2 september 20151 the focal issues in qualitative research by professor dan remenyi...
TRANSCRIPT
19 April 2023 2
Qualitative Data Researchers
We all observe the same thing but our perceptions is different. Our experiences, our circumstances and our expectations directly effect our cognitive capacity and thus our ability to understand that which we observe.Our ability to function in a society depends upon how we find, understand and use the commonality which exists between us.
Film Reviews
Jemma said... Posted on Jan 25 2008 16:18 it was s**t and
depressing wouldn't recommend it if u wanted a goodtime
Will Evans said... Posted on Jan 25 2008 13:36 this film was really good but
is a very sexual film Maria Bosporos said...
Posted on Oct 13 2007 14:28 The film is amazing; the actors are great, the plot interesting and there is widespread the message that war influences everybody and make people behave like animals. I believe America and other countries can have serious violence problems because of people who took part in war and invasion missions.
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Curiosity
Research requires a high degree of curiosity Without a sense of curiosity it is unlikely that
anyone will make a competent researcher Curious about the subject matter Curious about how it could be researched
But curiosity needs to be focused remember - Curiosity killed the cat - being too curious can be counter productive.
If possible stick to your original under-graduate or post-graduate subject --- always try to capitalise on your already established strengths and the strengths of your supervisor!
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Focusing Curiosity Curiosity is focused by establishing medium
to long term interests The object of the research for a doctoral
degree will need to sustain the interest of the degree candidate for 3 years or more. Ultimately the curiosity needs to be converted into a research question
It is sometimes harder to focus a research question for qualitative research than quantitative research
The research question is more likely to change in qualitative research
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Distinguishing Features of Qualitative Research
In business and management studies qualitative research will address in-depth understanding of the social aspects of the subject
Generally samples (?) will be small but detailed evidence will be required
Data collection will involve close contact between the researcher and the researched
Analysis of the evidence will be open to emergent concepts and will produce descriptions, classification, patterns, topologies and explanations
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The Quants and the Quals
The debate which argues that either quantitative or qualitative research is “better” is like the Wars of the Roses.
The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars fought in medieval England from 1455 to 1487 between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. The name Wars of the Roses is based on the badges used by the two sides, the red rose for the Lancastrians and the white rose for the Yorkists. http://www.warsoftheroses.com/
The two communities have their own traditions and their own language and need to respect each other.
Quant and Qual Quant Identify a small
number of variable and focus on understanding them in order to predict and control
Use Occam’s Razor and certeris paribus
The research have to finally tell a story
Qual Generally there will be
a greater number of variables
Understanding will be the key issue and this will be unfolded in the story of the research
Also use Occam’s Razor and certeris paribus
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Durkheim versus Webber Durkheim proposed that sociology should
emulate the natural sciences and develop universally applicable laws. His study on Suicide is the most notable in this respect. He was a quants man.
Webber believed that the difference between human being and inanimate objects means that they cannot be studied in the same way. His work on The Protestant Ethic demonstrated this. Known as a founder of quals.
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Interpretivists The word interpretivist research is
sometimes use as a synonym for qualitative research
But all research relies on interpretation – perhaps we should talk about Interpretivists with a big ‘I’ and interpretivists with a little ‘i’
The key issue is to learn as much about your chosen research tradition and to understand its vocabulary
Interpret – Whose point of view?
“If You Want to Make an Omelet, You Must Be Willing to Break a Few Eggs.” — Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov Lenin
“If You Want to Make an Omelet, You Must Be Willing to Break a Few Eggs.” — The Head Chef at the Ritz
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Definition of Qualitative Research By the term ‘qualitative research’ we mean
any type of research that produces findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or other means of quantification (Strauss and Corbin, 1998 p11)
A key objective of qualitative research is a holistic understanding of the phenomenon
Quantitative research often want to develop knowledge for prediction and control
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Qualitative evidence collection Observation Interviewing (including listening to
groups) Ethnographic fieldwork - urban Discourse analysis Textual analysis
Max Travers , 2001, Qualitative Research Through Case Studies, Sage, London
Observation Observation is always present in
research. However sometimes it can be central to the research design. Observation underpins participant/observer, ethnography and plays an important role in action research.
