2002_ata annual conf proceedings_city lights-life and bureaucracy_moskowitz

1

Barranquilla puerto de oro

París la ciudad luz

Nueva York capital del mundo

Del cielo Cali la sucursal.

Grupo Niche, from Cali Pachanguero

(salsa)

2

(From “Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: la ciudad y los fueros” by Andre Moskowitz in

Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Atlanta,

Georgia, U.S.A., November 6-9, 2002. Scott Brennan, comp. American Translators Association,

2002. 353-399. The original publication from the Proceedings included illustrations of many of the

items which, unfortunately, do not appear in this file.)

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: LA CIUDAD Y LOS

FUEROS

Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Spanish, Regionalisms, Terminology, Dialectology, Lexicography, Sociolinguistics,

City, Urban Life, Bureaucracy.

Abstract: This paper presents information1 on the regional Spanish-language names

2 of items

relating to urban life, money, politics and bureaucracy.

0 INTRODUCTION

Sidewalks are generally called aceras in many Spanish-speaking countries, but are often called

banquetas in Mexico and Guatemala, andenes in most of Colombia, and veredas in most of the

rest of Spanish-speaking South America. This study seeks to determine, in each Spanish-

speaking region, which terms are commonly used for ‘sidewalks’ and other phenomena related to

urban existence, money and government institutions that have different names in different

regions of the Spanish-speaking world.

The material in this article is catalogued under two general headings: La Ciudad (the city) and

Los Fueros (laws, norms, jurisdictions, privileges, etc. but here loosely referring to money,

politics, government). The title of each section is the item’s common equivalent in United States

English, with the exception of sections B9, B10 and B11 which involve quasi-linguistic or extra-

linguistic topics.

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A) La Ciudad: 1) sidewalk, 2) shantytown / squatters’ camp, 3) traffic circle / roundabout /

rotary, 4) dump.

B) Los Fueros: 1) postage stamp, 2) P.O. box, 3) pull / clout (influence), 4) (odd) job / work, 5)

change A - money returned (in a transaction), 6) change B - loose change, 7) birth

certificate, 8) driver’s license, 9) department / province / state (names of first-order

administrative divisions of countries), 10) national currencies, 11) voting in national

elections: optional or mandatory?

Each section is divided into four subsections:

1) Summary

2) Terms by Country

3) Details

4) Real Academia Regional Review

The following convention will be used throughout this paper: to indicate that a word is used in a

particular sense, a synonym will be given surrounded by single quotation marks (‘ ’). An

example of this convention is, “The use of contén in the sense of ‘curb’ in Cuba was

confirmed...”

0.1 Summary

These subsections present a synopsis of the regional variation of each item and highlight the

lexical landscape’s salient points. Sometimes one or two terms loom large on the international

horizon, that is, they are used in many more countries than any of the other terms. In these cases,

the “dominant terms” are identified.

0.2 Terms by Country

These subsections consist of lexico-geographic tables in which the terms used in the Spanish-

speaking regions of peninsular Spain and the nineteen Spanish-speaking countries of the Western

Hemisphere are presented.

Information was collected, by one or several of the following methods, from native speakers of

Spanish of varying backgrounds and educational levels who have spent most of their lives in a

single Spanish-speaking country:

1) through observation in the countries themselves;

2) by showing informants the item, or a picture of the item, or by giving them a

description of the item (sometimes using pantomime) and asking them to give the term or

phrase most commonly used in their region for it; and,

3) by asking informants who are highly proficient in United States English to give the

equivalents of English-language terms that are used in their native regions.

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In most cases, between ten and fifteen informants or respondents participated, but in some

instances less than ten were queried. Following each Spanish-language term, a numerical

proportion is given indicating the number of informants out of the total who used a particular

term or gave it as their response to a question. Thus, in the first table, SIDEWALK,

GUATEMALA banqueta (12/12), acera (5/12)

is to be interpreted as, “Of the twelve Guatemalans who were observed referring to a ‘sidewalk’

or were asked to give the term they used for this item, all twelve gave or used the term banqueta,

and five of them also indicated the term acera.” Here, as in many cases, some of the people

interviewed indicated that more than one term was commonly used in their homeland and,

therefore, the sum of the ratios is often more than one.

In some cases, shibboleths, or distinguishing traits, are pinpointed. For example, if a Spanish-

speaker uses the word timbre in the sense of ‘postage stamp,’ then that person is in all likelihood

Mexican, or is someone who, for whatever reason, has decided to adopt this aspect of Mexican

usage. Often the shibboleth does not uniquely determine the person’s place of origin but suggests

a group of countries. For instance, if a Spanish speaker uses changa or changuita in the sense of

‘odd job,’ then he or she probably learned Spanish in one of three countries: Paraguay, Uruguay

or Argentina.

In subsections B9.2, B10.2 and B11.2, data from respondents are not presented because

administrative division names, national currencies and whether suffrage is compulsory or

optional are questions of fact rather than of individual usage. About five people were queried

from each country and printed and Internet sources were also consulted.

0.3 Details

In these subsections more detailed information is provided on usage in specific regions or among

particular socioeconomic groups.

0.4 Real Academia Regional Review

These subsections present an evaluation of the Diccionario de la Lengua Española (the

Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy), often referred to here as the “Dictionary.” Its

coverage of the regional usages described in this article is evaluated using the following grading

scale:

A Corresponding definition, correct regions. This grade is given when the Dictionary

defines the term as used in a particular section of this article and correctly indicates the

countries and/or regions in which the term is used in this sense.

B Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the Dictionary

defines the term as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not

specify them correctly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage

occurs or includes regions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is

raised to an A if the Dictionary’s definition is appropriate, “Amér.” (América, that is,

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Spanish-speaking Latin America) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten

or more (over 50%) of the nineteen Spanish-speaking Latin American countries.

C Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the Dictionary

defines the term as used in the section but does not specify any countries or regions in

which the term is used in this sense. In essence, it fails to identify the usage as regional.

However, the grade of C is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten of the twenty

Spanish-speaking countries (at least 50% of them).

D No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the Dictionary does not include in

its definition of the term a sense that corresponds to the section.

F Term not in dictionary. This grade is given when the Dictionary does not list the term at

all.

The purpose of this evaluation is to expose gaps and inconsistencies in specific definitions in the

hope that they will be modified in future editions of the Dictionary so that they accurately

describe usage in the Spanish-speaking world from an international perspective. At the very

least, the issues raised should be investigated by the Dictionary’s researchers. The same type of

test could be applied to other monolingual Spanish-language dictionaries.

All quoted definitions are from the 2001 edition of the Real Academia Dictionary. However,

since the 2001 edition was released while this article was being written, the author thought it

would be interesting to do a comparison between the content of the 1992 and the 2001 editions to

see how much the definitions of the lexical items of this article have improved in terms of

accurately describing regional senses and correctly identifying the regions where these terms are

used in these senses.

Of the 137 lexical items that were tested and graded using the grading scale described above, the

degree of dialectal improvement between the 1992 and 2001 editions can be broken down into

three categories:

Category 1: Both the 1992 and the 2001 editions received an “A.” In other words, the 1992

edition already provided accurate dialectal information on the term and sense in question

and thus there could be no improvement in this regard. This was the case in 22 lexical

items tested, or 16%.

Category 2: In comparison to the 1992 edition, the 2001 edition improved the regional accuracy

of a lexical item’s definition by at least one letter grade (going from a grade of B to A, C

to B, D to A, etc). This was the case in 28 lexical items tested or 20.5%.

Category 3: In comparison to the 1992 edition, the 2001 edition did not improve regional

accuracy and the grade remained the same (a grade of B remained a B, C remained a C,

etc.). This was the case in 87 lexical items tested or 63.5%.

If we eliminate the terms that fall under Category 1 and focus only on the 115 words in

Categories 2 and 3 combined, whose definition in the 1992 edition did not provide accurate

dialectal information, we see that in 24.5% of the lexical items tested the 2001 edition made an

improvement in dialectological accuracy, but in 75.5% of the cases it did not. Although a

dictionary is always a work in progress, the limited evidence from this study indicates that the

Real Academia Dictionary falls well short of achieving dialectal accuracy.

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*

* *

There are several general questions the author would like to pose relating to americanismos and

Spanish lexicography, and concerning the study of the lexicon within the field of Spanish

dialectology and, indeed, within linguistics as a whole.

The first question is why is there so much omitted information and misinformation regarding

Latin American usage in the Real Academia Dictionary and, by extension, in almost all other

monolingual Spanish-language dictionaries that have thus far been published (and which are

largely based on the Real Academia Dictionary)? To what extent is it because the Real Academia

is unaware of the situation on the ground in Latin America, and to what extent is it because it has

knowledge of many aspects of Latin American usage but frowns upon them and does not wish to

give them its seal of approval by describing them in its dictionary? Professor Manuel Alvar

Ezquerra suggests that the primary reason for such inaccuracies is that the Real Academia has

not received the desired cooperation from the corresponding academies of Latin America and the

cooperation it has received has been inconsistent, that is, more from some corresponding

academies but much less from others (Alvar Ezquerra 53). He also states that in general

regionalisms have not been systematically studied and included in Spanish-language dictionaries:

Por lo general, la inclusión de voces marcadas diatópicamente en los diccionarios

no ha seguido un método riguroso, sino que se ha debido a actitudes personales de

los lexicógrafos, a sus conocimientos, a sus intuiciones y a las ayudas parciales

prestadas por otros. (Alvar Ezquerra 54)

This may be an accurate assessment, but it is hardly a valid excuse. Assuming the Real

Academia simply lacks knowledge of Latin American usage and has made no deliberate attempt

to withhold or suppress the information it has, then one must ask the following questions: To

what extent has the Real Academia made diligent efforts to consult a variety of sources and track

down all known leads to obtain the knowledge it lacks? To what extent has it limited its search

for linguistic truth in Latin America to the same old tired sources, namely, the corresponding

academies?

It is only natural for birds of a feather to flock together: many cardiologists choose to discuss

health issues primarily with other cardiologists, many patent attorneys prefer to talk about legal

matters with other patent attorneys, and most members of the Real Academia Española would

probably rather address language matters with other Real Academia members, preferably ones

from Spain; if they must engage in dialogue about the Spanish language with non-Spaniards,

then their interlocutors should at least be members of a corresponding academy, and not “some

crackpot out in left field” who has no sense of linguistic taste or propriety. Yet lexicographers, if

they are to paint an accurate picture of language usage as it relates to all walks of life, must go

far beyond the confines of their immediate social and professional networks and converse with,

and be willing to learn from, the broadest possible range of persons with the most diverse set of

experiences. Even in the Internet age, there is no such thing as a successful armchair

lexicographer. One can only imagine what the limitations on a dictionary’s lexicography would

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be if the majority of its editorial staff lived in the same city, belonged to the same social club,

and had limited contact with “outsiders.”

Any discussion of the virtues and vices of the Real Academia Dictionary must take into account

the Academy’s objective in creating its dictionary. In the preamble of the 2001 edition, it states

the following in this regard:

...se ha más que duplicado el número de americanismos en artículos, acepciones y

marcas, que en este momento superan las 28 000. Con ello nos situamos en el

camino correcto para conseguir un diccionario verdaderamente panhispánico,

reflejo no solo del español peninsular sino del de todo el mundo hispanohablante.

(Real Academia Española, 2001, pg. X).

Notwithstanding this claim, we must ask ourselves exactly what type of Spanish-language

dictionary the institution seeks to publish. Here are three possibilities:

Type 1: A pan-Hispanic dictionary that is as country-neutral as possible and includes, at a

minimum, the commonly used and non-specialized regionalisms of all Spanish-speaking

countries, particularly those that denote universal phenomena. Whenever feasible, the

terminology used in its definitions and points of reference is common to the majority of

Spanish speakers or Spanish-speaking countries (in most cases, these two give the same

result).

Type 2: A strictly Peninsular Spanish dictionary__

written by Spaniards for Spaniards__

that pays

little attention to non-Peninsular varieties.

Type 3: Something in between types one and two, namely, a dictionary that, though written from

the Peninsular Spanish perspective, tries to describe as many non-Peninsular uses of the

language as possible using Peninsular Spanish as the model and point of reference.

This author believes that the Real Academia Dictionary is basically of type three, and some of

the criticisms leveled against it in this article are admittedly critiques of the institution for not

writing a dictionary of type one. Is such criticism unreasonable? If the Real Academia will not

write a dictionary of type one, who will?

The second issue the author would like to raise is why the study of the lexicon is afforded such a

minor role within the field of Spanish dialectology? For example, two of the most important

books on the subject, Manual de dialectología hispánica / El español de España, edited by

Professor Manuel Alvar, which focuses on Peninsular Spanish varieties, and Professor John

Lipski’s El español de América, which deals with Latin American Spanish, devote the vast

majority of their pages to phonological, syntactic and morphological variation. Relatively little is

said in these works about lexical differences, which are addressed sparingly. In Manual de

dialectología hispánica, Professor Manuel Alvar Ezquerra (one of the contributors) points out

the shortcomings of many studies on Spanish lexical dialectology in the following comment:

Es ya en nuestro siglo [el siglo veinte] cuando comienzan a proliferar los

diccionarios de regionalismos como consecuencia del auge de la dialectología y la

preocupación por la realidad inmediata, en especial el mundo rural en una

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transformación profunda, con todo lo que conlleva de cambio y pérdida de

vocabulario. Una buena parte de estos repertorios ha sido confeccionada por

personas movidas por grandes sentimientos pero sin la formación necesaria para

percibir y describir lo específicamente regional, razón por la que los resultados, en

más de una ocasión, dejan mucho que desear y no merece la pena detenerse en

ellos. (Alvar Ezquerra 53-54).

Similarly, John Lipski explains the importance of having a broad, pan-Hispanic perspective

when identifying and studying Spanish regionalisms (which he certainly has) and cites a few

specific examples, but the focus of his book is primarily phonetics and phonology and

secondarily morphosyntax; the lexical differences described in this book are limited to a handful

of words that are typical of each Spanish-speaking country:

Las palabras que se tiende a identificar como regionalismos (correcta o

incorrectamente) suelen ser pintorescas, coloquiales o extrahispánicas. El

descubrimiento de diferencias regionales entre palabras de origen hispánico

evidente exige una perspectiva comparativa amplia. Por ejemplo, el hecho de que

bellota pueda designar una piña (en algunas zonas de Centroamérica) en vez de al

fruto de la encina, de que vestido se pueda aplicar al traje de un hombre en vez de

(o además de) a la ropa de mujer (por ejemplo en Colombia), o de que el fruto

cubano conocido como mamey se llame zapote en Centroamérica, mientras que el

zapote cubano es el níspero centroamericano, puede escapar a una investigación

que no sea exhaustiva. (Lipski 33).

