2 using fire to improve wildlife habitatncprescribedfirecouncil.org/pdfs/ag630.pdf ·...

2 Using Fire to Improve Wildlife Habitat

North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service 3

During his exploration of thesouthern United States in

1777, naturalist William Bartramdescribed fields and forests greatlyinfluenced by fire:

• “This plain is mostly a forest ofthe great long-leaved pine theearth covered with grass,interspersed with an infinitevariety of herbaceous plants,and embellished with extensivesavannas, always green…”

• “… riding through high open,pine forests, green lawns andflowery savannas in youthfulverdure and gaity, having beenlately burnt, but now overrunwith a green enamelled carpet …”

For thousands of years, muchof North Carolina burned every 1to 10 years either at the hands ofhumans or from lightningignitions. More than 10,000 yearsago, Native Americans beganburning southern forests andgrasslands to drive game, improvegrazing conditions for wildlife,clear land for farming, andimprove their own safety fromconcealed attackers and fromwildfires. European immigrantsreadily adopted the Indians’woodsburning practices toimprove range for cattle, reducethe risk of wildfire, increasevisibility of snakes and largepredators, and improve access.

Importance of Fire to Wildlife

“One of the most harmful thingsmodern man has done to birds hasbeen his attempt to exclude fire fromfire-type pine forests. Within a fewyears most forests choke up withbrush, lose their prairie-likevegetation, and can no longersupport birds dependent on periodicburning for their food supply andproper cover.” (Herbert Stoddard,1963)

Wildlife biologists such asHerbert Stoddard recognized thevalue of fire as a tool to conservehabitat for many wildlife speciesas early as the 1920s. Many ofNorth Carolina’s plants andanimals adjust well to fire becausemuch of the state’s lands burnedfrequently for thousands of years.Here are some specific examplesof fire’s value to wildlife:

• Grasses, legumes, and otherherbaceous plants germinateand flower following a fireand produce fruits or seedsbeneficial to quail, turkeys,and songbirds. This lushgrowth provides cover forsmall mammals and youngturkeys and quail.

Early explorersobserved open pinesavannas like this onein the Sandhills ofNorth Carolina.(T. Sharpe)

Northern bobwhitefeed on the seeds andfruits that herbaceousplants producefollowing a prescribedfire. (N.C. WildlifeResources Commis-sion file photo)


• Fire burns away much of theleaf litter on the forest floorand exposes insects and seeds.Many wildlife species moveinto recently burned areas tofeed on these newly availablefoods.

• Many shrubs produce morefruit 2 to 5 years after a firethan they would if they hadbeen in an area that had notbeen burned.

• Young hardwoods that sproutback after a fire have moreprotein and phosphorus andare more palatable to white-tailed deer and easterncottontails than theirunburned counterparts.

• Low ground cover andpatches of shrubs are typicalof frequently burned areas.This varied pattern ofvegetation provides protectivecover and abundant insectsfor some songbirds and youngturkeys and quail.

Many of the plant and animalspecies of greatest conservationconcern in the South are depen-dent upon or assisted by fire(Table 1). Longleaf pine forests,once occupying 92 million acresin the South, now cover only 3percent of their original range.Birds such as Bachman’s sparrowsand brown-headed nuthatchesfavor open pine stands with a

thick grass ground cover foundonly in frequently burned areas.Many of the South’s increasinglyrare reptiles and amphibians, likethe gopher tortoise, pine snake,and pine barrens treefrog, preferforests frequently burned by fire.The long-term survival of theseanimals is in question if the useof prescribed fire does not persist.

Does Fire Kill Wildlife?

Not usually! Animals may betemporarily displaced following aprescribed burn, but most canavoid direct harm from fire. Deer,foxes, and bobcats run; birds andbats fly; and mice, lizards, snakes,and salamanders go undergroundinto burrows or under rocks andfallen logs as a fire approaches.Some animals, such as slow-moving turtles and snakes, can bekilled during a wildfire orprescribed burn. However, manyturtles survive fires by burrowingunderground or using their shellsto protect themselves. Nestlingsor young birds are mostvulnerable to fires. However, theoverall benefit wildlife receivefrom habitat diversity by burning

Prescribed firespromote lush growthof grasses and forbsthat provide cover forsmall mammals andyoung turkeys andquail. (C. Moorman)

White-tailed deerbrowse the nutritioussprouts that growafter a prescribed fire.(Thomas G. Barnes,University ofKentucky)


far outweighs any wildlife loss.Ironically, the absence of fire maycause greater harm to wildlife.Habitat changes resulting fromfire exclusion can result in lowreproduction and eventualdisplacement of some wildlife.Today, many wildlife species areimperiled by habitat changesresulting from too little burning.

