2. psychology and the status quo

8/20/2019 2. Psychology and the Status Quo

1/8

sychology and theStatus uo

Isaac Pr i l l e l t ensky

Abstract: The re is l i t t le dou bt tha t psych ology ha s left i ts

impr int on 20th ce ntury society. T here shou M also be li t tle

doub t that socioeconomic, cultural, an d political trends

have shaped the methods and con ten t o f the d i sc ip l ine to

a large extent . However, an al leged imm un ity to ideolog-

ical influences with in the profession has obstru cted an in-

depth ex am inatio n o f the interaction between social force s

and psychology. Th e penetrat ion o f the prevalent ideology

in the realm o f psychological know ledge of ten results not

only in an uncrit ical acceptance of the s tatus quo b ut also

in an active endorsement o f i t. Desiderata fo r a psychology

at the service o f social change are considered.

I s p s y c h o lo g y p ro m o t i n g h u m a n we l f a re , a s su g g e st e d b y

b o t h t h e A m e r i c a n (A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i c a l As s o c i a t io n

[APA], 1981) and Ca nad ia n (C anad ian Psycho log ica l As-

soc ia t ion , 1986) codes o f e th ics fo r psycho log is t s , o r i s i t

p e rh a p s h i n d e r i n g t h e b e t t e rm e n t o f so c i a l c o n d i t i o n s b y

g u a rd i n g t h e i n t e r e st s o f t h e s t a t u s q u o ? De s p i t e a r e c e n t

m a rk e d i n c re a s e i n t h e v o l u m e o f l i t e ra t u r e d e a l i ng w i t h

the in t ru s ion o f soc iopo l i ti ca l fac to rs in to psycho logy ,

these ques t ions rem ain la rge ly una ddres sed (Albee , 1986 ;

Bil lig , 1979, 1982; Braginsky, 1985; Bra ginsk y & Bragin-

sky, 1974; Buss, 1975, Butcher, 1983; Chorover, 1985;

Deese, 1985; Fox, 1985; Gergen, 1973, 1985; Guareschi ,

1982 ; Ha l leck , 1971; Henr iqu es , Ho l lway , Urw in , Venn ,

& Walkerd ine , 1984 ; Ho wa rd , 1985; Ibanez Grac ia , 1983 ;

Ingleby, 1972, 1974, 1981; Jacoby, 1975; Jones, 1986;

Larsen, 1986; Nahem, 1981; Roffe, 1986; Samelson, 1986;

Sa m pso n, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1983; Sara son, 1981a,

198 lb ; Su l l ivan , 1984) . In v iew o f the im por ta nce a t t r ib -

u t e d t o p s y c h o l o g y ' s p o s i ti o n i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f s o c ia l

and human af fa i rs , an inqu i ry in to i t s ideo log ica l func-

t ions i s wa rran te d (K ipn is , 1987; Koc h & Leary , 1985 ;

Sarason, 1986).

Psychology in odern Society

P s y c h o l o g y a n d s o c i e t y a r e i n v o l v e d in a n e t wo rk o f m u -

tua l in f luences tha t c on t r ibu te to shape each o ther. S oc ie ty

p red isposes sc ience to adop t a spec i f ic se t o f epis temic

( i. e. , ' va lues em ploy ed by sc ien t i s ts to choose amo ng

c o m p e t i n g t h e o re t ic a l e x p l a n a t i o n s [Ho wa rd , 1 9 8 5, p .

2 5 7 ] ) a n d nonep i s t emic values ( i. e. , soc iocu l tu ra l and po-

l it ic a l b e li e f s) c o n g ru e n t w i t h i t s p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l og y

(e .g ., Wi l son , 1977) . Th is p ro cess is conduc ted th roug h

d i rec t in s t i tu t iona l regu la t ions and in a more ind i rec t

f a s h io n t h ro u g h t h e d i c t a o f th e d o m i n a n t

weltanschauung

(Sarason , 198 la , 1984) . Wi th in the rea lm o f psycho logy ,

p re v a l e n t m o ra l a n d c u l t u r a l b e l i ef s a r e r e f l e c te d b o t h a t

the theo re t ica l and app l ied level s (Gergen , 1973; How ard ,

M a y 1 9 8 9 • Am e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t

C o p y r i s h t 989 b y t h e A m e r i c a n I ~ y e h o lo g i m il A s e ~ ei a ti o n , I n c . 0 0 0 3 - 0 6 6 X / 8 9 / 0 0 . 7 5