While both Alvar Ezquerra and Lipski point out the limitations of many Spanish lexical

dialectology studies, very few Spanish dialectologists publish extensive research on the meaning

of words. The reason for this is related to a much broader question: Why has the lexicon aroused

so little interest among linguists in general when compared to phonology, morphology and

syntax?

Professor Reinhold Werner contends that modern linguistics suffers from lexical phobia because

the major currents that dominated linguistics during the twentieth century excluded word

meanings from the study of language (for example, generative grammar), or dealt with concepts

that were not applicable in large-scale empirical studies (such as structural semantics). One

reason most linguists avoid the lexicon is that it often appears to be chaotic. Although there are

lexical structures, the inventories of words are open systems which cannot be reduced to a few

common denominators the way phonology and verb tenses can. Nevertheless, Werner cites four

areas of linguistics that do deal with the lexicon: word formation, phraseology, lexical semantics

and lexicography but of these only one__

lexicography__

has specific vocabulary as its primary

focus, as opposed to vocabulary in the abstract. Yet even within the field of lexicography,

professional linguists generally deal with lexicographical theory or special areas of lexicography

such as historical and etymological dictionaries and other types of dictionaries not intended for

use by the general public but written for other linguists, whereas most general lexicography is

done by employees of commercial publishing houses and language enthusiasts who do not

usually have advanced training in linguistics. Part of the reason for this is that, within academia,

the writing of dictionaries is not considered to be a scholarly activity because the product of the

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research is not seen as having a scientific purpose. Another reason is that, in the world of

academia, writing a twenty-page theoretical article looks a lot more impressive than writing a

small dictionary, even though the latter is much more labor intensive. In general, it is only near

the end of a university professor’s career that he or she can afford to devote time and energy to

publishing material that does not lead to tenure, promotions, grants and fellowships. Finally,

large-scale dictionaries necessarily involve teamwork over the course of several years and

academics are loathe to commit to such projects. Many in academia are also highly

individualistic and prefer to work alone. However, there is cause for optimism: one hopes that

the emerging field of corpus linguistics will devote more attention to the lexicon and may

remedy the problem to some extent. (Reinhold Werner, personal communication.)

A LA CIUDAD

A1 SIDEWALK

A1.1 Summary

Acera is the dominant term: it is the most commonly used word in everyday language in at least

nine countries and in the remaining countries, where another term is more common, acera is still

used as a high-register equivalent. Vereda is used in most of South America while Mexico,

Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic and Colombia have highly regional

usages.

A1.2 Terms by Country (at least 7 terms)

SPAIN acera (15/15).

MEXICO banqueta (18/20), acera (4/20), escarpa (1/20).

GUATEMALA banqueta (12/12), acera (5/12).

EL SALVADOR acera (12/15), andén (12/15).

HONDURAS acera (12/12).

NICARAGUA acera (15/15), andén (7/15).

COSTA RICA acera (15/15).

PANAMA acera (14/14).

CUBA acera (15/15).

DOMIN. REP. acera (15/15), contén (7/15), calzada (5/15).

PUERTO RICO acera (12/12).

VENEZUELA acera (15/15).

COLOMBIA andén (14/20), acera (9/20), sardinel (6/20).

ECUADOR vereda (15/15), acera (6/15).

PERU vereda (15/15), acera (4/15).

BOLIVIA acera (12/15), vereda (10/15), calzada (2/15).

PARAGUAY vereda (13/13), acera (3/13), calzada (2/13).

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URUGUAY vereda (13/13), acera (4/13).

ARGENTINA vereda (15/15), acera (3/15).

CHILE vereda (15/15), acera (2/15).

A1.3 Details

General: The Spanish-speaking world can be divided into two groups. In group A, which consists

of Spain, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, the Hispanic Antilles, and Venezuela, acera is

the primary term used and has a neutral value. In group B, which comprises Mexico,

Guatemala, El Salvador, (parts of) Nicaragua and all of Hispanic South America except

Venezuela, acera occupies the higher-register position and one or more regional terms

(such as andén, banqueta or vereda) occupy a lower-register position. In group B,

however, the degree of formality/informality and acceptance/stigmatization of the low-

register term may not be uniform. For example, in most of South America vereda is not

considered “low-class” usage and acera is considered rather formal (perhaps even

snooty); a possible exception is Bolivia, where vereda is somewhat frowned upon. In

Mexico, banqueta seems to enjoy an even greater level of acceptance than vereda does in

South America, and in most of Colombia (with the exception of the Atlantic Coast)

andén is more or less “standard” everyday usage for the educated and uneducated alike.

In El Salvador and Nicaragua, on the other hand, some associate andén with uneducated

or rustic speech and prefer acera. In countries where there is diglossia with respect to this

item (acera corresponding to the high-register word, and a regional term corresponding

to the low-register word), more research needs to be conducted to determine Spanish

speakers’ attitudes__

positive, negative, or neutral__

toward both the international acera and

the diatopically marked terms.

Mexico: The person who offered escarpa was from the Yucatán. Is escarpa commonly used

there in this sense? Two others from the Yucatán said banqueta.

Nicaragua: Andén seems to be used more in the countryside and less in the larger cities. If so, in

what parts of the interior is andén used? What are the diastratic factors that govern the

use of andén?

Dominican Republic: Seven of the fifteen Dominicans queried indicated that contén means

‘sidewalk,’ but many of the others stated that it refers to the ‘curb’ or edge of the

sidewalk. Does contén generally refer to the ‘sidewalk,’ the ‘curb,’ or both?

Colombia: Andén is used in the interior of the country and also, it appears, in Buenaventura on

the Pacific Coast. Sardinel is used in the Costa or Atlantic Coast region. However, there

is evidence to suggest that sardinel is used more by older costeños and that younger

costeños are turning increasingly toward andén and/or acera. Is sardinel losing ground in

the Costa region?

A1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Acera (A1992 - A2001), andén (B1992 - B2001), banqueta (A1992 - A2001), calzada (D1992 -

D2001), contén (F1992 - D2001), sardinel (D1992 - D2001), vereda (A1992? - A2001?).

Dictionary definitions: andén, “9. Col., Ecuad. y Guat. acera (|| de la calle)”; contén,

“Cuba. bordillo”; sardinel, “Col. y Perú. Escalón que forma el borde exterior de la acera”;

vereda, “6. Am. Mer. [América Meridional] Acera de una calle o plaza.”

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In the definition of andén, El Salvador and Nicaragua need to be added to the regional

specifications, and neither Guatemala nor Ecuador should be included. The use of contén in the

sense of ‘curb’ in Cuba was confirmed in this study, but the Dictionary should indicate that this

term is also used in the Dominican Republic in two different senses: ‘curb’ and ‘sidewalk’ (see

section A1.3 above). The use of sardinel in the sense of ‘curb’ in Peru was also confirmed in this

study. However, its use in the sense of ‘sidewalk’ in coastal Colombia needs to be added to the

definition. A person reading the definition of vereda might easily conclude that this term is used

in this sense throughout Spanish-speaking South America, yet there is no credible evidence that

vereda is commonly used in the sense of ‘sidewalk’ anywhere in Colombia or Venezuela. How

should unabridged monolingual Spanish-language dictionaries define vereda? Should they be

precise and list the seven South American countries where vereda is commonly used in this

sense (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile), should they begin their

definition with Am. Mer. excepto Col. y Ven., or should they overgeneralize and indicate Am.

Mer. as the Real Academia Dictionary has done in this case?

A2 SHANTYTOWN / SQUATTERS’ CAMP

A2.1 Summary

Spain, Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile have highly regional

usages that are used alongside non-regionally marked terms.

A2.2 Terms by Country (12 terms plus variants)

SPAIN no regional term (5/11), (barrio de) chabolas (4/11), gueto chabolista

(2/11).

MEXICO (zona de or barrio de) paracaidista(s) (10/15), ciudad perdida or barrio

perdido (6/15), invasión (2/15).

GUATEMALA no regional term (7/13), invasión (6/13).

EL SALVADOR no regional term (8/12), (zona de) champas (2/12), champerío (2/12).

HONDURAS invasión (8/11), no regional term (3/11).

NICARAGUA no regional term (8/13), invasión (de paracaidistas) (5/13).

COSTA RICA tugurio (13/15), precario (8/15).

PANAMA (barrio de) casa(s) bruja(s) or barriada bruja (13/15), invasión (5/15).

CUBA no regional term (6/11), llega y pon (3/11), tugurio (2/11).

DOMIN. REP. no regional term (6/11), barrancones (3/11), tugurio (2/11).

PUERTO RICO no regional term (11/11).

VENEZUELA no regional term (13/13).

COLOMBIA tugurio (15/20), (barrio de) invasión (12/20).

ECUADOR suburbio (10/15), invasión (9/15).

PERU pueblo joven (15/15), invasión (4/15).

BOLIVIA no regional term (8/10), villa (2/10).

PARAGUAY no regional term (5/11), chacarita (4/11), villa (miseria) (2/11).

URUGUAY cantegril (11/12), villa (miseria) (2/12).

12

ARGENTINA villa (miseria) (15/15), villa de emergencia or barrio de emergencia (3/15).

CHILE (población) (callampa) (15/15).

A2.3 Details

General: Non-regionally marked terms include arrabal, asentamiento, asentamiento ilegal,

asentamiento irregular, barriada, barrio bajero, barrio bajo, barrio marginado, barrio

marginal, cinturón de pobreza, zona marginal and zona negra. In the countries listed

above with “no regional term” there does not appear to be a regionally marked term that

is commonly used alongside the standard terms. It should be noted that the concept in

question is a bit hazy, that is, it is sometimes hard to draw a fine line separating squatters’

camps, shantytowns, and lower-class neighborhoods as they often form a continuum with

overlapping features rather than a set of discrete points. For example, many residents of

tugurios, invasiones, and pueblos jóvenes, etc., are not squatters, but pay rent to slum

landlords whose precarious edifices, while not constructed with a building permit, are

tolerated by the authorities with a wink and a nod and perhaps an occasional (or regularly

scheduled) bribe.

Spain: The phenomenon is referred to as chabolismo, and chabolista refers to the person who

lives in a chabola and is also the adjectival form: e.g. familias chabolistas.

Mexico: Paracaidistas are ‘squatters,’ but the term has been extended to refer to the

neighborhoods they live in. Other related names for the neighborhood are barrio de

paracaidistas, barrio paracaidista, colonia de paracaidistas, colonia paracaidista,

asentamiento de paracaidistas and zona de paracaidistas. Paracaidismo is the word used

for the phenomenon (the equivalent of chabolismo in Spain).

Guatemala, El Salvador & Honduras: Champas are ‘shacks’ (casuchas).

Nicaragua: Paracaidistas are ‘squatters’.

Panama: A casa bruja is a shack, but the plural form is often used in a collective sense to refer to

a ‘shantytown’.

Cuba: Is llega y pon currently used in the sense of ‘shantytown’? Those who said it was were

Cuban exiles living abroad, and some Cubans who currently live on the island indicated

that this term is no longer used, but that the phenomenon itself does exist. A solar is a

house that has been split into smaller units to house several families. Solares were created

as temporary housing until the government could provide more decent housing that for

the most part never materialized.

Dominican Republic: Barrancones are ‘shacks’ (casuchas). The plural form is also used in a

collective sense to refer to a ‘shantytown’.

Puerto Rico: The term caserío can refer to what in United States English are called “projects”:

low-income public-housing developments, generally located in slums, with a relatively

high concentration of gangs and drug dealers.

Venezuela: In Caracas these neighborhoods are referred to as ranchos or cerros as they are

generally located in the hills surrounding the city; other related names are (zona de)

ranchos and rancherías. When a Venezuelan says that Fulano vive en los ranchos or en

los cerros he or she is referring to one of these neighborhoods. The hills surrounding

Caracas where wealthier people live are called colinas, lomas or altos.

Peru: Some Peruvians consider the term pueblo joven to be no longer politically correct (the

correct term being asentamiento humano). Others, however, use different terms to refer

13

to different points along the continuum as follows: invasión (when people first start

building cardboard and wooden shacks on a vacant lot), asentamiento humano (after the

invasión when people build their shacks with slightly better material), and pueblo joven

(when some of the houses are starting to be built with bricks or some other solid material

and some services, such as water, electricity, etc., have been brought in to the

neighborhood). More research needs to be done to determine what meanings and

connotations Peruvians attach to these terms.

Bolivia: The poorest neighborhoods of La Paz, located in the hills surrounding the city, are often

referred to as laderas, and many are shantytowns.

Paraguay: La Chacarita is the most infamous shantytown in Asunción. Some Paraguayans also

claim that chacarita or barrio chacarita are generic terms for ‘shantytown’. The terms

villa miseria and villa also appear to be used due to Argentine influence (see Uruguay

and Argentina below).

Uruguay: Cantegril is sometimes shortened to cante in popular speech, especially among young

people. The word cantegril ironically derives from the Cantegril Country Club, an

exclusive resort in Punta del Este. Some Uruguayans indicated that villa miseria and villa

are also used in Uruguay, but most stated that “villa miseria is the Argentine term.” The

two claims, however, are not necessarily contradictory.

Argentina: Villa de emergencia and barrio de emergencia are the politically correct equivalents

of villa miseria. Using such euphemisms is perhaps analogous to saying “inner city” (as

opposed to “slum”) in United States English. Both villa miseria and villa de emergencia

often get reduced to just villa. A villero is a person who lives in one. A conventillo used

to refer to a large house whose rooms were rented out to poor immigrant families, but the

term now refers to any low-quality, low-budget, multi-family, inner-city rental building

or boarding house.

Chile: Shantytowns are called callampas, poblaciones or poblaciones callampas. However, the

politically correct equivalents are asentamientos precarios or campamentos.


Barrio de casas brujas (F1992 - F2001), barrio de chabolas (A1992 - A2001), barrio

chabolista (A1992 - A2001), callampa (D1992 - D2001), cantegril (F1992 - F2001), ciudad perdida (F1992

- F2001), invasión (D1992 - D2001), llega y pon (F1992 - A2001), población (D1992 - D2001), población

callampa (F1992 - F2001), precario (D1992 - D2001), pueblo joven (F1992 - F2001), tugurio (D1992 -

D2001), villa (D1992 - A2001), villa de emergencia (F1992 - F2001), villa miseria (F1992 - A2001), zona

de paracaidistas and barrio de paracaidistas (F1992 - B2001).

Dictionary definitions: callampa, “2. Chile y Ecuad. chabola (|| vivienda en zonas

suburbanas)”; chabola, “2. Vivienda de escasas proporciones y pobre construcción, que suele

edificarse en zonas suburbanas”; chabolismo, “Abundancia de chabolas en los suburbios, como

síntoma de miseria social”; paracaidista, “6. Nic. Persona que se afinca en un terreno ajeno”;

precario (as an adjective), “3. Der. Que se tiene sin título, por tolerancia o por inadvertencia del

dueño”; precarista, “adj. Der. Dicho de una persona: Que posee, retiene o disfruta en precario

cosas ajenas. U.t.c.s.”; tugurio, “2. Habitación, vivienda o establecimiento pequeño y mezquino.”