Observation may be categorised as covert or overt.
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Observation
Observing - many issues including The premises and the grounds - parking Entry procedures The office décor and other accommodation and
equipment Dress codes, tone of voice Means of address between staff formal Vs
informal Eating arrangements Body language
Observation
Age/seniority of informants Outlook of informants Observation is not a passive inbibition of
sensory information, and mere transcription of the evidence of the senses. Medawar P, (1979), Advice to a young scientist, p 82, Harper and Row publishers, New York
The observations of one researcher alone can be problematic. The kid in the car in the game part is an interesting angle on this.
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Six Wise Men of Hindustan http://homepage.usask.ca/~wae123/misc/prose/hinustan.htm by John Godfrey Saxe
There were six men of Hindustan, to learning much inclined, Who went to see an elephant, though all of them were blind, That each by observation might satisfy his mind.
The first approached the elephant, and happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, at once began to bawl, "This mystery of an elephant is very like a wall."
The second, feeling of the tusk, cried, "Ho, what have we here, So very round and smooth and sharp? To me 'tis mighty clear, This wonder of an elephant is very like a spear."
The third approached the elephant, and happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, thus boldly up and spake, "I see," quoth he, "the elephant is very like a snake."
The fourth reached out an eager hand, and felt above the knee, "What this most wondrous beast is like is very plain" said he, "'Tis clear enough the elephant is very like a tree."
The fifth who chanced to touch the ear said, "E'en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; deny the fact who can; This marvel of an elephant is very like a fan."
The sixth no sooner had begun about the beast to grope, Than seizing on the swinging tail that fell within his scope; "I see," said he, "the elephant is very like a rope."
So six blind men of Hindustan disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion exceeding stiff and strong; Though each was partly in the right, they all were in the wrong!
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Interviews
Interviews represent opportunities to hold conversations with knowledgeable informants One-to-one interviews
Structured and semi-structured interviews Group interviews
Structured and semi-structured interviews Focus Groups
On-Line Interview Private conversations
Interviews always need to be carefully planned and meticulously recorded
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Ethnography field work The researcher attempts to learn about the
subject of the research question and understand the situation by acquiring ‘an intimate familiarity with that experience and the scene of its operation’. Ethnography requires a long time to develop this ‘intimate familiarity’ with the situation. What is required is a ‘human lived experience’. The quality and the precision of the account of the experience is a central issue. Max Travers , Qualitative Research Through Case Studies, Sage, London, 2001
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Discourse Analysis There is no simple definition of discourse
analysis. It is used to refer to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written exchanges. It refers to the study of the organisation of language above the simple sentence level and thus to understand larger linguistic units. This applies to both conversational exchanges and written texts. Thus discourse analysis addresses language use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers.
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Defining Discourse Analysis In summary Discourse Analysis may be defined as
an approach which is concerned with language use, mostly verbal, beyond the boundaries of a
sentence or utterance; the interrelationships between language and society and: the interactive or dialogic properties of everyday
communication. Conversation analysis pioneered by Harvey Sack at
Irvine has grown from a subfield of ethnomethodology to a large and growing field in its own right
The mixing of methods is a controversial issue
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Textual analysis
The review of any type of document There are two main approaches
Holistic approaches referred to as hermeneutics Detailed approaches involving categories and
tabulations Meaning at document level, chapter level
etc Categories, codes, indexes and counting
characterise the detailed approaches
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Some basic guidelines Textual analysis What is being read? Who wrote it? What was the intended audience? Why was it written? Does it have an unambiguous message? Does it contribute to your being able to
answer your research question? If so how?
Is it credible?
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Evidence collection and analysis
Evidence collection and analysis will depend on a number of variables including the researcher’s ability to access knowledgeable informants
The researcher is always responsible for the integrity of the data.