Other Benefits of Frequent Fire

• Frequent fires help reduce theamount of leaf litter anddowned wood and brush onthe forest floor, which reducesthe risk of severe wildfire.

• Burning reduces the thicknessof leaf litter, which allows thegermination andestablishment of desirableplants, including longleafpine and many herbaceousplants beneficial to wildlife.

• Burned forests contain fewerchiggers and ticks.

• Burning releases nutrients(nitrogen is a notableexception) into the soil,thereby increasing fertility.

• Burning generally lowers soilacidity, making nitrogen-fixing legumes, such as

Animals Plants

Red-cockaded woodpecker Longleaf pineBachman’s sparrow Table-mountain pineBrown-headed nuthatch Atlantic white-cedarNorthern bobwhite Wiregrass (Pineland’s threeawn)Henslow’s sparrow Bog spicebushGrasshopper sparrow Schweinitz’s sunflowerPrairie warbler Michaux’s sumacAmerican kestrel Venus’ flytrapLoggerhead shrike SundewGolden-winged warbler Pitcher plantPine barrens treefrog Rough-leaved loosestrifePine snake Smooth coneflowerGopher frog Cooley’s meadowrueFox squirrel Chaffseed

Table 1. Some Fire-assisted Plants andAnimals in North Carolina

Pitcher plants requirefrequent fire toreduce competitionfrom other plants.(N.C. WildlifeResourcesCommission filephoto)

Fox squirrels preferthe pine savannasmaintained byfrequent summerburns. (N.C. WildlifeResourcesCommission filephoto)

Small animals, likethis northern redsalamander, escapefrom fires by hidingunder rocks and logsor in undergroundburrows. (Thomas G.Barnes, University ofKentucky)


beggar-lice and butterfly pea,more abundant. Legumesproduce seeds eaten by quail,turkey, and songbirds, andthey are often browsed bydeer and rabbits.

• Burning can control plantsthat compete with moredesirable tree species.

• Frequently burned forestsattain a park-like appearance,with a high tree canopy and asun-dappled, lush groundcover, which many peoplefind attractive.

• Burned forests are more openand easier to walk throughthan unburned forests,improving access for hunters,birdwatchers, and hikers.

What’s the Problem?

Fire protection policiesimplemented in the 1920s led tothe transformation of forest andprairie landscapes. Southern fire-dependent plant communities,like longleaf pine forests, oaksavannas, and piedmont prairies,disappeared following the declineof fire, thereby causing declines inthe number of animals thatdepended on these habitats.Although prescribed fire is recognizedas a necessary habitat managementtool for forest and wildlifemanagement, fire is used on only asmall fraction of private forestlands.Because many of our nativewildlife species are best adaptedto habitats that experiencefrequent fires, burning only oncein the life of a forest stand orburning less frequently thanevery 5 years does not maintainquality wildlife habitat. Today,prescribed burning on privatelands is hampered by:

• Increasingly restrictive federalair quality standards.

• High equipment costs.• Liability risks.

• Fear of property damageresulting from fire escape.

• Multiple ownership or smalltract sizes.

• Financial limitations.• Ignorance of prescribed fire’s

multiple values.• Urbanization.

Public attitudes about firehave been greatly influenced bydecades of Smokey Bear’s effectivefire prevention messages thatemphasize the destructiveness ofwildfire. Although the anti-wildfire message did not extendto prescribed burning, manypeople are unable to distinguishbetween “good” and “bad” fire.Television and newspapercoverage has worsened theproblem by dwelling on thesensational aspects of wildfire anddoing little to educate the publicon the benefits of prescribedburning. New characters, such as“Burnin’ Bob White” and “DripTorchin’ Tom Turkey,” are neededto promote the benefits ofprescribed fire. These characterscould be used in public educationcampaigns as a complement toSmokey’s anti-wildfire message.

Herbicides increasingly areused as a substitute for prescribedburning because of concern forproperty damage from fire.Although herbicides help controlthick brush and undesirablehardwood saplings, herbicides

“Burnin’ Bob White”and “Drip-Torchin’Tom Turkey” could beused in publiceducation campaignsto promote thebenefits of prescribedburning for wildlife.(L. Thomas)


alone cannot provide many of thewildlife benefits that result fromprescribed burning.