In the definition of callampa, the regional specification Ecuad. needs to be eliminated.

The terms chabola, chabolismo and chabolista should be defined with the regional specification

Esp. (Spain) as there is no credible evidence that these terms are commonly used elsewhere. In

14

the definition of paracaidista, the designation “Méx.” needs to be added. In the definition of

precario, an additional sense needs to be added along the lines of “C. Rica. Barrio o sector donde

predominan viviendas que son habitadas en precario.” In the definition of tugurio, the additional

sense of “barrio o sector donde predominan estas viviendas” needs to be added, perhaps with

appropriate regional specifications.

A3 TRAFFIC CIRCLE / ROUNDABOUT / ROTARY

A3.1 Summary

Rotonda is the dominant term: it is the most commonly used term in about half of the Spanish-

speaking countries and competes with another term in several more. Redondel is commonly used

in about five countries and glorieta in three or four. Venezuela and Peru have unique usages that

are not commonly found in any other countries.


SPAIN glorieta (12/15), rotonda (12/15).

MEXICO glorieta (15/15), rotonda (6/15).

GUATEMALA redondel (7/11), rotonda (6/11).

EL SALVADOR redondel (12/12).

HONDURAS redondel (11/15), rotonda (5/15).

NICARAGUA rotonda (11/11).

COSTA RICA rotonda (15/15).

PANAMA rotonda (9/15), redondel (5/15), glorieta (3/15), romboy (1/15).

CUBA rotonda (15/15).

DOMIN. REP. rotonda (15/15).

PUERTO RICO redondel (8/15), does not exist (7/15).

VENEZUELA redoma (15/15).

COLOMBIA glorieta (14/20), rompoy or romboy (13/20).

ECUADOR redondel (9/12), rotonda (3/12).

PERU óvalo (15/15).

BOLIVIA rotonda (7/15), círculo or anillo (4/15), does not exist (4/15).

PARAGUAY rotonda (12/12).

URUGUAY rotonda (11/13), rompuán/rond-point (3/13).

ARGENTINA rotonda (15/15).

CHILE rotonda (13/13).

15

A3.3 Details

Spain: Some Spaniards indicated that a glorieta has a statue, fountain or other monument in the

center whereas a rotonda does not. Is this the general understanding? Are the two terms

regionally weighted within Spain, do they have closely related but distinct meanings, or

are they just plain synonyms?

Mexico: Is the term rotonda regionally marked within Mexico?

Ecuador: Is redondel more common in the Sierra and rotonda more common in the Costa? There

is some evidence that this is the case. However, traffic circles also seem to be less

common in the Costa.

Rond-point: the cases of Colombia & Uruguay: In Colombia the word deriving from the French

rond-point is pronounced as if it were written rompoy(n) [rrom-POY(N)] or romboy

[rrom-BOY], and is often spelled rompoy, rompoin, rompoyn, rompoind, romboy or other

variations. In Uruguay, on the other hand, those who offered this term__

a small

minority__

pronounced it as if it were written rompuán, and were aware of its French

origin. Which spelling(s) should be accepted and presented in Spanish-language

dictionaries, the original French term, rond-point, or one or several of the Castilianized

versions such as rompoy or rompuán? What are the reasons for the two different

evolutions in Colombia and Uruguay? Did Colombians initially see the term written in

French and pronounce it as they saw it written and then subsequently forget about or

discard the French spelling and write it as they pronounced it? Have some Uruguayans,

on the other hand, just adopted the French term? Can the two different developments be

explained by a greater familiarity and contact with French by Uruguayans or are there

other reasons that account for the different paths taken?


Anillo (D1992 - D2001), círculo (D1992 - D2001), glorieta (C1992 - C2001), óvalo (D1992 - D2001),

redoma (D1992 - A2001), redondel (D1992 - D2001), rompoy (F1992 - F2001), ron(d)point (F1992 - F2001),

rotonda (D1992 - D2001).

Dictionary definitions: glorieta, “3. Plaza donde desembocan por lo común varias calles o

alamedas”; rotonda, “3. Plaza circular.”

The definition of rotonda does not clearly describe the phenomenon. Since rotonda is the

dominant term, it should be the lead term and given a full description, and all other terms should

be cross-referenced to rotonda.

A4 DUMP (city dump)

A4.1 Summary

Basurero is the dominant term: it is commonly used in this sense everywhere except possibly

parts of the Southern Cone. In addition to basurero, most countries have a more regional term

such as basural or botadero.

16


SPAIN vertedero (13/15), basurero (11/15), muladar (3/15).

MEXICO basurero (18/20), tiradero (5/20), relleno sanitario (3/20), botadero (2/20).

GUATEMALA basurero (12/15), botadero (4/15), crematorio (2/15), relleno sanitario

(1/15), tiradero (1/15).

EL SALVADOR basurero (13/13), botadero (7/13).

HONDURAS basurero (12/13), crematorio (5/13).

NICARAGUA basurero (11/12), botadero (3/12).

COSTA RICA basurero (10/15), relleno sanitario (9/15), botadero (5/15), vertedero

(3/15).

PANAMA vertedero (10/15), basurero (9/15), relleno sanitario (7/15), dómper (3/15).

CUBA basurero (15/15), vertedero (6/15).

DOMIN. REP. basurero (15/15), vertedero (8/15), botadero (3/15), tiradero (3/15).

PUERTO RICO vertedero (11/12), basurero (9/12).

VENEZUELA basurero (15/15), relleno sanitario (7/15).

COLOMBIA basurero (15/15), botadero (5/15), relleno sanitario (4/15).

ECUADOR basurero (13/15), botadero (8/15).

PERU basural (9/15), basurero (8/15), relleno sanitario (7/15).

BOLIVIA basural (12/15), basurero (7/15), muladar (3/15), cenizal (2/15).

PARAGUAY basural (8/11), vertedero (7/11), basurero (5/11).

URUGUAY basurero (8/13), basural (6/13), vertedero (1/13).

ARGENTINA basural (13/20), basurero (8/20), quema (8/20).

CHILE basural (13/15), basurero (4/15), vertedero (3/15), botadero (2/15), relleno

sanitario (2/15).

A4.3 Details

General: The qualifier municipal is sometimes added to basurero, vertedero, etc. to distinguish

official dumps from illegal dumping grounds and from other meanings of the words (such

as ‘garbage can’ in the case of basurero). Relleno sanitario is a more official sounding

word (equivalent to ‘sanitary land fill’) and it tends to refer to dumps designed with more

modern technology. Muladar often refers to a dumpy place or ‘pigsty’. It should be noted

that the terms “city dump” and “town dump” may become outdated in United States

English as many of these sites have been relocated, technologically upgraded, and

rebaptized as “refuse and recycling centers.” To the extent societies throughout the world

become more environmentally conscious and the phenomenon itself becomes more

environmentally sustainable, many of the above terms may be replaced by relleno

sanitario and other newer and more technical terms.

Guatemala & El Salvador: Botadero tends to refer to an “unofficial” dumping ground.

Panama: Is the word dómper commonly used? If so, does it refer to a ‘dump’ (as three

respondents indicated) or perhaps to a ‘dumpster’ (large trash receptacle)?

17


Basural (B1992 - B2001), basurero (A1992 - A2001), botadero (F1992 - B2001), cenizal (D1992 -

A2001), crematorio (D1992 - D2001), dómper (F1992 - F2001), muladar (C1992? - C2001?), quema (D1992

- D2001), relleno sanitario (F1992 - F2001), tiradero (D1992 - A2001?), vertedero (A1992? - A2001?).

Dictionary definitions: basural, “Am. basurero (|| sitio donde se echa la basura)”;

basurero, “Sitio en donde se arroja y amontona la basura”; muladar, “Lugar o sitio donde se

echa el estiércol o la basura de las casas”; tiradero, “2. Méx. basurero (|| sitio donde se arroja la

basura)”; vertedero, “Lugar donde se vierten basuras o escombros.”

Given that basurero is the dominant term, its definition should have a full description and

all other synonyms should be cross-referenced to this term and given the same definition__

such

as “basurero (|| terreno en donde se echa la basura)”__

with appropriate regional labels. The

regional specifications for basural need to be significantly narrowed to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay,

Uruguay, Argentina and Chile, as “Am.” (América) is a gross over-generalization. Is tiradero

commonly used in this sense in countries other than Mexico? Is vertedero commonly used

throughout the Spanish-speaking world as the Dictionary’s definition implies?

B LOS FUEROS

B1 POSTAGE STAMP (3 terms plus variants)

B1.1 Summary

Estampilla is the dominant term: it is the most commonly used term in thirteen countries and

competes with another term in three more. Sello is used in five countries, three of which are in

the Hispanic Antilles, and Mexico has a unique usage that is not found in any other country.

B1.2 Terms by Country

SPAIN sello (15/15).

MEXICO timbre (16/20), estampilla (9/20).

GUATEMALA sello (9/14), estampilla (5/14), estamp(it)a (4/14).

EL SALVADOR estampilla (11/11).

HONDURAS estampilla (12/12).

NICARAGUA estampilla (12/12).

COSTA RICA estampilla (15/15).

PANAMA estampilla (15/15).

CUBA sello (14/14).

DOMIN. REP. sello (15/15).

PUERTO RICO sello (12/12).

VENEZUELA estampilla (14/14).

COLOMBIA estampilla (15/15).

ECUADOR estampilla (15/15).

18

PERU estampilla (15/15).

BOLIVIA estampilla (15/15).

PARAGUAY estampilla (11/11).

URUGUAY sello (10/15), estampilla (8/15).

ARGENTINA estampilla (15/15).

CHILE estampilla (15/15).

B1.3 Details

General: The qualifiers postal or de correo(s) are often added to the terms estampilla, sello and

timbre if clarification is needed to distinguish them from rubber stamps, fiscal stamps and

other types of stamps or seals. What can account for the regional distribution of

estampilla, sello and timbre (with the meaning of ‘postage stamp’) in Spanish America?

B1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Estampilla (A1992? - A2001?), sello (C1992 - C2001), timbre (B1992 - B2001).

Dictionary definitions: estampilla, “2. Am. Sello de correos o fiscal”; sello, “2. sello

postal”; sello postal, “m. El de papel que se adhiere a las cartas para franquearlas o

certificarlas”; timbre, “9. Am. Cen. y Méx. sello postal.”

The Dictionary’s definition of estampilla is problematic insofar as most Spanish

Americans, with the exception of people from Mexico, tend to distinguish between estampillas

and/or sellos (postage stamps) vs. timbres (fiscal stamps). The definition of timbre is inaccurate

in that timbre is not commonly used in the sense of ‘postage stamp’ in Central America.

B2 P.O. BOX (post office box)

B2.1 Summary

Apartado, the dominant term, is commonly used in twelve countries with the qualifiers postal

or de correo(s) being added if clarification is necessary. Casilla (postal or de correo) is used in

the seven Spanish-speaking countries south of Colombia. The U.S. English term P.O. Box is

also used in several countries that have been heavily influenced by the United States. Colombia

has a unique usage (albeit a variant of apartado postal) that is not used in any other country.

B2.2 Terms by Country (3 terms plus variants)

SPAIN apartado (15/15).

MEXICO apartado (15/15).

GUATEMALA apartado (12/12).

EL SALVADOR apartado (11/11).

HONDURAS apartado (10/10).

NICARAGUA apartado (10/10).

COSTA RICA apartado (15/15), P.O. box (3/15).

19

PANAMA apartado (14/14), P.O. box (2/14).

CUBA apartado (10/10).

DOMIN. REP. apartado (15/15).

PUERTO RICO apartado (11/13), (P.O.) box (8/13).

VENEZUELA apartado (15/15), P.O. box (1/15).

COLOMBIA apartado aéreo (15/15).

ECUADOR casilla (14/15), P.O box (5/15), apartado (2/15).

PERU casilla (12/15), apartado (9/15).

BOLIVIA casilla (15/15), apartado (6/15).

PARAGUAY casilla (11/11).

URUGUAY casilla (14/15), apartado (3/15).

ARGENTINA casilla (14/15), apartado (4/15).

CHILE casilla (15/15), apartado (2/15).

B2.3 Details

General: The qualifiers postal and de correo(s) are added to apartado and casilla if clarification

is needed. In Spain, apartado de correos appears to be more common than apartado

postal whereas in Spanish America the opposite seems to be the case. In countries where

casilla is used, apartado is also used to some extent and is understood, but the reverse is

not true: in apartado countries, casilla is not generally understood, much less used.

Puerto Rico: People use both apartado and P.O. box, depending on linguistic attitudes and the

situation. As one Puerto Rican put it, “We have the U.S. postal system, so for expediency

and accuracy we have to use their system.” P.O. box is sometimes shortened to box in

informal usage.

Colombia: Apartado aéreo is often abbreviated A.A.


Apartado (A1992 - A2001), casilla (D1992 - D2001), P.O. box (F1992 - F2001).

Dictionary definitions: apartado, “5. apartado de correos”; apartado de correos, “m.

Servicio de la oficina de correos por el que se alquila al usuario una caja o sección con un

número, en donde se deposita su correspondencia. || 2. Caja, sección o departamento donde se

guarda esta correspondencia. || 3. Número asignado a esa caja o sección”; apartado postal, “El

Salv. y Hond. apartado de correos”; casilla postal, “Am. apartado de correos.”

The definition of apartado postal is inaccurate in that its use is not limited to El Salvador

and Honduras. In fact, in most of Spanish America apartado postal is used and appears to be

more common than apartado de correo(s). The definition of casilla postal is inaccurate in that

the term is not commonly used throughout Spanish America, but primarily in Ecuador, Peru,

Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile. The term apartado aéreo is not defined in the

Dictionary and needs to be added with the appropriate regional specification.

20

B3 PULL / CLOUT (slang terms for “influence”)

B3.1 Summary

Palanca is the dominant slang term: it is commonly used in the sense of ‘influence’ in at least a

dozen countries and appears to be used to some extent in all Spanish-speaking countries with the

possible exception of Spain. However, most countries have other regional terms.

B3.2 Terms by country (over 15 terms)

SPAIN enchufe (15/15).

MEXICO palanca (16/20), vara alta (7/20), conecte(s) (5/20), conectas (2/20).

GUATEMALA cuello (10/12), conecte (8/12), palanca (4/12).

EL SALVADOR cuello (11/13), palanca (6/13), conecte (5/13).

HONDURAS cuello (13/14), palanca (10/14), conecte (9/14), pul (6/14).

NICARAGUA pata (12/15), palanca (10/15), conecte (6/15), entronque (6/15).