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Research tactics or approaches 1
Action research Case studies Ethnographic Focus groups Game or role playing In-depth surveys Participant–observer Scenario discussions
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Multiply tactics
It is possible to use multiply tactics and to employ the results of this in triangulating the findings
Care has to be taken if multiply tactics are used as there are opponents to this approach
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The Researcher in Qualitative Research
…. the importance of ‘situating’ the perspective of the researcher was being emphasised. This was to encourage a more reflexive approach to research findings rather than the traditional approach in which the researcher takes an authoritative, ‘neutral’ stance. Ritchie and Lewis, Qualitative Research Practice, 2003, p10, Sage, London
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Hierarchy of Researchers Interest
There are three levels at which the interest needs to be focused Field of study Research Topic Research Question
There is also the question of having to focus on a research method
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Three Interconnected Issues
Field of Study
Research Topic
Research Question
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Field of study
Traditionally this was known as the ‘discipline’ but increasingly this is problematic as research now tends to transcend traditional academic disciplines. In general there is a blurring of the boundaries between traditional academic disciplines. Field of study is therefore often thought to be a more useful was of describing academic research.
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Rationale for the choice of the field of study
What has made this field of study interesting to the researcher?
What is the perspective of the researcher with regards to the importance of this field of study in general and to his or her own career?
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Research Topic
The research topic is a well defined area within the field of study. Defining the research topic requires the research degree candidate to identify a specific and well bounded niche within the field of study.
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Rationale for the choice of the research topic
What is the perspective of the researcher with regards to the importance of this research topic in general and to his or her own career?
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Where does the research question come from?
Traditionally the research question came from the literature
Today the research question may come from practice
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Research Question
The research question needs to be quite specific and may be subdivided into sub-questions
It is important not to have to may sub-questions
It is difficult to give specific guidelines as to how many sub-questions might be appropriate but not too many
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Research Questions
The question should not be answerable by a “YES” or a “NO”
The question should not be answerable by a number
The question should lead to an answer that has a directly useable function in as broad a context as possible – it should have some impact on theory
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Limitations of the Research Question
The question needs to answerable by one researcher in 3 years
The question needs to not require too much funding
You need to have a supervisor who is able to help you with your research question
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Guidelines for questions
Some considerable interest to the researcher Clear and Intelligible and Unambiguous Of Academic and Practitioner interest Focused but not too narrow and operationalisable Answerable i.e. not too abstract and something for
which data can be collected within the resources of the researcher http://murl.microsoft.com/videos/xerox/Forum2004/
Yim_OnDemand_100_100K_320x240.htm http://murl.microsoft.com/videos/msr/MSR_SCS2004/
Sack_Session1_OnDemand_100_100K_320x240Slides.htm
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What informs the research question?
It is sometimes said that the research question dictates the research methodology but this is a rather naïve interpretation of the reality of the situation
There are other issues to be taken into account.
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The Factors Determining the Research Methodology
Choice ofResearch
Methodology
The Duration of the Degree
Research degree candidate
and supervisor
Costs ofResearch
The Research Question
In 3 to 5 years, one person working on their own can onlyanswer a modestresearch question
The personal interest andSkills of both the research degree candidates and thesupervisor
Most research degree candidates have only limited funds
Some Research Questions can only be Answered by one Methodology
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Contextualising the question 1
What are the implications if you research the following topic and answer the following questions?
Why are you interested in the topic? What literature is available? Are there likely to be any theoretical
justifications for the question? Will you be able to obtain access to
informants to answer your question?
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Contextualising the question 2
How many informants are you likely to have access to?
How might you be able to collect the evidence?
What sort of evidence will your informants be able and willing to supply?
What sort of analysis will you be able to perform on the evidence?
What are the likely findings going to be? Who will be interested in your findings?