• Herbicides do not remove leaflitter, so they inhibit thegermination of desirablegrasses and forbs.

• Herbicides do not releasenutrients into the soil as domost fires.

• Herbicides eliminatedesirable, as well asundesirable, wildlife plants.

When to Burn

Burning of pine stands generallyis not begun until the dominanttrees are 15 to 20 feet tall orgreater than or equal to 4 inchesin diameter. However, longleafpine stands can be burnedanytime after establishmentexcept when the young trees arebetween the grass stage and 8 feettall. Beneficial wildlife plants likepartridge pea, beggar-lice, andwarm-season native grassescannot grow unless sufficient

sunlight reaches the forest floor.Therefore, prescribed burningprovides the greatest benefit towildlife when conducted inopen stands of timber orgrasslands. Conducting aprescribed burn after a thinningoperation (see Thinning PineStands, Woodland Owner Note-13) increases the chance that thefire will stimulate ground coverdevelopment. Burning in a forestcrowded with overstory and

midstory trees generally does notimprove wildlife habitat becausesunlight cannot reach the forestfloor where beneficial plantsgrow.

In North Carolina, prescribedburning most commonly isconducted between January and

March, whenmost trees areless activemetabolically.In many cases,winter burnsare necessary tosafely reduceleaves andotherflammable

materials that accumulate duringperiods of fire suppression.Dormant season burns are lesslikely to damage canopy trees andadjacent property than burnsconducted during the spring andsummer. However, winter burnsdo not completely kill younghardwoods and they promoteresprouting from the base of eachplant’s stem. Repeated burnsconducted during the growingseason eventually kill hardwood

Longleaf seedlings inthe grass stage (left)are adapted tosurvive a fire;however, the fast-growing saplings lessthan 8 feet tall (right)are sometimes killedby fire. (C. Moorman)

Prescribed burning inan unthinned pinestand will do little toimprove wildlifehabitat because ofthe shading cast bythe dense overstoryand midstory canopy.(R. Braham)


stems, allowing a diversity ofgrasses, herbs, and wildflowers todevelop. These herbaceous plantstypically are more valuable towildlife than the hardwoodsprouts. One or more winterburns may be required to reducefuel loads before conducting agrowing season burn.

Dormant season and growingseason burns affect wildlifehabitat differently. Which type offire you use depends upon whichspecies of wildlife you favor (Table2). Forests burned every 1 to 3years and forests burned duringthe growing season tend to have amore open canopy with moregrasses and forbs growing on theforest floor. Less frequently

burned forests, especially thoseburned only in the winter,generally develop a denseunderstory several years followinga fire. Within about 5 to 8 yearsafter a prescribed burn, hardwoodsprouts or saplings may becometoo tall to practically control withfire; in such cases, specialmeasures (e.g., rollerchopping orherbicides) may be used alongwith fire to improve the quality ofthe forest for various wildlife.

Table 2. Fire Prescriptions for Specific North Carolina Wildlife Species

Species Fire Frequency Purpose Concerns(Years)

White-tailed deer 3-5 Improve browse production and nutrition FawnsNorthern bobwhite ** 1-3 Improve nesting and feeding cover; increase food Nests *Wild turkey 2-5 Improve nesting and feeding cover; increase food NestsGrassland songbirds ** 2-3 Improve nesting and feeding cover; increase food Nests *Shrubland songbirds 3-5 Improve nesting and feeding cover; increase food Nests *Eastern cottontail 3-5 Improve food and cover Nests *Small mammals 1-5 Improve food and cover Slow-moving animalsReptiles ** 1-5 Improve habitat Slow-moving animalsAmphibians 3-50 Improve habitat Slow-moving animalsButterflies ** 1-3 Increase diversity of wildflowers (nectar sources) None

* Leave unburned spots for nest sites and places to escape from predators.** Animals that may prefer habitat conditions created by growing season burns.

Pine forests burnedevery 1 to 3 yearsduring the growingseason generally havea variety ofwildflowers. (T.Sharpe)

Forests burned every3 to 5 years in thewinter have a densewoody understorybeneficial to shrub-nesting songbirds. (R.Braham)


How to Burn

Before initiating a prescribedburn, you must develop a burnplan. For the best results, yourprescribed burn plan should bepart of your overall forest andwildlife management plan (seeEnrolling in North Carolina’s ForestStewardship Program, WoodlandOwner Note-23). A consultingforester, a North Carolina WildlifeResources Commission biologist,or a North Carolina Division ofForest Resources (N.C. DFR)forester can answer questionsabout prescribed burning or helpyou develop a management andburn plan. Burn plans include:

• The objectives and desiredoutcomes of the burn.