COSTA RICA pata (12/15), palanca (5/15), pul (2/15).

PANAMA palanca (14/14), pul (8/14).

CUBA palanca (14/15), vara alta (3/15), conecte (2/15), conecto (2/15).

DOMIN. REP. cuña (14/15), enllave (13/15), palanca (6/15), enllavadura (4/15), pegue

(3/15).

PUERTO RICO pala (12/12), palanca (5/12).

VENEZUELA palanca (13/13).

COLOMBIA palanca (15/15).

ECUADOR palanca (12/15), entronque (6/15).

PERU vara (13/15), palanca (7/15).

BOLIVIA muñeca (15/15), palanca (3/15), cuña (1/15).

PARAGUAY palanca (9/11), cuña (3/11).

URUGUAY cuña (9/13), muñeca (9/13), palanca (7/13), banca (5/13).

ARGENTINA palanca (14/15), cuña (8/15), banca (2/15).

CHILE cuña (12/15), pituto (9/15), palanca (3/15), enchufe (2/15).

B3.3 Details

General: The term padrino seems to be widely used in the sense of ‘influence’. Is this usage

universal? Is the phrase él que tiene padrino se bautiza also universal?

Nicaragua & Costa Rica: Pata is often used in the plural: tiene muchas patas.

Dominican Republic: Is enllave masculine or feminine (el enllave or la enllave)? Several

Dominicans indicated that it is masculine. The adjective pega(d)o is frequently used in

the sense of ‘well-connected’: Ese tipo ‘tá pegao. Where else is pegado used this way?

Colombia: The term rosca refers to a ‘clique’ and is used in phrases such as está en la rosca,

pertenece a la rosca, meaning the person is well-connected, is an insider, etc.

Ecuador: The adjectival form entroncado is used frequently: un tipo bien entroncado (bien

relacionado).

Chile: Some Chileans claim there is a difference between cuña (pull/clout) and pituto (inside

information/sources or the influential person who provides the cuña), but most indicated

21

that the two terms can be used interchangeably. Some also stated that cuña is the more

traditional term, and that pituto is used more by younger Chileans.

Argolla: An argolla is a ‘clique’ in Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Peru (that is, un círculo

cerrado, like a rosca in Colombia). In these countries, the following expression regarding

argollas is sometimes heard: Lo malo de las argollas es no estar en ellas.

Pul or pull?: How should the word deriving from English “pull” be spelled? See Honduras, Costa

Rica and Panama in section B3.2 above.


Banca (B1992 - A2001?), conecta (F1992 - F2001), conecte (F1992 - F2001), conecto (F1992 -

F2001), cuello (D1992 - D2001), cuña (C1992 - C2001), enchufe (C1992 - C2001), enchufle (F1992 - F2001),

enllave (F1992 - F2001), entronque (D1992 - B2001), muñeca (B1992? - B2001?), pala (D1992 - D2001),

palanca (A1992 - A2001), pata(s) (D1992 - D2001), pituto (F1992 - D2001), pul(l) (F1992 - F2001), vara

(D1992 - A2001), vara alta (C1992 - C2001).

Dictionary definitions: argolla, “7. C. Rica, Ecuad., Hond. y Perú. camarilla”; camarilla

“Conjunto de personas que influyen subrepticiamente en los asuntos de Estado o en las

decisiones de alguna autoridad superior”; banca, (in the phrase tener alguien banca) “fr. coloq.

Arg., Par. y Ur. Tener influencia o poder”; cuña, “palanca (|| valimiento, influencia)”; enchufe,

“4. despect. coloq. Cargo o destino que se obtiene sin méritos, por amistad o por influencia

política” and in the phrase tener enchufe “fr. coloq. Tener influencia ante una autoridad para

conseguir de ella algún favor. U. a veces en sent. despect.”; entronque, “3. Nic. Relación de

influencia que una persona tiene con una autoridad”; muñeca, “Á. R. Plata, Bol. y Perú.

Habilidad o influencia para obtener algo. Tener muñeca”; palanca, “4. Valimiento, intercesión

poderosa o influencia que se emplea para lograr algún fin”; vara alta, “Autoridad, influencia,

ascendiente”; vara, “15. Perú. vara alta.”

In the definition of entronque, Ecuador needs to be added to the regional specifications.

Are the following terms used in the senses specified in the following regions as the above

definitions indicate? Argolla in Ecuador? Banca in Paraguay? Cuña and enchufe throughout the

Spanish-speaking world? Muñeca in Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina? Should

the word enchufle (a popular variant of enchufe) also be defined in the Dictionary?

B4 (ODD) JOB / WORK (informal usage)

B4.1 Summary

With the exception of chamba, most of the regional terms are used in only one or two countries.

B4.2 Terms by country (over 25 terms)

SPAIN no regional term (6/10), chapuza (4/10), chapú(s) (1/10).

MEXICO chamb(it)a (15/15), hueso (3/15), jale (3/15), movida (2/15).

GUATEMALA chance (9/12), chamb(it)a (5/12), chapús (5/12), jale (2/12).

22

EL SALVADOR chance (9/11), voladito (7/11), chamb(it)a (5/11), hueso (4/11), iguana

(4/11).

HONDURAS chamb(it)a (10/11), movimiento (3/11), movida (2/11), iguana (1/11).

NICARAGUA rumb(it)o (8/10), pegue (7/10), chamba (4/10).

COSTA RICA camarón (13/15), brete (8/15), chamb(ill)a (3/15).

PANAMA camarón (14/14), chamb(it)a (3/14).

CUBA pinch(it)a (5/5).

DOMIN. REP. chiripa (12/14), picoteo/picad(it)a (7/14).

PUERTO RICO chiv(it)o (12/15), chiripa (10/15), resuelve (5/15), chambita (2/15).

VENEZUELA tigre/tigrito (9/15), rebusque (6/15), resuelve (5/15), chamb(it)a (4/15),

chance (3/15), quite (2/15).

COLOMBIA camell(it)o (8/14), chamb(it)a (4/14), chanfaina (4/14), vueltecita or

vueltica (4/14), chanfa (2/14), peg(uit)a (2/14), rebusque (2/14).

ECUADOR chaucha (7/10), chamb(it)a (5/10), maní (3/10).

PERU cachuelo (11/11), chamb(it)a (5/11).

BOLIVIA peg(uit)a (10/12), chamb(it)a (2/12), changa (1/12).

PARAGUAY chang(uit)a (7/9), rebusque (2/9).

URUGUAY chang(uit)a (10/10), rebusque (5/10), laburito (4/10).

ARGENTINA chang(uit)a (12/13), laburito (5/13), curro (4/14), rebusque (4/13).

CHILE polol(it)o (10/12), peg(uit)a (8/12), pituto (3/12).

B4.3 Details

General: Here we are mixing apples and oranges to some extent. The terms brete, camello,

chamba, laburo, pega and pegue refer to ‘work’ or ‘job’ in their respective countries.

However, when a diminutive suffix is added (e.g. chamba→ chambita, pega→ peguita),

the term can refer to a temporary job or ‘odd job’. The other terms in section B4.2 above

refer to an ‘odd job’. Of course, for many in the Spanish-speaking world, employment is

usually temporary and precarious in nature and so the distinction between ‘job’ and ‘odd

job’ is sometimes blurred.

Spain: The person who said chapús was an odd job came from Andalucía.

Nicaragua: Pegue refers to work in general. A rumbito is an odd job.

Costa Rica: Brete is used primarily in informal language in the sense of ‘work’ in general or ‘the

workplace’: tengo un problema en el brete, me voy al brete, ¿dónde queda tu brete?

Camarón is an odd job.

Venezuela: Tigre or tigrito is generally used in the sense of ‘odd job’ with the verb matar: Voy a

matar un tigre, estamos matando unos tigritos. Quite is usually used when someone is

substituting or filling in for someone else: hazme el quite este lunes.

Colombia: Camello is work in general. A vuelta can be an ‘errand’ (una diligencia), but in the

diminutive form, una vueltecita or una vueltica, it tends to refer to a ‘job,’ often an illegal

or disreputable one. Some say chanfaina is a cushy, government job; others say it is an

odd job.

Ecuador: Chaucha is an odd job in Quito and areas of the Sierra (highlands). Maní is used in this

sense in Guayaquil.

Argentina: The term curro refers more often to a ‘scam’ or ‘swindle’ but several Argentines

claim that it can also refer to a ‘job,’ especially one that is dishonorable, illegal or low-

23

level (the word has a negative connotation); it generally implies some type of dishonest

scheme.

Chile: Pega is work in general; pololito and pitutito are odd jobs.


Brete (D1992 - B2001), cachuelo (D1992 - A2001), camarón (D1992 - B2001?), camello (D1992 -

A2001), curro (C1992 - C2001), chamba (B1992 - B2001), chance (F1992 - D2001), chanfaina (A1992 -

A2001), changa (B1992 - B2001), chapuz (C1992 - C2001), chapuza (C1992 - C2001), chaucha (D1992 -

D2001), chiripa (D1992 - D2001), jale (F1992 - D2001), labur(it)o (F1992 - A2001), maní (D1992 - D2001),

movida (D1992 - D2001), movimiento (D1992 - D2001), pega (B1992 - B2001), pegue (F1992 - B2001),

picoteo (D1992 - D2001), pinch(it)a (D1992 - D2001), pituto (F1992 - A2001), pololo (D1992 - D2001),

rebusque (D1992 - D2001), resuelve (F1992 - B2001), rumbo (D1992 - D2001), tigre (D1992 - D2001),

tigrito (F1992 - D2001), volad(it)o (D1992 - D2001), vueltecita (F1992 - F2001).

Dictionary definitions: brete, “3. C. Rica, Nic. y Ven. trabajo (|| ocupación retribuida)”;

cachuelo, “2. Perú. Trabajo eventual de poca remuneración”; camarón, “2. C. Rica, Nic. y Pan.

Trabajo eventual de poca remuneración”; camello, “5. Col. trabajo (|| ocupación retribuida)”;

curro3, “m. coloq. trabajo (|| acción y efecto de trabajar)”; chamba “2. coloq. Am. Cen, Ecuad. y

Méx. Empleo, trabajo”; chanfaina, “coloq. Col. enchufe, (|| cargo o destino que se obtiene sin

méritos)”; changa, “Arg. y Ur. Ocupación transitoria, por lo común en tareas menores”; chapuz2,

“m. chapuza”; chapuza, “Obra o labor de poca importancia”; laburo, “m. coloq. Arg. y Ur.

trabajo (|| ocupación retribuida)”; pega, “10. Bol., Col., Cuba, Ecuad. y Perú. trabajo (||

ocupación retribuida)”; pegue, “El Salv. y Nic. trabajo (|| ocupación retribuida)”; pituto, “2.

coloq. Chile. Trabajo ocasional, económicamente conveniente, que se simultanea con uno estable

y que carece de contrato oficial”; rebusque, “2. Arg., Col., Nic., y Ur. Solución ocasional e

ingeniosa con que se resuelve una dificultad”; resuelve, “Ven. Trabajo esporádico.”

Lexicalized diminutives (diminutives that can have a specific meaning that is distinct

from a smaller or more endearing version of the root term), such as rumbito and voladito, raise

an interesting lexicographical issue: Where should these terms be listed in dictionaries? Should

they be defined in the entry for the root term (under rumbo and volar), or as separate entries?

Since the terms cachuelo, camarón, changa and pituto are all regional synonyms, their

definitions should be made uniform (“trabajo eventual u ocasional”), and the phrase “de poca

remuneración” should be eliminated from the definitions of cachuelo and camarón since there

are some that are indeed lucrative. Terms such as brete, camello, pega, etc. do not only refer to

ocupación retribuida, as the Dictionary indicates, but also to other senses of the word trabajo

such as lugar donde se trabaja.

B5 CHANGE A - MONEY RETURNED (in a transaction)

B5.1 Summary

Cambio and vuelto are the dominant terms. Cambio is universal. Vuelto is used in almost all of

Spanish America with the exception of the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. Spain, Mexico,

the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Colombia have more regional usages.

24

B5.2 Terms by country (at least 5 terms)

SPAIN cambio (15/15), vuelta (10/15).

MEXICO cambio (14/15), feria (8/15), vuelto (7/15).

GUATEMALA vuelto (9/11), cambio (4/11).

EL SALVADOR vuelto (10/11), cambio (3/11).

HONDURAS vuelto (12/12), cambio (3/12).

NICARAGUA vuelto (10/10), cambio (4/10).

COSTA RICA vuelto (14/15), cambio (10/15).

PANAMA vuelto (11/13), cambio (9/13).

CUBA vuelto (10/12), cambio (7/12).

DOMIN. REP. devuelta (14/15), cambio (11/15).

PUERTO RICO cambio (10/11), vuelta (7/11).

VENEZUELA vuelto (14/15), cambio (8/15).

COLOMBIA vuelta(s) (8/17), vuelto(s) (8/17), cambio (3/17), devuelta (3/17), regreso

(1/17).

ECUADOR vuelto (9/10), cambio (5/10).

PERU vuelto (15/15), cambio (4/15).

BOLIVIA cambio (11/15), vuelto (6/15).

PARAGUAY vuelto (10/10), cambio (3/10).

URUGUAY vuelto (12/12), cambio (8/12).

ARGENTINA vuelto (14/15), cambio (8/15).

CHILE vuelto (12/13), cambio (3/13).

B5.3 Details

Dominican Republic: To what extent is the use of devuelta in this sense stigmatized? The vast

majority of those queried offered the term, but several criticized its use. To what extent is

devuelta the low-prestige term and cambio the high-prestige term?

Colombia: The terms vuelta and vuelto often appear in the plural form (las vueltas, los vueltos).

The distribution within Colombia of vuelta(s) and vuelto(s) is unclear although both

terms appear to be used in parts of the interior. Vuelta(s) seems to be favored in the

departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá; vuelto(s) perhaps in the Santanderes.

Devuelta is used in Antioquia (and other parts of western Colombia?), and regreso was

given by one respondent from Pasto (department of Nariño).


Cambio (D1992 - A2001), devuelta (D1992 - D2001), feria (D1992 - D2001), vuelta (C1992 - C2001),

vuelto (A1992 - A2001).

Dictionary definitions: cambio, “3. vuelta (|| dinero)”; vuelta, “20. Dinero que, al cobrar,

y para ajustar una cuenta, se reintegra a quien hace un pago con moneda, billete de banco, o

efecto bancario cuyo valor excede del importe debido”; vuelto, “Am. Vuelta, del dinero

entregado de sobra al hacer un pago.”