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Five Forces Research Question
Ease of use by other
researchers
Suppliers of research resources
Consumers of research findings
Rivalry among researchers
Different fields of study encroaching
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Complete the Question Analysis for your Research Model as much as you can
The Nature of Knowledge 1
Knowledge so conceived is not a series of self-consistent theories that converges towards an ideal view; it is not a gradual approach to the truth. It is rather an ever increasing ocean of mutually incompatible alternatives, each single theory, each fairy-tale, each myth that is a part of the collection forcing others into greater articulation and then all of them contributing, via this process of competition, to the development of our conscious. Nothing is ever settled. Feyerabend P, Against Method, p21, 3rd Ed, Verso, London
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The Nature of Knowledge 2
Considering now the invention, elaboration and the use of theories which are inconsistent, not just with other theories, but even with experiments, facts, observations, we may start by pointing out that no single theory ever agrees with all the known facts in its domain. And the trouble is not created by rumours, or by the result of sloppy procedure. It is created by experiments and measurements of the highest precision and reliability. Feyerabend, P, 1993, Against Method, 3rd Ed, Verso, p39, London.
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Research Processes
Research Question
Collect Evidence
Process Evidence
ProduceFindings
Research Question Understand
the Question
CollectEvidence
Produce Findings
Research Question Understand
the Question
CollectEvidence
Produce Findings
Research Question
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Mixed Method Research What is mixed method research?
The combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods to answer a research question
Issues in mixed method research Philosophical objections to mixing methods: the paradigm debate
Incompatibility Irrelevance Complementarity ‘Transcendence'
Practical considerations: Resources – time, money Word count Researcher skills Making sense of ‘incompatible’ data formats
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Mixed Method Options (1)
Triangulation – use quantitative research to corroborate qualitative research (or vice versa)
Facilitation – use one research strategy to aid research using the other strategy
Complementarity – use quantitative and qualitative research strategies in order to investigate different aspects of the phenomenon
Hammersley in Bryman and Bell (2003)
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The Logic of Triangulation
Data triangulation Investigator triangulation Theory triangulation Methodological triangulation
Denzin in Seale (1999)
Mixed Method Options (2)
QualitativeQualitative QuantitativeQuantitative ResultsResults
Qualitative Measures to Develop Quantitative Tools
QualitativeQualitative
QuantitativeQuantitative
ResultsResults
Quantitative Methods to Enlarge on Qualitative
Study
QuantitativeQuantitative
QualitativeQualitative
ResultsResults
Qualitative Methods to Enlarge on Quantitative Study
QualitativeQualitative ResultsResults QuantitativeQuantitative
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Equal and Parallel
“Methodological Triangulation”
Adapted from Ulin et al (1996) in Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998)
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Mixed Methods in Practice
How do the authors use mixed methods in the article? What data collection methods are used? How are the findings presented?
Can quantitative and qualitative research be integrated? If there is integration what can be said about validity? Legitimisation, is that adequate? What does mixed methods do to the work load of the
researcher? What are the strengths and weaknesses of their approach? How are the philosophical issues reconciled? What general lessons are there for mixed method research?
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A Final Comment
Multi-strategy research, like mono-method research,
must be competently designed and conducted. Poorly
conducted research will yield suspect findings no matter
how many methods are employed.
Bryman and Bell (2003) p 492
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Mixed Methods – Further Reading
Bryman, A (1998) Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Routledge
Creswell, J W (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Onwuegbuzie AJ and RB Johnson (2006), The validity issue in mixed research in the schools, 13(1), 48-63
Tashakkori, A and Teddlie, C (Eds) (2003) Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioural Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Tashakkori, A and Teddlie, C (1998) Mixed Methodology: Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
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Data present or absent
Inspector Gregory: “Is there any other point to which you would wish to draw my attention?”
Holmes: “To the curious incident of the dog in the night-time.”
“The dog did nothing in the night time.” “That was the curious incident,”
remarked Sherlock Holmes.
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Research beware
Do not ascribe to intention that which may be explained by stupidity.
Conspiracy theory generally has a low level of credibility.