• A description of potentialhazards near the burn area.

• Desired range ofenvironmental and weatherconditions at the time of theburn.

• Equipment and manpowernecessary to complete theburn.

First, obtain a burn permit fromthe N.C. DFR. Then notify theN.C. DFR, the local firedepartment, and neighbors to letthem know that you will conducta prescribed burn on yourproperty. Before burning, youmust create firebreaks around theproposed burn area. Firebreakscan be created by pulling a plow,disk, or rake behind a tractor orATV. Firebreaks for small areas canbe raked by hand or cleared ofdebris with leaf blowers. Roadsand streams also can serve asfirebreaks.

Many types of fires could beprescribed for a property,including a head fire, a backingfire, or a flanking fire. The leastintense type of prescribed fire iscalled a backing fire. In a backing

fire, the fire typically is ignitedwith a drip torch and setalong thedownwindside of thearea to beburned. Thefire thenslowly creepsinto the wind,burning leaves andother small matter on theforest floor. A head fire hasthe wind at its back, and aflanking fire is ignitedin a lineperpendicularto the dir-ection of thewind. Theintensity of afire can beincreased in acontrolled manner byigniting parallel strips offire about 20 yards apart. In thisstrip head fire, thedownwind line offire will brieflyintensifyas the newupwindignitionstrip quicklymoves towardit before the twomeet. Remember tonever completely ring an areawith an intense, fast-moving firebecause the fire could become toointense and not leave escapepathways for wildlife.

You should police a recentlyburned stand for smolderingstumps, downed logs, or placeswhere the fire might cross thefireline. Diligence is needed toprevent fire escape. Keep checkinguntil no danger of fire escape orsmoke damage remains. Apostburn evaluation of the areashould help assess whether thefire achieved the goals in yourburn plan.

There are severaltypes of prescribedfires: (a) backingfires are lit on thedownwind edge ofthe stand and burnvery slowly; (b) striphead fires are set atvarying distancesapart depending onburning conditionsand the desired flameintensity; (c) intensering fires with fast-moving flames leaveno escape pathwayfor wildlife.

a) Backing Fire

b) Strip Head Fire

c) Intense Ring Fire


Wildlife Considerations

Habitat Diversity—If the primaryobjective of a prescribed burn isto improve wildlife habitatquality, special considerationsmight be made to improveconditions in and around theburned area for wildlife. If a foresthas not been burned for morethan 5 years, large burns might beneeded to quickly restore habitatover a large area. Long absencesof fire may require a dormantseason burn to reduce flammablematerial before growing seasonburns can begin. Ideally, oncequality ground cover is present,unburned islands of 1 to 2 acresshould be left throughout largerburned areas, leaving nestingsites, alternative food sources, andprotective cover for wildlife.These unburned islandspreferably would contain patchesof blackberry, native fruit-producing shrubs, or scatterednut-producing hardwoods likeoaks and hickories. Interestingly,

burning the same block everyyear often produces a very diverseground cover interspersed withunburned islands because light,patchy fuels lead to spotty burns.If this is the case, protection ofunburned islands may be lessimportant.

Once areas have been burnedsufficiently to restore habitatquality, prescribed fires can beconducted in smaller, 10- to 20-acre blocks. In this case, youshould spread burning activitiesacross your forestland in any year,leaving newly burned standsadjacent to stands that have notbeen burned in 1, 2, or 3 years.This approach provides nesting,feeding, and hiding habitat for arange of wildlife species andgenerally increases the number ofanimals that a forest can support.

Dead Wood—Dead wood onthe ground, also known as coarsewoody debris, provides animportant source of food andshelter for mice, shrews, lizards,small snakes, salamanders, and

You should spreadburning activitiesacross yourforestland in anyyear, leaving newlyburned standsadjacent to standsthat have not beenburned in 1, 2, or 3years. Smallunburned islands ofblackberry bramblesor fruit- and nut-producinghardwoods shouldbe left throughoutlarger burned areas.


many invertebrates. Small-diameter woody debris often isconsumed during a prescribedfire, but the large fallen logs,which are most important aswildlife habitat, generally remainintact following a burn.