25

Which term should be given a full description to which all other synonyms would be

cross-referenced? An argument can perhaps be made for cambio as it is the only term that is not

regionally marked; if so, the cross-reference for the remaining terms could be “cambio (|| dinero

devuelto)” or “cambio (|| dinero que se devuelve).” However, a case can also be made for

choosing vuelto as the base term, which though not quite universal, is much less restricted than

vuelta. It is also a less ambiguous term than cambio which has two meanings that relate to

money. If vuelto is selected as the base term, the cross-reference for the other terms could read

“vuelto (|| dinero)” (see definition for cambio in preceding paragraph).

B6 CHANGE B - LOOSE CHANGE (coins and/or lower-denomination bills)

B6.1 Summary

Cambio is universal. Sencillo is commonly used in at least ten countries, suelto in seven or eight,

and menudo in five (all in the Caribbean basin). For some Spanish speakers cambio can refer to

coins or lower-denomination bills whereas another term, such as sencillo, suelto and/or menudo,

refers only to coins; others claim that cambio and the other term or terms are used

interchangeably. Spain and Mexico have highly regional usages.

B6.2 Terms by country (about 10 terms plus variants)

SPAIN cambio (10/14), calderilla (9/14), suelto (9/14).

MEXICO cambio (14/15), feria (7/15), suelto (6/15).

GUATEMALA sencillo (10/10), cambio (5/10).

EL SALVADOR sencillo (10/12), suelto (8/12), cambio (7/12).

HONDURAS suelto (12/15), cambio (7/15), sencillo (3/15).

NICARAGUA sencillo (10/11), cambio (5/11).

COSTA RICA menudo (15/15), cambio (7/15).

PANAMA sencillo (14/15), cambio (9/15).

CUBA cambio (10/13), menudo (8/13), suelto (3/13).

DOMIN. REP. menudo (15/15), cambio (10/15).

PUERTO RICO menudo (9/11), cambio (8/11).

VENEZUELA sencillo (15/15), cambio (5/15).

COLOMBIA sencillo (10/18), suelto (8/18), cambio (6/18), menudo (4/18), menuda

(3/18).

ECUADOR suelto(s) (9/11), cambio (3/11), grillos (2/11).

PERU sencillo (15/15), cambio (5/15), ripio (3/15).

BOLIVIA cambio (9/13), suelto (9/13), cambiado (4/13), sencillo (2/13).

PARAGUAY sencillo (10/11), cambio (4/11).

URUGUAY cambio (13/13), suelto (2/13), sencillo (1/13).

ARGENTINA cambio (14/15), sencillo (6/15).

CHILE sencillo (13/14), cambio (3/14).

26

B6.3 Details

Colombia: All three Colombians who gave menuda were antioqueños (from the department of

Antioquia).

Peru: Two of the three who gave ripio indicated that this term is used in this sense in slang and

uneducated speech.


Calderilla (C1992 - C2001), cambiado (F1992 - F2001), cambio (A1992 - A2001), feria (A1992 -

B2001?), grillo (D1992 - D2001), menuda (D1992 - D2001), menudo (D1992 - D2001), ripio (D1992 - D2001),

sencillo (A1992 - A2001), suelto (A1992 - A2001).

Dictionary definitions: calderilla, “Conjunto de monedas de escaso valor”; cambio,

“Dinero fraccionario de billetes o monedas de mayor valor”; feria, “Méx. y Nic. Dinero menudo,

cambio”; menudo (defined as an adjective, not as a noun), “7. Se decía del dinero, y en especial

de la plata, en monedas pequeñas, como las pesetas u otras menores”; sencillo, “11. Am.

Calderilla, dinero suelto”; suelto, “8. Se dice del conjunto de monedas fraccionarias, y de cada

pieza de esta clase. Dinero suelto. Una peseta suelta. U.t.c.s.m. [Usado también como sustantivo

masculino]. No tengo suelto.”

The regional specification Esp. (Spain) needs to be added to the definition of calderilla.

The definition of cambio should read “Dinero fraccionario de billetes o monedas” and should not

be restricted to coins or bills de mayor valor. All other regional synonyms should be defined as

“cambio, dinero suelto” or “cambio (|| dinero suelto).” Which form is preferable? Is feria used in

this sense in Nicaragua as the Dictionary claims?

B7 BIRTH CERTIFICATE

B7.1 Summary

Acta de nacimiento, certificado de nacimiento and partida de nacimiento are the three dominant

terms: one or several of these three are used in all twenty Spanish-speaking countries. Mexico, El

Salvador, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina and Chile appear to show a preference for a particular term

while the remaining countries seem to use two or more terms interchangeably.

B7.2 Terms by country (6 terms)

SPAIN partida de nac. (10/11), certificado de nac. (5/11).

MEXICO acta de nac. (15/15).

GUATEMALA certificado de nac. (9/11), partida de nac. (9/11), acta de nac. (4/11),

constancia de nac. (2/11).

EL SALVADOR partida de nac. (11/11).

HONDURAS partida de nac. (10/12), acta de nac. (6/12), certificado de nac. (4/12).

NICARAGUA partida de nac. (10/10), certificado de nac. (6/10), acta de nac. (3/10).

27

COSTA RICA acta de nac. (10/15), certificado de nac. (9/15), partida de nac. (7/15),

constancia de nac. (6/15).

PANAMA partida de nac. (11/15), certificado de nac. (9/15), acta de nac. (7/15).

CUBA partida de nac. (5/8), certificado de nac. (4/8), inscripción de nac. (4/8),

certificación de nac. (3/8).

DOMIN. REP. acta de nac. (15/15), certificado de nac. (3/15), partida de nac. (3/15).

PUERTO RICO certificado de nac. (10/12), acta de nac. (7/12).

VENEZUELA partida de nac. (13/13).

COLOMBIA partida de nac. (7/10), certificado de nac. (5/10), acta de nac. (3/10),

registro de nac. (2/10).

ECUADOR certificado de nac. (7/11), partida de nac. (7/11), acta de nac. (2/11).

PERU partida de nac. (11/11).

BOLIVIA certificado de nac. (10/11), partida de nac. (4/11).

PARAGUAY partida de nac. (8/11), certificado de nac. (7/11).

URUGUAY partida de nac. (9/12), certificado de nac. (8/12), acta de nac. (3/12).

ARGENTINA partida de nac. (10/10).

CHILE certificado de nac. (10/10).

B7.3 Details

General: The terms presented above are what speakers used in spoken language and do not

necessarily correspond to the term that appears on the birth certificates that are issued in

each country. Certificación de nacimiento is used on the document itself more than in

spoken language. For the sake of brevity, the word nacimiento is abbreviated nac. in

section B7.2 above.


Acta de nacimiento (A1992 - A2001), certificación de nacimiento (C1992? - C2001?),

certificado de nacimiento (A1992 - A2001), constancia de nacimiento (F1992 - F2001), inscripción de

nacimiento (F/D1992 - F/D2001?), partida de nacimiento (A1992 - A2001), registro de nacimiento

(F/D1992 - F/D2001?).

Should the Real Academia (and other monolingual Spanish-language dictionaries) define

specific types of actas, certificados and partidas, etc. such as actas de nacimiento, actas de

matrimonio, and actas de defunción, or should they only define the base term? If they choose not

to define acta de nacimiento and partida de nacimiento, etc., then how can they indicate regional

preferences? If they do define acta de nacimiento, etc., where should they list it, under acta, or as

a separate entry under acta de nacimiento?

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B8 DRIVER’S LICENSE

B8.1 Summary

Licencia, with a qualifier such as de conducir, de manejar, de manejo or de conducción, is the

dominant term: it is the most commonly used base term in over half of the countries. Spain,

Cuba, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile have more regional

terms.

B8.2 Terms by country (9 terms plus variants)

SPAIN carné (de conducir) (10/10), permiso (de conducir) (6/10).

MEXICO licencia (de conducir/manejar) (15/15).

GUATEMALA licencia (de conducir/manejar) (10/10).

EL SALVADOR licencia (de conducir/manejar) (12/12).

HONDURAS licencia (de conducir/manejar) (10/10).

NICARAGUA licencia (de conducir/manejar) (10/10).

COSTA RICA licencia (de conducir/manejar) (11/11).

PANAMA licencia (de conducir/manejar) (13/13).

CUBA cartera (dactilar) (8/11), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (5/11).

DOMIN. REP. licencia (de conducir/manejar/guiar) (12/12).

PUERTO RICO licencia (de conducir/manejar/guiar) (12/12).

VENEZUELA licencia (de conducir/manejar) (10/10).

COLOMBIA pase (10/12), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (6/12), patente (2/12).

ECUADOR licencia (de conducir/manejar) (10/10).

PERU brevete (12/12), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (3/12).

BOLIVIA brevet(e) (8/10), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (5/10).

PARAGUAY registro (10/10), licencia de conducir (2/10).

URUGUAY libreta (14/15), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (6/15).

ARGENTINA registro (9/15), carnet (7/15), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (7/15).

CHILE carnet (9/11), licencia (de conducir/manejar) (5/11).

B8.3 Details

General: For the sake of brevity, the term licencia is presented in section B8.2 above with only a

few modifiers, generally de conducir and/or de manejar, but in reality many other

qualifiers are used including de manejo, de conducción, de conductor, para conducir and

para manejar, etc. Such qualifiers are added whenever specification is needed.

Spain: Permiso de conducción is the term that appears on the card, but people generally say

carné de conducir, which, given sufficient context, is often reduced to el carné.

Cuba: Licencia de conducción is what appears on the card, but cartera dactilar (often reduced to

just cartera) is what people generally say: ¿Traes la cartera?

Dominican Republic & Puerto Rico: Licencia de guiar is used in addition to licencia de conducir

and licencia de manejar (since guiar, in addition to the other two verbs, is used in the

sense of ‘to drive’). However, licencia de conducir is the official and formal term. Some

29

claim that on the formality-informality axis, conducir pertains to a more formal register

than manejar which, in turn, is more formal than guiar.

Peru: Brevete is generally pronounced with three syllables, unlike in Bolivia (see below). Brevete

de conductor is what used to appear on the document, whereas the new ones now say

licencia de conductor. However, most people still call them brevetes.

Bolivia: Licencia de conducir is what appears on the card. Many people, however, say brevet or

brevé with two syllables (unlike in Peru). There is evidence to suggest that the use of

brevet may be dying out and that younger people are increasingly using licencia. Why is

brevet(e) pronounced with two syllables in Bolivia but with three in Peru?

Uruguay: Licencia nacional de conductor is what appears on the license itself.

Argentina: There is some evidence to suggest that registro (de conductor) is more common in

Buenos Aires, and carnet (de conductor) may be more common in some of the provinces.

Is this the case? Licencia de conductor is what appears on the license itself.

Carné vs. carnet: In Spain the Castilianized spelling, carné, has been officially accepted and

even preferred by many since at least the 1960s or 1970s, whereas Latin Americans

continue to cling to the original French spelling, carnet. See section B8.4 below.


Brevet (F1992 - F2001), brevete (B1992 - A2001), carné de conducir (F/C1992 - F/C2001), carnet

de conducir (F1992 - F2001), cartera dactilar (F1992 - F2001), libreta (D1992 - A2001), licencia de

conducir (F/A1992 - F/A2001), pase (D1992 - D2001), patente (D1992 - D2001), permiso de conducir

(F/A1992 - F/A2001), registro (D1992 - D2001).

Dictionary definitions: brevete, “2. Bol. y Perú. Permiso de conducir”; libreta, “Ur.

Licencia para conducir un vehículo motorizado.”

Should monolingual Spanish-language dictionaries define specific types of carnés,

carteras, libretas, licencias and permisos such as the ones meaning ‘driver’s license,’ or should

only the base terms be defined? If they do define specific types of carnés, etc., how do they

decide which ones to define, all possible carnés, or just the most common ones? If the compound

terms carné de conducir, licencia de conducir, etc., are defined, under what entry should they be

listed? Under carné, licencia, etc. or as separate entries? Carnet is not listed in either the 2001 or

the 1992 editions of the Real Academia Dictionary, but both spellings, carné and carnet, should

be listed since both are used by educated Spanish speakers.

B9 DEPARTMENT / PROVINCE / STATE (names of first-order administrative

divisions of countries)

B9.1 Summary

Nine countries are divided into departamentos, six into provincias and two into estados. Spain,

Puerto Rico and Chile have unique first-order administrative division names that are not used in

any other country. In section B9.2 below, the number of these first-order administrative divisions

that each country has is given in parentheses.

30

B9.2 Division name by country

SPAIN comunidades autónomas (17)

MEXICO estados (31)

GUATEMALA departamentos (22)

EL SALVADOR departamentos (14)

HONDURAS departamentos (18)

NICARAGUA departamentos (15)

COSTA RICA provincias (7)

PANAMA provincias (9)

CUBA provincias (14)

DOMIN. REP. provincias (29)

PUERTO RICO municipios (78)

VENEZUELA estados (23)

COLOMBIA departamentos (32)

ECUADOR provincias (22)

PERU departamentos (24)

BOLIVIA departamentos (9)

PARAGUAY departamentos (17)

URUGUAY departamentos (19)

ARGENTINA provincias (23)

CHILE regiones (13)

B9.3 Details

General: Much of the information presented in this section can be found in The CIA World

Factbook, http://www.cia.gov-/cia/pub-lications/factbook.

Mexico: There are 31 estados and el distrito federal.

Nicaragua: There are fifteen departamentos and two regiones autonomistas (Atlántico Norte and

Atlántico Sur).

Panama: There are nine provincias and two comarcas (San Blas and Ngobe-Bugle).

Cuba: There are fourteen provincias and one municipio especial (la Isla de la Juventud).

Dominican Republic: There are 29 provincias and el distrito nacional.

Puerto Rico: If you consider Puerto Rico to be separate from the United States of America,

municipios are its first-order administrative divisions. Otherwise, all of Puerto Rico is a

first-order administrative division of the United States, and municipios are second-order

administrative divisions.

Venezuela: There are 23 estados, el distrito federal and one dependencia federal which consists

of eleven federally controlled island groups.

Colombia: There are 32 departamentos and el distrito capital.

Peru: There are 24 departamentos and one provincia constitucional (el Callao). The 1979

constitution mandated the creation of regiones (by combining departamentos) but the

regiones have yet to be put into effect as autonomous administrative entities.

Argentina: There are 23 provincias and la capital federal.

Chile: Before the 1973 military coup, Chile was divided into 25 provincias. During the Pinochet

dictatorship (1973-1990), the provincial division of the country was discarded by

31

combining between two and seven provincias to form each región. (Claudia Heiss,

Patricio Navia, “Institutional Design and Decentralization: The Case of Chile”

http://home-pages-.nyu-.edu-/~pdn200/pa-pers/Heiss-&Navia2002.pdf.)

Creating new first-order administrative divisions: The verbs provincializar, departamentalizar

and the nouns provincialización, departamentalización are used in this sense in the

respective regions. Are there corresponding forms for comunidad autónoma, estado or

región?


