,


Question 16 (section B VCAA 2004)

The school librarian, is trying to find out how to make more students return library books on time. She decides to test two conditions. She places half the books in a standard cover, & the other half in a bright orange cover. She then records whether the books are returned on time or not. Nikita finds that the books in the bright orange cover are returned at a slightly higher rate than books in the standard cover (p > .05).The results are as follows.

a. What is the independent variable in this study? (1 mk)

Standard Cover Bright Orange Cover

Book returned on time 72% 74%


Question 16 (section B VCAA 2004)The school librarian, is trying to find out how to make more students return library books on time. She decides to test 2 conditions. She places half the books in a standard cover, & the other half in a bright orange cover. She then records whether the books are returned on time or not. Nikita finds that the books in the bright orange cover are returned at a slightly higher rate than books in the standard cover (p > .05).

b. What conclusion can be drawn from the results of this study? (1 mark)

Q16 aEither of: standard cover/bright orange cover colour of book coverQ16 bEither of: there is no (statistically) significant difference

in the return rates for the two types of book cover

no conclusion can be drawn.

dp 13 - Ethical principles in the conduct of

psychological research related to memory

Ethics – refers to moral principles and standards that guide individuals to distinguish between right and wrong actions

Psychologists have a code of ethics which provides guidelines that must be followed when conducting research.


psychological research related to memory Integrity: A commitment by the researcher to the search for

knowledge, to recognised principles for conducting research and in the honest and ethical conduct of research (including reporting).

Respect for persons: Proper regard by the researcher for the welfare, rights, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of all individuals involved in research.

Beneficence: The researcher’s responsibility to maximise potential benefits of the research and minimise risks of harm or discomfort to all research participants.

Justice: Ensuring a fair distribution of benefits and burdens within the population of research interest, as well as for any research participant.



Role of the researcher When planning research, the researcher

must undertake an evaluation of the ethical issues, ensuring that the welfare of the participants is the primary concern.

Informed consent Debriefing Deception in research Professional conduct



Informed consent procedures: participants must be appropriately informed about the study & have appropriately documented consent, ie. consent form.

Deception in research: If ‘knowing’ would change DV then you can deceive. Note: In all cases involving deception, participants must be debriefed at the conclusion of the study.

Debriefing: opportunity for participants to obtain all appropriate information about the nature, results and conclusion of the research.



Participant rightsConfidentiality: details of a participants’

involvement must not be disclosed without their consent.

Voluntary participation: participants’ involvement must be voluntary, not coerced/pressured to be involved.

Withdrawal rights: the researcher must inform the participant that they are free to participate, decline to participate or withdraw from a study at any time.

Best Wishes

2008 memory revision

Education

shortterm memory capacity

sensory memory iconic

iconic memoryechoic

exam structure memory

memory baddeleys model

stm elaborative rehearsal

stm maintenance rehearsal

capacity of stm capacity