Standing dead trees, calledsnags, provide critical nesting,feeding, and resting habitat forover 100 wildlife species in NorthCarolina, including about 40birds. The manner in which fireaffects snags is complex. During aprescribed burn, fire often burnsinto the heartwood, causing snagsto fall. Although these newlydowned logs are beneficial toother wildlife, they no longer areusable by cavity-nesting birds andbats. High-intensity prescribedfires may kill live trees, therebyincreasing the number of snags ina forest. Additionally, less intenseprescribed fires may scar the baseof trees, especially hardwoods,creating an entry point for insectsand disease and leading toeventual death of the tree. It isgenerally desirable to have at leasttwo large snags more than 10

inches in diameter per acre, butthe more snags the better. Toprotect snags and large fallen logsfrom fire damage, rake leaves andother material away from thembefore a burn. Snags near the edgeof the burn area can fall overfirebreaks during or after a burn,so consider removing them beforebeginning a prescribed burn.

Burning in Upland HardwoodStands

Typically, prescribed burning isconducted in pine-dominatedforests. Many types of pines,including longleaf, Table-mountain, loblolly, and pondpine, are adapted to fire and cansurvive relatively intense flames.However, conducting a prescribedburn in hardwood forests is notout of the question. Just as is thecase in pine stands, fire has a longhistory in North Carolina’shardwood forests. South-facingslopes and other dry sites in thesouthern Appalachians likelyburned at least every 10 years andoften were characterized by openstands of oak with well-developedgrass and herbaceous groundcover. The fact that bison and elk,which needed the fire-maintainedgrass layer for grazing, once livedin western North Carolina isfurther evidence of frequent fire.Many of the same benefits

Standing dead trees,called snags, providehabitat for birds likethis red-headedwoodpecker andmany other wildlifespecies. (L. Thomas)

An oak woodland,like this one inTennessee, can becreated using low-intensity, annualprescribed burns. (R.Evans, University ofTennesseeAgriculturalExperiment Station)


achieved by burning pine forestsmay be gained by burninghardwood stands every 3 to 10years. They include:

• Midstory reduction andincreased ground and shrubcover.

• Removal of leaf litter,allowing valuable nativegrasses and herbs to grow.

• Improved quality andquantity of deer browse.

• Increased fruit and acornproduction.

• Possible increase in thenumber and vigor of oakseedlings in the forestunderstory.

However, mature hardwoodtrees, especially species with thinbark, such as tulip poplar, wateroak, willow oak, red maple, andAmerican beech, may be damagedor killed if a fire becomes too hot.The other oaks and mosthickories are more fire resistant.You should weigh the risk oflosing valuable trees against thehabitat improvements associatedwith fire in hardwood stands.

Burning in Carolina Bays,Pocosins, and other Southeast-ern Wetlands

Fire, along with saturated soils orprolonged flooding, aids in thecontrol of vegetation in manycoastal plain wetlands.Historically, fire that started inthe surrounding uplands creptdown into wetlands, especiallyduring dry periods. Thesefrequent fires once maintainedvast areas of switchcane, calledcanebrakes, in wetland areasthroughout the South. Thecanebrakes provided habitat for adiversity of wildlife, and manyanimal species still use remnantpatches of switchcane. Morerecently, however, firebreaks

typically are plowed around theedges of southern wetlands,thereby altering the unique plantcommunity along this boundaryand preventing fire from enteringthe wetland. Without fire, treesand shrubs in bays and otherisolated wetlands become denseand eventually the canopy closes.Herbaceous cover, which isfavored by many species ofamphibians and reptiles, isshaded out, and permanentdrying of the wetlands may occur.It is thought that herb bogshistorically burned every 2 to 8years, whereas shrub bogs orpocosins likely were maintainedby more intense and less frequentfires every 8 to 20 years. Animalslike the pine barrens treefrog andthe bog turtle depend on the herbbog habitats maintained by fire,and may become increasingly rare

This periodicallyburned cypresssavanna in easternNorth Carolina likelyresembles the burnedwetlands of the past.(C. Moorman)

Swainson’s warblersoften nest inswitchcane, especiallyin the remnantcanebrakes that oncewere maintained byperiodic fires. (C.Moorman)


as the use of fire declines.The intense fires that burn

pocosins often consume theorganic soil to varying depths,which results in a variety ofmicro-habitats following the fire.This habitat diversity yieldsprotective shrub cover importantto black bears, while maintainingsome open areas for other wildlifespecies. Caution should be usedwhen burning pocosin vegetationbecause it can be the mostexplosive of all southern fuels.Always consult a professionalbefore burning these areas.