Comunidad autónoma (A1992 - A2001), departamento (A1992 - A2001), estado (D1992 - D2001),

provincia (C1992 - C2001), región (D/C1992 - D/C2001).

Dictionary definitions: comunidad autónoma, “Entidad territorial que dentro del

ordenamiento constitucional del Estado español, está dotada de autonomía legislativa y

competencias ejecutivas, así como de la facultad de administrarse mediante sus propios

representantes”; provincia, “Cada una de las grandes divisiones de un territorio o Estado, sujeta

por lo común a una autoridad administrativa. || 2. Cada una de las demarcaciones administrativas

del territorio español, fijadas en 1833”; departamento, “6. En algunos países de América,

provincia (|| división de un territorio sujeta a una autoridad administrativa)”; región, “Cada una

de las grandes divisiones territoriales de una nación, definida por características geográficas e

histórico-sociales, y que puede dividirse a su vez en provincias, departamentos, etc.”

Should the Dictionary specify in its definitions of the above terms, which words represent

first-order administrative divisions in which countries? If so, all four definitions will need to

include regional specifications such as the following: departamento, “Bol., Col., El Salv., Guat.,

Hond., Nic., Par., Perú y Ur. Cada una de las grandes divisiones de un país, sujeta a una

autoridad administrativa”; provincia, “Arg., C. Rica, Cuba, Ecuad., Pan. y R. Dom.

departamento (|| grande división administrativa de un país)”; estado, “Méx. y Ven.

departamento (|| grande división administrativa de un país)”, etc.

B10 NATIONAL CURRENCIES

B10.1 Summary

The peso is the national currency of seven countries. Four countries (counting Puerto Rico)

currently use the U.S. dollar as an official currency. The remaining names are official currencies

in only one or two countries and include three explorer/conquistador/discoverers, a Native

American chief, a liberator, a bird and a people/language.

B10.2 Terms by country (11 terms)

SPAIN euro

MEXICO peso

GUATEMALA quetzal

EL SALVADOR colón and dólar (estadounidense)

32

HONDURAS lempira

NICARAGUA córdoba

COSTA RICA colón

PANAMA balboa and dólar (estadounidense)

CUBA peso

DOMIN. REP. peso

PUERTO RICO dólar (estadounidense)

VENEZUELA bolívar

COLOMBIA peso

ECUADOR dólar (estadounidense)

PERU sol

BOLIVIA boliviano

PARAGUAY guaraní

URUGUAY peso

ARGENTINA peso

CHILE peso

B10.3 Details

General: The etymologies provided below are from the currency names as defined in the Real

Academia Dictionary.

Spain: The peso was replaced by the peseta in 1868 which, in turn, was replaced by the euro on

February 28, 2002. For several months after that date people were still able to exchange

pesetas for euros at any bank. Currently, pesetas can only be exchanged at the Banco de

España. (“Spain’s seafaring currency” http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/en-glish/world/eu-

rope/news-id_1702000/1702058.stm; “Euro changeover complete” http://news.-

bbc.co.uk/hi/english/-busi-ness/news-id_1845000/1845045.stm.)

Guatemala: Quetzal, the currency, comes from the tropical bird of the same name, which is a

national symbol of Guatemala and represents freedom and wealth in Mayan culture.

(“The Quetzal” http://www-.travel-log.com/guate-mala/quetzal.html.) The quetzal

replaced the peso in 1925. (Guerra Borges, 431-32.)

El Salvador: Since January 1, 2001 the U.S. dollar has been accepted as dual currency alongside

the colón and both currencies can be used to purchase goods and services. However, the

colón is in the process of disappearing. When colones are deposited into banks, they are

removed from circulation. The word comes from Colón, Cristoforo Colombo’s Spanish

surname.

Honduras: The term lempira is masculine (el lempira) and comes from Lempira, the famous

Lenca chief who fought valiantly against the Spanish conquistadors Francisco de

Montejo and Alonso de Cáceres in 1537. (“Lempira” http://www.sdnhon.org.hn/miem-

bros/cultura/bi-nah/blem-pira.htm.)

Nicaragua: The córdoba is masculine (el córdoba) and comes from the Spanish conquistador

Francisco Fernández de Córdoba who founded the first permanent Spanish settlements in

Granada and León in 1524. Shortly thereafter, Córdoba was executed by a more powerful

rival, Pedro Arias de Ávila (also known as Pedrarias Dávila). (“Francisco Fernández de

Córdoba: Explorer” http://www.enchanted-learning.com/ex-plorers/page/c/cordoba.

shtml.)

http://www.enchanted-learning.com/ex-plorers/page

33

Panama: Although the balboa, which is masculine (el balboa), is technically the national

currency, it is largely symbolic; United States dollars are what circulate. The balboa

exists in the form of coins but not bills. The word comes from Vasco Núñez de Balboa,

the Spanish explorer and conquistador, who was the first European to see (and stand in

the waters of) the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean on September 13, 1513. Balboa,

along with several of his lieutenants and friends, was beheaded in 1517 by Pedro Arias de

Ávila, who was jealous of Balboa’s popularity. (“Vasco Núñez de Balboa” http://colo-

quio.com/famosos/bal-boa.html; “Pedro Arias de Ávila” http://www.bruce-.ruiz.net/

Panama-History/pedrarias.htm.)

Venezuela: The bolívar is named for Simón Bolívar, who in 1810 began the armed struggle in

Spanish America for independence from Spain. After many ups and downs in the war, his

armies scored decisive victories against the royalist forces in the battles of Boyacá (1819)

and Carabobo (1821). (“Simón Bolívar El Libertador” http://www.estado-var-gas.com-

/Simon-.html.)

Ecuador: The conversion from sucres to United States dollars began in February of 2000 and

was completed in September of 2000 in a process called dolarización. (e.g. Ecuador

dolarizó su economía.) (“Ecuador Officially Converts to U.S. Dollar” http://www.lyn-

knight.com/ar-ticles/article2157.chtml.) The former currency of Ecuador comes from

Antonio José de Sucre, chief lieutenant of Simón Bolívar, who defeated the Spanish in

the battles of Pichincha (1822), Junín and Ayacucho (1824). He was ambushed and killed

in 1830, according to some, under orders from Colombian General José María Obando.

(“Sucre, Antonio José de” http://-www.bar-tleby.com/65/su-/Suc-re-An.html; “Ecuador

in the Gran Colombia” http://www-.fuerzas-armadas-ecuador.-org/en-glish/his-

toria/ecuador-gran-co-lom-bia.htm; “José María Obando del Campo” http://-www.memo-

.com.co/scripts/fenonino-/aprenda/dic-cionarios-/biog-result-.php-3?bio=407.)

Peru: The sol or nuevo sol replaced the inti on July 1, 1991. The inti, which means sol (‘sun’) in

Quechua, had replaced a previous sol on February 1, 1985. (Lawrence H. Officer,

“Information on exchange rates of the Americas” http://www.eh.net/hmit/ex-change-

rates-/info-americas.htm.)

Bolivia: The boliviano was replaced by the peso on January 1, 1963 which, in turn, was replaced

by (a new) boliviano on January 1, 1987. (“International Economics” http://intl.econ.cu-

hk.-edu.-hk/ex-change_rate_re-gime/index.php?cid=14.)

Argentina: The austral replaced the peso on June 14, 1985, and (a new) peso replaced the austral

on January 1, 1992. (“Information on exchange rates of the Americas” http://www.eh.net-

/hmit/ex-change-rates/infoamericas.htm.)

Chile: The escudo replaced the (old) peso on January 1, 1960 and the (new) peso replaced the

escudo on September 29, 1975. (“Information on exchange rates of the Americas”

http://www-.eh.net/hmit/ex-changerates/infoamericas.htm.)


Only two grades are given in this section, O (out-of-date) and U (up-to-date), and only

the 2001 edition of the Real Academia Dictionary is reviewed.

Austral (O2001), balboa (U2001), bolívar (U2001), boliviano (U2001), colón (U2001), córdoba

(U2001), dólar (U2001?), euro (U2001), guaraní (U2001), lempira (U2001), peseta (U2001), peso

(U2001?), quetzal (U2001), sol (O2001), sucre (O2001).

http://www.bruce-.ruiz.net/

34

Dictionary definitions: austral, “2. m. Unidad monetaria de la Argentina desde 1985”;

dólar, “Unidad monetaria de los Estados Unidos de América, Canadá, Australia, Liberia, Nueva

Zelanda y otros países del mundo”; peso, “14. Unidad monetaria de diversos países americanos”;

sol, “5. Antigua unidad monetaria del Perú”; sucre, “Unidad monetaria de Ecuador.”

The definition of sol should read “Unidad monetaria del Perú” perhaps with the phrase

“llámase también nuevo sol” added for clarification. The definition of sucre should probably be

changed to “Antigua unidad monetaria del Ecuador,” that is, unless one argues that dictionaries

should wait a decade or more to see whether Ecuador’s experiment with U.S. dollars will prove

to be a passing fancy or a long-term arrangement. The definition of dólar lists several English-

speaking countries that have a dollar as their national currency but fails to list any of the

Spanish-speaking countries (Ecuador, El Salvador, Panama, Puerto Rico?) in which the U.S.

dollar is an official currency: this needs to be rectified. Should the definition of peso be changed

to, “Unidad monetaria de Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, México, República Dominicana y

Uruguay”? Why is the phrase “del Perú” used in the definition of sol but “de Ecuador” in the

definition of sucre (emphasis added)? Do not both countries take the article (el Ecuador, el

Perú)?

B11 VOTING IN NATIONAL ELECTIONS: OPTIONAL OR MANDATORY?

B11.1 Summary

Within the Spanish-speaking world, voting in national elections is generally optional except in

most of South America, where it is mandatory.

B11.2 Status by country

SPAIN optional

MEXICO optional

GUATEMALA optional

EL SALVADOR optional

HONDURAS optional

NICARAGUA optional

COSTA RICA optional

PANAMA optional

CUBA mandatory?

DOMIN. REP. optional

PUERTO RICO optional

VENEZUELA optional

COLOMBIA optional

ECUADOR mandatory

PERU mandatory

BOLIVIA mandatory

PARAGUAY mandatory

35

URUGUAY mandatory

ARGENTINA mandatory

CHILE mandatory?

B11.3 Details

General: In countries where voting is mandatory it becomes a requirement for citizens when they

reach the age of majority, generally eighteen, and usually becomes optional once they

reach between age 65 and 75. The coercive measures that are typically used by the

government to enforce this requirement include the assessment of fines, and not

permitting a person to make bank transactions, or obtain a passport or other legal

documents. However, Spanish-speaking countries where voting is compulsory generally

offer loopholes that allow non-voters to avoid punishment or receive a mere slap on the

wrist. The constitution of many of the countries listed above as “optional” defines voting

as a deber cívico, but the government has not set up any enforcement mechanisms to

ensure compliance. Why is it that voting is mandatory in most of South America and

optional almost everywhere else? What historical factors account for this? How should

we define “mandatory” and “optional”?

Cuba: By regulation, voting is optional. However, citizens are under considerable social pressure

to vote once they reach sixteen years of age. Beginning early in the morning on election

days children knock on people’s doors to “remind” them of the importance of voting.

Those who do not vote must also answer to a Comité de Defensa de la Revolución

(CDR), which can be an unpleasant experience. People who do not vote are also

ineligible for certain state-controlled benefits such as obtaining a telephone.

Puerto Rico: Legal residents of Puerto Rico can vote in Puerto Rican elections but not in United

States presidential elections. (“Welcome to Puerto Rico” http://welcome.topuerto-

rico.org/govern-ment-.shtml.) For information on challenges to this regulation, see

“Gregorio Igartúa de la Rosa, et al. v. United States of America” http://www.-ca1.us-

courts.gov-/pdf.-opinions-/00-20-83-01A.pdf.

Venezuela: Voting was technically mandatory until 1999 when a new constitution was signed

making it optional. (http://www.gobierno-enlinea.ve/gobierno/portal. Compare Artículo

63 of the 1999 Constitution to Artículo 110 of the 1961 Constitution.) However, prior to

1999 the voting requirement had not been enforced.

Peru: Compliance with the voting requirement is controlled through a card called the libreta

electoral which is being phased out; the new card is the DNI or Documento Nacional de

Identificación.

Uruguay: The credencial cívica is the card by means of which compliance with the voting

requirement is controlled.

Argentina: The IDs that used to control voting were the libreta cívica (LC), issued to women,

and the libreta de enrolamiento (LE), issued to men (which also controlled compliance

with the military-service requirement). Both documents began to be phased out in the

early 1970s by the documento nacional de identidad or DNI. The older documents,

however, continue to be used by some older Argentines who have not yet gone in to the

Registro Nacional de las Personas to be issued a DNI. (“Ley Nº 17.671 - Registro

Nacional de las Personas” http://www.registro-civil.gov.ar/ley17671.htm.)

36

Chile: Voting is mandatory once a citizen is registered to vote. Registration is done once and

remains in effect for life. However, current laws do not require Chileans to register to

vote. Electoral records that existed prior to 1973 were destroyed by the military during

the dictatorship. In 1988 people registered voluntarily to vote in the plebiscite which, a

year later, led to the first presidential and parliamentary elections in seventeen years.

Because there was so much at stake (the continuation of the dictatorship or the beginning

of the transition to democracy), over 90% of those eligible to vote in the plebiscite did so.

By 1997, however, both the number of persons registered to vote who did not vote and

the number of those who turned eighteen and did not register had increased considerably.

For this reason there are government advertising campaigns to induce young people to

register to vote. The campaigns, however, have been largely unsuccessful. The

government has been considering the possibility of changing the election laws to make

voter registration automatic when the citizen turns eighteen. (Patricio Navia, “A

Shrinking Electorate in Post Pinochet Chile” http://home-pages.nyu.edu/~pdn-

200/scholar-ly.html.)

Military service: mandatory or optional?: Another interesting subject of investigation would be

to determine where military service (for men) is officially mandatory and where it is

strictly optional. However, in all Spanish-speaking countries where it is compulsory, the

loopholes that enable those with power, money and influence to avoid this requirement

are so many as to virtually render military service a poor man’s burden.

NOTES

1. The author would like to thank Dasha Hlavenka for kindly providing the illustration for Figure

A3, the Traffic Circle, and Lucrecia Hug and Sharlee Merner Bradley for editing earlier drafts

and making a number of valuable suggestions. In addition, he would like to express his

appreciation to Bradley Shaw of Kansas State University for going out of his way to put him in

contact with many informants/respondents for this study. Last but not least, he would like to

thank all of the native speakers of Spanish who generously gave of their time to answer questions

on usage.

2. For information on items in other semantic fields whose names in Spanish vary by region, see

the following works by Andre Moskowitz:

“Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: folks.” Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference of

the American Translators Association, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., October 31-

November 3, 2001. Ed. Thomas L. West III. American Translators Association, 2001.

268-301.

“Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: kids’ stuff.” Proceedings of the 41st Annual Conference

of the American Translators Association, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., September 20-23,

2000. Ed. Thomas L. West III. American Translators Association, 2000. 328-366.

“Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: food and drink.” Proceedings of the 40th Annual

Conference of the American Translators Association, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.,

November 3-6, 1999. Ed. Ann G. Macfarlane. American Translators Association, 1999.

275-308.

37

“Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: the home.” Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference

of the American Translators Association, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, U.S.A.,

November 4-8, 1998. Ed. Ann G. Macfarlane. American Translators Association, 1998.

221-253.

“Fruit and vegetable terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation.”

Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, San

Francisco, California, U.S.A., November 5-9, 1997. Ed. Muriel M. Jérôme-O’Keeffe.

American Translators Association, 1997. 233-261.

“Clothing terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation.” Proceedings of the

37th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Colorado Springs,

Colorado, U.S.A., October 30-November 3, 1996. Ed. Muriel M. Jérôme-O’Keeffe.

American Translators Association, 1996. 287-308.

“Car terminology in the Spanish-speaking world.” Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of

the American Translators Association, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., November 8-12,

1995. Ed. Peter W. Krawutschke. American Translators Association, 1995. 331-340.

“Contribución al estudio del español ecuatoriano.” Unpublished M.A. thesis. Department of

Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. 1995.

“A box of office supplies: dialectological fun” The Georgetown Journal of Languages &

Linguistics. Vol 1.3. Ed. Richard J. O’Brien, S.J. 1990. 315-344.

REFERENCES

Alvar Ezquerra, Manuel. 1996. “Dialectología y lexicografía” in Manual de dialectología

hispánica / El español de España. Manuel Alvar, ed. Barcelona, Spain: Editorial Ariel,

S.A. pg. 49-54.

Guerra Borges, Alfredo. 1996. “El Sistema Bancario” in Historia General de Guatemala.

Asociación de Amigos del País, Fundación para la Cultura y Desarrollo. Vol. V. pg. 429-

39.

Lipski, John M. 1996. El español de América. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Cátedra, S.A.

Real Academia Española. 1992. Diccionario de la Lengua Española. 21st Edition. Madrid,

Spain: Editorial Espasa-Calpe, S.A.

Real Academia Española. 2001. Diccionario de la Lengua Española. 22nd Edition. Madrid,

Spain: Editorial Espasa-Calpe, S.A.

Vargas Llosa, Mario. 1962. La ciudad y los perros. Barcelona, Spain: Editorial Seix Barral S.A.

38

APPENDIX 1: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

The following is a small selection of additional topics in the field of Spanish lexical dialectology

that relate, in some instances only tangentially, to urban life, money, politics and/or government.

For the most part, only a few informants from each specified country or region have been

observed or questioned concerning these issues, and the findings are therefore tentative. No

doubt most of the usages presented occur in more regions than those listed; the information

provided is based on the data the author was able to collect.

Although some information is provided on how the terminology varies by region, the

topics are primarily presented to call attention to their existence as possible dialectological issues

and to encourage others to research them further. In each entry the referent or a set of referents is

indicated, but the connotations associated with them are generally not specified, or are specified

only minimally. In order for the terms to be defined in dictionaries their speech registers,

connotations and, in some cases, the exact referents themselves will have to be fully investigated.

Spelling (and thus etymological) issues such as b vs. v and y vs. ll are also raised.

attorney’s office / law firm. While the generic oficina de abogados, despacho de abogados or

firma de abogados are used, the term bufete, sometimes written and pronounced bufé, is

also used in many countries. Is bufete universal? The term estudio jurídico or estudio de

abogados (often shortened to estudio) is used in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia?, Paraguay,

Uruguay, Argentina and Chile__

essentially everywhere in South America south of

Colombia.

bill / invoice. Cuenta (used more for goods or merchandise) and factura (used more for

professional services) are universal, but there are other terms for ‘bill/invoice’ that appear

to be more regional and, in many cases, more commonly used than either cuenta or

factura. They include the following: bill or bil (Puerto Rico, pronounced [bil]; if

admitted, how should this term be spelled?); boleta (Uruguay, Argentina?); planilla

(Ecuador); recibo (Spain, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,

Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia?, Paraguay?,

Uruguay; is this usage universal?). Quite a few Spanish speakers indicated that they use a

different base term depending on the type of bill (water, electricity, telephone, etc.) they

are discussing. For example, one Bolivian said that he uses la factura del agua but la

cuenta de la luz. More research will have to be done, however, to determine which of

these preferences correspond to regional linguistic tendencies and which merely represent

idiosyncracies.

bribe. Soborno is the universal, standard term, but the following regional equivalents are often

used in place of soborno, especially by less educated speakers and by speakers of all

educational levels in less formal situations: borona (Dominican Republic; the term also

means any type of ‘tip’ or ‘remuneration,’ money that is given in exchange for some

service or favor.); cazo (País Vasco, Spain?); coima (Panama?, Colombia?, Ecuador,

Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); coimisión (Uruguay; this term is a

portmanteau or cross between coima and comisión); cometa (Paraguay?, Uruguay);

comisión (Dominican Republic?, Venezuela); chantaje (Spain, Nicaragua?, Costa Rica,

Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador);

chorizo (Costa Rica); macuteo (Dominican Republic); matraca (Venezuela); mochada

(Northern Mexico; some from this region say mochada means ‘bribe’ while others say a

39

mochada is each person’s share or “cut” of a bribe when it is shared by several officials);

mojada (Dominican Republic?); mordida (Mexico, Hispanic Central America); movida

(Honduras); peaje (Venezuela); untada (Spain, Colombia); unte (Spain); vacuna

(Colombia); vaina (Venezuela?); viático (Venezuela?).

Although, strictly speaking, chantaje means ‘blackmail,’ is its use in the sense of

‘bribe’ universal in popular speech? The Dominican term macuteo, which is derived from

the verb macutear, is often used in the sense of ‘demanding a bribe,’ (by police officers

or other officials), in addition to meaning ‘paying a bribe,’ (what individuals pay to an

official). Although mordida in this sense is used with the highest frequency in Mexico

and Central America, it is also heard in many other Spanish-speaking countries perhaps

as a result of the influence of Mexican telenovelas.

In addition, the following verbs and idiomatic expressions were offered in the

sense of ‘to pay a bribe’: bajarle un billete (Peru); bajarse de la mula (Venezuela);

choricear (Costa Rica); darle para las colas (Ecuador; cola means ‘soda/soft drink’); dar

una vaina (Venezuela); mojarle la mano (Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Chile?);

pasarle la mano (Colombia); romperle la mano (Guatemala); tocar (Cuba); untarle la

mano (Guatemala, Colombia, Uruguay).

coste vs. costo. For ‘cost,’ is it coste in Spain and costo in Spanish America, or is the situation

more complicated? Is the choice here only a question of regional preference or are

different terms used depending on the type of ‘cost’ being referred to?

corrupt, illegal deal. The term negociado is defined as “3. Am. Mer. Negocio ilícito que toma

carácter público” and refers to deals involving misuse of public funds, fraud, bribery,

embezzlement, nepotism, cronyism (particularly in connection with a lack of open and

competitive bidding on public works projects), fraudulent assessments and/or over-

billing. Where (in South America and possibly elsewhere) is negociado used in this sense

and, given that this phenomenon is common almost everywhere in the Spanish-speaking

world, are there other regional terms for it?

élite vs. elite. In which countries is élite__

pronounced [E-li-te], with the stress on the first

syllable__

preferred, and in which countries is elite__

pronounced [e-LI-te] or [e-

LIT]__

preferred? Does the pronunciation (and spelling) of this word vary by region? The

Real Academia accepts both spellings, but élite is the first one listed and is, presumably,

preferred by that institution. Do most educated Spaniards prefer élite to elite? What about

educated persons from the other nineteen Spanish-speaking countries? Of those Spanish

speakers who prefer the spelling without an accent mark, elite, which ones prefer the

pronunciation with three syllables, [e-LI-te], and which prefer the pronunciation with two

syllables, [e-LIT]? If a substantial number of these prefer the pronunciation with two

syllables, can an argument be made to Castilianize the spelling and list elit as an alternate

spelling in dictionaries, or does the word have such an elitist origin that the French

spelling must be retained? (Why should carnet get converted to carné, but not élite to

elite to elit?)

extra salary / Christmas bonus. What are all the regional names for Christmas bonuses and

other extra salaries (paga de Navidad, paga extraordinaria) that employees receive? For

example, in Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina and Chile, the

thirteenth monthly salary (received at the end of the year) is called an aguinaldo or

aguinaldo de navidad. Some Spaniards also indicated that aguinaldo is used in this sense

in Spain whereas others said it is not. Is it? Some Chileans also receive an aguinaldo de

40

fiestas patrias in September for Independence Day. In Colombia the thirteenth salary

received at the end of the year is referred to as a prima de navidad or a prima de fin de

año. Other names offered were: el doble sueldo and la regalía pascual, often just called

la regalía (Dominican Republic, end of the year salary), quincena (Bolivia, an extra half

salary received in July). In Venezuela, the Christmas bonus used to be called an

aguinaldo (often pronounced aguinardo by the lower classes) but with the new labor law

it is now called utilidades.

gang. A street gang is called a mara in El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, in addition to the

standard pandilla. The Dictionary indicates that mara is also used in Mexico, but this

usage does not appear to be common according to the dozen or so Mexicans that were

questioned regarding this. However, one Mexican indicated that Central American

pandillas that cross the Chiapas-Guatemala border are known as maras and that the ones

from El Salvador are called maras salvatruchas; a Guatemalan said that mara

salvatrucha refers to a particular Salvadoran gang that originated in Los Angeles. Are

there other regional terms for pandilla/banda?

jail (slang terms). The following are slang terms for la cárcel whose rough equivalents in

United States English are “the can,” “the slammer” or “the pokey”: bote (Mexico,

Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica); botellón (Mexico); cana (Venezuela,

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay, Argentina); capacha (Ecuador?, Chile);

cuadrada (Santa Cruz, Bolivia?); chira (Peru?); chirola (Ecuador?); chirona (Spain, El

Salvador, Cuba?); chironga (El Salvador?); cholpa (Costa Rica, Nicaragua); chorpa

(Costa Rica); guandoca (Colombia); hoyo (El Salvador); jaula (Cuba?); loma (Cuba?);

mamo (Honduras); mazmorra (Spain?); sombra (Spain, Colombia, Ecuador); tabo (Costa

Rica); tajo (Costa Rica?); talego (Spain); tambo (Mexico, El Salvador); tanque (Mexico,

Cuba); trena (Spain); trullo (Spain). Note that some of these terms are often used in

expressions without the definite article: lo metieron en cana, está en chirona. In addition,

the term la peni (short for penitenciaría) has been recorded in a number of countries. Is

this usage universal or regionally marked?

The following verbs meaning ‘to throw in the slammer,’ and the corresponding

adjectival forms, have also been recorded: embotar (Mexico?, Honduras?); embotellar

(Mexico); encanar (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina); enguandocar

(Colombia); entambar (Mexico). No doubt many of these verbs are common in more

countries than those listed, and more of the nouns listed in the preceding paragraph have

corresponding verb forms.

lazy government bureaucrats (slang terms). What are all the regional slang terms for lazy

government employees, people who meet one or both of the following conditions? a)

They are on the government payroll but work little or not at all. b) They were given their

government positions due to nepotism, political connections or some other type of

favoritism. For example, in Ecuador these are sometimes referred to as los pipones (e.g.

los pipones del municipio); pipón alludes to the fact that such individuals are thought of

as having large bellies.

median. There are a number of regional names for the often elevated central divide that some

avenues and boulevards have which include: arriate (Guatemala?, El Salvador); camellón

(Mexico); cantero (central) (Uruguay; they usually have grass and flowers planted in

them); mediana (Spain); parter or parterre (Ecuador). Some Ecuadorans pronounce the

word with two syllables, [par-TER], and others pronounce it with three syllables, [par-

41

TE-rre]; both written forms, parter and parterre, have also been seen, although the latter

seems more common. What are the characteristics__

age, socioeconomic class, region,

etc.__

of Ecuadorans who pronounce and write the word one way vs. the other?

ministry (of foreign affairs) / department (of state). Which federal governments are divided

into secretarías (Mexico, Dominican Republic), and which are divided into ministerios

(everywhere else?)? Specifically, what are all the different Spanish-language equivalents

of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, such as Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Ministerio

de Relaciones Exteriores, Secretaría de Estado, Secretaría de Estado de Relaciones

Exteriores, Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Relaciones Exteriores,

and where is each term used? Do all countries also use Cancillería as a synonym of

Ministry of Foreign Affaires, or just some countries?

money (slang terms). Regional equivalents of U.S. English “dough” or “moola(h)” include the

following terms: astilla (Cuba); baro or varo (Cuba); bille (Panama, Peru, Chile); billulla

or biyuya (Uruguay); billullo or biyuyo (Mexico, Honduras, Venezuela, Chile); billullu or

biyuyu (Honduras); biruta (Alicante, Spain?); bolas (Honduras); bollos (Nicaragua);

caleta (Chile?); cuarto (Dominican Republic); cuscusa (Colombia?); chambulines

(Nicaragua); chavos (Puerto Rico; from ochavo, ‘moneda española con peso de un octavo

de onza y valor de dos maravedís’; see Dictionary’s definition of chavo); chen-chen

(Panama); chibilines or chivilines (Peru); churupos (Venezuela); duartes (Dominican

Republic?); feria (Mexico); fichas (Guatemala?); fulas (Cuba; the term refers to U.S.

dollars, perhaps because they are lighter in color than Cuban bills.); grana (Uruguay?,

Bolivia?; from Brazilian Portuguese); guita (Spain, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay,

Argentina, Chile); harina (Costa Rica); lana (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua,

Costa Rica, Panama?, Venezuela?, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru?, Chile?); mango (Panama?,

Argentina); marmaja (Mexico, Colombia?); mojoso (Dominican Republic?); moni (Costa

Rica, especially adolescents? From English “money”.); morlacos (Bolivia, Chile?);

mosca (Costa Rica, Colombia, Paraguay, Uruguay?, Argentina?); mula (El Salvador?);

muna (Venezuela); pachocha (Mexico); palo (Panama); papeleta (Dominican

Republic?); parné (Gypsy slang in Spain?); pasta (Spain); pelas (Spain); pepas

(Ecuador?); perras (Spain); pirá piré (Paraguay, Guaraní term); pisto (Guatemala, El

Salvador, Honduras); quibo (Bolivia?); reales (Nicaragua, Venezuela; often pronounced

as if written riales); tela (Spain, El Salvador?); vento (Argentina, Uruguay; a Lunfardo

term).

The terms bille, biyuya, biyuyo and biyuyu probably come from billete but the

spellings used include practically all possible combinations of b or v and ll or y. The term

cuarto (Dominican Republic) is pronounced cualto or cuaito in popular speech, that is,

almost always; the latter pronunciation is especially common in the el Cibao region.

Some Costa Ricans indicated that mosca refers to ‘stolen money’ and that the verb

mosquear ‘to steal’ is also used.

In addition, the expression tiene todo el huevo/güevo is used in Costa Rica to refer

to someone who has a lot of money. What are all the different slang terms for bills of

specific denominations? For example, a luca means a thousand-peso note in Chile.

national ID card. Most Spanish-speaking countries have a national identification card whose

names are as follows: carné (de identidad) or carnet (de identidad) (Spain, Cuba, Bolivia,

Chile; see sections B8.3 and B8.4 regarding the issue of carné vs. carnet); cédula (de

ciudadanía) (Colombia); cédula (de identidad) or cédula de identidad personal (El

42

Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia,

Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina); cédula (de identificación personal) (Dominican

Republic); cédula (de vecindad) (Guatemala); DUI or documento único de identidad (El

Salvador; this is the new ID that is replacing the cédula); DNI or documento nacional de

identidad (Spain, Peru, Argentina).

In Spain, carné de identidad is the common name and DNI or documento

nacional de identidad is the official name. In Bolivia, cédula (de identidad) is the official

name that is printed on the card but people often call it the carnet.

In addition to the primary national ID cards, there are various other national ID

cards that are used for specific purposes. For example, there are cards that show a person

has voted (see section B11), and ones that indicate a person has complied with his

military-service obligation such as cartilla (Mexico), libreta militar (Colombia, Peru),

libreta de servicio militar (Bolivia), libreta de enrolamiento (Venezuela?, Argentina?).

neighborhood / sector of a city. Many countries have regional words for urban or suburban

neighborhoods or districts of a city. Their meaning and connotation vary, and more

research needs to be done to determine the socioeconomic class that is associated with the

neighborhoods that the following words refer to: ciudadela (Costa Rica, Ecuador);

colonia (parts of Spain?, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa

Rica); comuna (Paraguay?, Chile); ensanche (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico);

fraccionamiento (Mexico, Uruguay); reparto (El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba,

Dominican Republic?); residencial (Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican

Republic, Bolivia; the gender of this noun seems to vary: un residencial vs. una

residencial); urba (Costa Rica, short for urbanización). In Chile, a comuna is a district

within a city which functions as an independent city, that is, each comuna has its own

alcalde or mayor. In Peru and Argentina un barrio pituco refers to a ‘posh or ritzy

neighborhood’. (Where else is this term used in this sense? The Dictionary defines pituco

as ‘presumptuous’ for most of Spanish-speaking South America.)

parking ticket / traffic ticket. Although multa (with a qualifier) can be used as a General

Spanish equivalent of ‘parking ticket’ or ‘traffic ticket’ (issued for a moving violation),

the following are more regional equivalents: boleta (Panama, Venezuela, Uruguay,

Argentina?); contravención (Dominican Republic); esquela (El Salvador); parte

(Colombia, Chile); remisión (Guatemala); tique(t) (Puerto Rico).

período vs. periodo. In which countries is período (pronounced with four syllables) preferred, in

which countries is periodo (pronounced with three syllables) preferred, and in which

countries are both pronunciations and spellings equally common and accepted? For

example, in Colombia periodo (three syllables) is much more common than período (four

syllables), whereas in Ecuador the opposite is the case. The Spanish Real Academia

Dictionary lists both spellings but período is listed first, which means that in the eyes of

the Real Academia the four-syllable version is preferable. Do most educated Spaniards

agree that período is preferable to periodo? What are the preferences in the other

Spanish-speaking countries?

police station. The following terms have been offered in the sense of some type of ‘police

station’: comandancia (Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama?, Dominican Republic, Paraguay);

comando de policía (Colombia?, Bolivia?); comisaría (Spain, Costa Rica, Venezuela,

Peru, Bolivia?, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile); cuartel de policía (Spain,

Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico,

43

Ecuador?); delegación (Mexico, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic?);

estación de policía (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,

Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay,

Argentina?; is this usage universal?); intendencia (Colombia?, Ecuador?, Bolivia?,

Paraguay?); jefatura de policía (Spain, Mexico, Guatemala?, El Salvador, Costa Rica?,

Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia?, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay?, Uruguay,

Argentina; refers to ‘police headquarters’); posta (Honduras; smaller moveable police

station); prefectura (Venezuela, Chile?); PTJ (Panama, Venezuela, Bolivia). The PTJ

(the Policía Técnica Judicial) refers to a particular branch of the police force but also to

one of this branch’s police stations.

What are the technical differences between the above terms in the different

countries? For example, some Mexicans indicated that delegación, estación de policía

and jefatura de policía are equivalent terms; others stated that estación de policía is used

more in northern Mexico. One Costa Rican indicated that a comandancia is a large police

station located in a provincial capital whereas a comisaría is a large police station located

in San José, and a delegación is a small police station located in towns and smaller cities;

in rural areas these are called delegaciones de la guardia rural. One Cuban indicated that

comisaría used to be used prior to 1959 in pre-revolutionary times, but that now estación

de policía is used, which, ironically, parallels U.S. English “police station”. In

Venezuela, the prefectura is apparently the police station for a type of police force that is

in charge of minor crimes, as opposed to the PTJ, which is in charge of more serious

crimes. Which of the above terms refer to military command posts rather than police

stations? Or is the difference between the two often hazy given that the functions of the

army, national guard and police are sometimes blurred in some Spanish-speaking

countries (especially during times of “national emergency”)?

post office. In Panama these are often called estafetas postales. Are there any other countries in

which a term other than the universal el correo or la oficina de correos is used?

riot (or other chaotic situation involving large numbers of people). What are all the regional

terms that refer to this type of event? Examples include molote (Dominican Republic),

revolú (Puerto Rico), rebulú (Ecuador), zaperoco (Venezuela). In highland Ecuador the

word bullas (in the plural form) is often used in this sense: hay bullas en el centro.

rubber stamp. Sello is the standard term, but there are also more regional terms that compete (in

some areas quite successfully) with sello: cuño (Alicante and Valencia, Spain; Cuba);

matasello (Dominican Republic); estampa (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico); timbre

(Chile). In all of the countries that use a regional term, such as cuño, estampa,

matasello(s) and timbre, there are some who prefer sello and look down on those who use

the regionally marked term. What are the linguistic attitudes in these regions toward sello

and the regionally marked terms? See section B1, postage stamp.

When qualifiers are added to sello to specify the meaning of ‘rubber stamp,’ they

also seem to exhibit regional variation: de caucho (parts of South America?), de hule

(Mexico and Central America), de jebe (Peru, Bolivia?), and de goma (everywhere else?).

status. Are there regional preferences among the terms estatus, estato and estado when used in

specific collocations? (For example, “marital status” is always estado civil, but what

about “immigration status”?)

44

steamroller. Is it apisonadora in Spain and aplanadora in Spanish America, or is the situation

more complicated than that? What are all the terms used in this sense and where are they

used?

street kid. What are all the regional names for ‘homeless children’? In Colombia these are called

gamines.

ticket A - for buses, trains, airplanes and other forms of transportation. Pasaje is universal,

but billete and boleto are in general more commonly used in Spain and Spanish America,

respectively. Other terms include tique(t) (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,

Nicaragua, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,

Bolivia?, Paraguay?), and tiquete (Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia).

In Costa Rica, pase is used in the sense of ‘bus fare’. Some Spanish Americans

distinguish between pasaje (plane ticket) and boleto (bus ticket). One Colombian said she

distinguished between pasaje (bus ticket) and tiquete (plane ticket) and one Venezuelan

said she distinguished between pasaje (plane ticket) and tiquet (train ticket). What are all

the distinctions made? To what extent do they represent regional tendencies and to what

extent are they idiosyncratic?

ticket B - for movies, theaters, shows and other spectacles. Entrada is universal, but boleto is

more common in much of Spanish America. More regional terms include the following:

boleta (Dominican Republic?, Colombia); taquilla (Honduras, Panama?, Dominican

Republic, Puerto Rico, Bolivia?); tique(t) (Spain?, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,

Nicaragua, Panama?, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Ecuador?,

Peru?, Bolivia?, Paraguay?; is this usage universal?); tiquete (Costa Rica, Panama,

Cuba?, Colombia?).

ticket C - lottery ticket. Billete (de lotería) and número de lotería appear to be universal, but the

following other terms were also offered: boleto (de lotería) (Spain?, Mexico,

Guatemala?, Puerto Rico?, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile; is this usage

universal?); cachito (Mexico, Guatemala; single ticket from a sheet of lottery tickets);

cantito (Puerto Rico; single ticket from a sheet); caraquita (Dominican Republic);

chance (Panama; a ticket with only two numbers that is less expensive than the billete

that has four numbers); décimo (Spain; single ticket from a sheet of ten, especially for “El

Gordo de Navidad”); entero (Honduras, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay; the

whole sheet consists of between ten and forty lottery tickets, depending on the country);

guach(it)o or huach(it)o (Ecuador, Peru; a single ticket from a sheet called an entero);

participación (Uruguay; one twentieth of an entero); pedazo/pedacito de lotería

(Honduras?, Costa Rica, Colombia?); plego de lotería (Honduras?; sheet of the legal

lottery); quiniela (Dominican Republic, Paraguay?; the term is sometimes pronounced as

if it were written quinela); quint(ic)o (Venezuela?, Colombia?); tiquet (Cuba?); tira

(Dominican Republic; group of five tickets); vigésimo (El Salvador, Honduras,

Nicaragua, Chile; single ticket from a sheet of twenty). Another question is what are the

different names for all of the illegal numbers games?

tramitador or gestor. What are all the regional names for the people who, for a fee, obtain for

their clients certificates, permits and other legal documents at the Registro Civil or at

other government offices? In Guatemala, the term güizache is used in this sense.

45

APPENDIX 2: FAMOUS FAVELAS

The following is a tentative list of the most notorious shantytowns in many of the major

metropolitan areas of the Spanish-speaking world. The list, however, is based only on what

persons from the cities in question told the author in the year 2002. The author has not visited

any of these neighborhoods. Since shantytowns are occasionally bulldozed over or otherwise

cleared and upgraded, this list is not overly reliable, but it is a starting point. Some of the

neighborhoods mentioned are not exclusively shantytowns but contain some houses that qualify

as shanties.

Madrid: El Pozo del Huevo, Cañada Real and Barranquillas in Villa de Vallecas; El Salobral in

Villaverde; Pitis in Fuencarral-El Pardo; Carabanchel, El Pozo del Tío Raimundo?,

Palomeras?, Meseta de Orcasitas?

Barcelona: Raval, Mina, Can Tunis.

Ciudad de Mexico: Chimalhuacán, Bordo de Xochiaca, Tultitlán, Tultepec, Naucalpán, Ecatepec,

Barrio de la Merced?, La Soledad?, Tepito, Santa Julia?, Netzahualcoyotl?, Pedregal de

San Francisco?, El Molinito?, Colonia Tolteca?, la Candelaria de los Patos?, Santa Fe?,

El Molinito?, Tacuba?, Santa Cruz Meyehualco?, Colonia Buenos Aires?, Bondojito?,

Unidad Habitacional Vicente Guerrero.

Ciudad de Guatemala: La Limonada, Roosevelt?, Guajitos?

San Salvador: Barrio de las orillas del río Asalguate, Barrio Tutunichapa, La Fortaleza, El

Cafetalón (in Santa Tecla).

Tegucigalpa: Cerro Birichichi, Barrio Belén, Los Pinos?, Villanueva?, Villavieja?, Flor del

Campo? Managua: Vietnam, Tierra Prometida, Miraflores, Miralagos?,

Acahualinca?

San José: Los Guidos (in Desamparados), La Leon 13, Los Cuadros (in Ipis de Guadalupe), 15

de Septiembre.

Ciudad de Panamá: San Joaquín, Veranillo?, Samaria?, Brooklincito, Rincón Bellaco, Curundú,

Cabo Verde, Viejo Veranillo, Hollywood (in La Locería), Barrasa (in Chorrillo), San

Sebastián (in Paitilla), San Bernardino (in Arraiján), El Chorrillito (in Arraiján).

Caracas: La Charneca, El Pedregal, Los Erasos, La Dolorita, El Guarataro, Petare?, Catia?, San

Martín?, Caricuao?

Bogotá: Los Laches, San Carlos, Las Lomas.

Quito: Lucha de los Pobres?, Comité del Pueblo?

Guayaquil: El Guasmo?, Bastión Popular, Pancho Jácome?, El Fortín?

Lima: Micaela Bastidas; in the District of Chorrillos - Buenos Aires de Villa, San Genaro,

Armatambo Morro Solar, Los Cedros de Villa Pantanal; in the District of Villa El

Salvador - Oasis, Las Brisas, El Cerro, Pachacámac, Nueva Esperanza, La Chanchería; in

the District of Ventanilla - Pachacútec; in the District of Villa María del Triunfo - Virgen

de Lourdes, Santa María; in the District of San Juan de Miraflores - Pamplona Alta,

Pamplona Baja; in the District of El Agustino - Cerro San Cosme; in the District of San

Juan de Lurigancho - Canto Grande; in the District of Ate-Vitarte - Huaycán.

La Paz: Ciudad el Alto?, El área de la Buenos Aires?

Asunción: La Chacarita, Cateura, Mundo Aparte?, Villa Hule, Pelopincho, Mita í, Aña Reta í,

Tablada Nueva, Villa Marquetaria San Lorenzo, Villa Miguelito.

46

Montevideo: Aires Puros?, Nueva Esperanza?, Villa García?, Sub Esperanza?, Artigas?, Las

Acacias?, Barrio Borro, Cuarenta Semanas, Cerro Norte, Tres Ombúes?, Aparicio

Saravia, Casavalle, La Teja, Pando, Barrio Casabó, Barrio 19 de Abril?

Buenos Aires: Ciudad Oculta, Fuerte Apache, Villa La Cava (near San Isidro), Número 31 or

Villa 31 (in Retiro), Villa Fiorito.

Rosario: Villa Banana, Villa la Lata, Villa el Churrasco, Villa las Flores, el Barrio Toba (Los

Tobas are an indigenous tribe from the province of El Chaco), Villa Fanta?, Villa

Manuelita?, Villa Tupac Amaru?, Villa la Cerámica?, Villa la Tablada?

Santiago de Chile: Lo Hermida?, La Victoria?, Pudahuel, Zanjón de la Aguada.

2002_ata annual conf proceedings_city lights-life and bureaucracy_moskowitz

Documents

spanish lexical dialectology

rest of spanish

dominant terms

b los fueros

los fueros laws

urban life

change b loose change

different names