Burning in Grasslands and OldFields

Early explorers reported manyprairie-like openings in thepiedmont of North Carolina. Nosuch openings exist today, butexperimental restoration is beingtried on a few small sites.However, grassland or old fieldscan be maintained and enhancedby periodic burning. Benefitsinclude:

• Reduced growth of competingbrush.

• Increased palatability ofgrasses.

• Increased plant and insectdiversity, including anincrease in wildflowers.

• Increased habitat for grassland

songbirds, bobwhite quail,small mammals, andbutterflies, including some ofour rarest species.

How to Get Help

Although relatively inexpensive,burning does cost money and canbe a daunting task for aninexperienced landowner. Anumber of precautions must betaken before initiating aprescribed fire, and muchplanning and preparation arerequired to implement a burn.Burners must consider adjacentland uses; the location of nearbyhighways, schools, and hospitals;and the weather forecast.Inexperienced landowners alwaysshould seek professionalassistance before conducting aburn. Financial assistance forprescribed burns, including thecreation of firebreaks, may beavailable through programsoffered by the U.S. Department ofAgriculture-Natural ResourcesConservation Service or the N.C.DFR. Each N.C. DFR district officehas a list of local contractors whoperform prescribed burns.

Bog turtles favor herbbogs maintained byperiodic burning.(N.C. WildlifeResourcesCommission filephoto)

Be sure to contact aforester or a localcontractor forassistance with anyprescribed burn.(N.C. WildlifeResourcesCommission filephoto)


Become a Certified Burner

The North Carolina Prescribed BurnAct, which was passed in 1999,limits burner liability from smokeresulting from a prescribed burn,provided the proper proceduresand requirements are followed. Toqualify, burners must complete acertified prescribed burningprogram administered by the N.C.DFR, obtain a valid burningpermit, and notify nearbyresidents and businesses of thepending burn. Landownersburning 50 acres or less of theirown land qualify for the reducedliability without attending atraining session, provided theyfollow the same high standards ofburning and have a burn plancompleted by a certified burner.Contact the N.C. DFR forinformation on becoming acertified burner.

Additional Resource Materials

For more information, request thefollowing Woodland Owner Notes(WON) or agricultural (AG)publications from your localCooperative Extension ServiceCenter. Some are also available onthe Internet at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/forest/.• Enrolling in North Carolina’s

Forest Stewardship Program,WON-23

• Wildlife and Forest Stewardship,WON-27

• Management by Objectives:Successful Forest Planning,WON-32

• Developing Wildlife-FriendlyPine Plantations, WON-38

• Wildlife and Prescribed Burning,AG-457

Here are some additional sourcesof information:• A Guide for Prescribed Fire in

Southern Forests, USDA ForestService Technical Publication

R8-TP11. It is available for$1.62 by writing to theNational Interagency FireCenter, Attention Great BasinCache, 3833 S. DevelopmentAve., Boise, ID 83705. It isalso online at www.nwcg.gov.

• A Working Forest: Alandowner’s guide for growinglongleaf pine in the CarolinaSandhills. It is available for $3by writing to the SandhillsArea Land Trust, P. O. Box1032, Southern Pines, NC28388.

Prepared byChris Moorman, Extension Wildlife Specialist, North Carolina State University

Terry Sharpe, Agriculture Liaison Biologist, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission

Other contributing authorsRichard Braham, Forester, North Carolina State University

Pete Bromley, Extension Wildlife Specialist, North Carolina State UniversityMatt Flint, Wildlife Biologist, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

Cecil Frost, Plant Ecologist, North Carolina Department of AgricultureRick Hamilton, Extension Forestry Specialist, North Carolina State University

Chuck Hunter, Wildlife Biologist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceMark Megalos, Forester, North Carolina Division of Forest Resources

Bill Parsons, Wildlife Forester, North Carolina Wildlife Resources CommissionKevin Russell, Wildlife Biologist, Willamette Industries

Mike Thompson, Forester, North Carolina Division of Forest Resources

Illustrator:Liessa Thomas, North Carolina State University

3/02—DSB/GEM AG-630

Published byNORTH CAROLINA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

E02-39039

500 copies of this public document were printed at a cost of $3,500 or $7.00 per copy.

Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Employment and program opportunities are offered to all people regardlessof race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture,and local governments cooperating.

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