V o l 4 4 , N o . 5 , 7 9 5 - 8 0 2

Universi ty o f Ma ni toba

1985; Ro bin son , 1985; Sa m pso n, 1977, 1978, 1981,

1983). Spe nce (19 85 ) has given official recog nit ion t o th is

p o s t u l a t e i n h e r p r e s i d en t i a l a d d re s s to t h e A m e r i c a n

Psycho log ica l Assoc ia t ion in 1985 :

Contemporary analysts recognize that, w hatever heir intentions,

scientists are the products of their society and time, and their

construction of social reality is shaped by the w orld view and

values of the culture in which they w ere reared. These belief

systems can influence all phases of the research in wh ich sci-

entists engage, from choice of problem to interpretation o f results

(p. 1285).

Sarason , who dea l t ex tens ive ly in h i s Psychology

Misd i rec ted 198 l a ) w i th the soc ia l i za t ion o f psycho lo -

g is ts , con te nded tha t p sycho log is t s a re , by a nd large, suc -

cess fu l ly cond i t ion ed n o t to de v ia te f rom the in te l l ec tua l

o rd e r p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e c o n t e m p o ra ry i d e o l o g i c a l a t -

m o s p h e re . F u r t h e rm o re , h e d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w t h e o re ti c a l

i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e f i e ld we re f r e q u e n t l y p ro m o t e d b y t h e

recen t es tab l i shmen t o f new soc ia l po l ic ies . In Sarason ' s

op in ion (198 l a ) , n o t on ly do psycho log is t s ra re ly cha l -

lenge the ex i s t ing soc ia l be l ie fs , bu t they a l so ac t ive ly en -

dorse and fac i l it a te the re p rod uct ion o f those be l ie fs.

A l t h o u g h p s y c h o l o g y c a n b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a

r a t h e r m i n o r s u b s y s t e m wi t h i n t h e l a rg e r s o c ia l s y s te m ,

i t wi l l be a rgued tha t i t s ab i l i ty to in f luence the l a t t e r i s

no t inconse quen t ia l . Psycho logy i s in te rm ing led in soc ia l

l ife in coun t less fo rms .

Ou r services and advice are now sought and accepted in prac-

tically all fields of hum an activity. New spapers describe the ac-

tivities and opinions o f psychologists on marriage, love, child

rearing, and other aspects of day-to-day life. In the fields of

marketing, personnel, training, selection, and m ore, executives

rely on the advice and opinions of consulting psychologists. To

state it bluntly, psych ologists have considera ble pow er to influ-

ence the opinions and behavior of the p ublic. (Kip nis, 1987,

p. 30)

In t h e wo rd s o f Ko c h (1 98 0 ) , t h ro u g h o u t t h i s c e n -

t u ry ( a n d b e fo re ) , p s y c h o l o g y has b e e n u n d e r g r a c i o u s

d i s s e m i n a t i o n - -wh e t h e r i n s c h o o l , b a r , o f f i c e , o r b e d -

ro o m ; wh e t h e r b y b o o k , m a g a z i n e , e l e c t ro n i c p ro p a g a -

t io n , o r w o r d o f m o u t h - - t o a v o r a c i o us c o n s u m e r s h ip

(p. 33).

Ha v e rm a n (1 9 5 7 ) h a s st u d i e d t h e i n f l u e n ce o f p s y -

cho logy on our l ives and has a r r ived a t the conclus ion

t h a t t h e p r e s e n t e r a o u g h t t o b e d e c l a r e d t h e a g e o f p s y -

c h o l o gy . Ko c h a n d L e a ry (1 9 8 5 ) h av e a ls o d e f in e d th e

presen t t imes as ' the psycho log ica l ce n tu ry (p . 33 ).

I t wo u l d s e e m re a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e d i s-

s e m i n a t i o n o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l k n o wl e d g e a n d e x p e r t is e

mak es a d i f fe rence in peop le ' s ideas abou t themselves and

795


2/8

a b o u t s o c i e t y . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , p s y c h o l o g y c a n i n f l u e n c e s o -

c i e t y i n t w o o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s : ( a ) I t c a n r e a f f i r m o r

r e i n f o r c e e x i s t i n g p o l i c ie s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y r a t i f y t h e s t a -

t u s q u o , o r ( b ) i t c a n c r i t i c i z e t h e s o c i a l o r d e r a n d t h u s

f o s t e r c h a n g e s . P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e f o r m e r s i g n i f i c a n tl y o u t -

w e ighs the l a t t e r .

deology and Psychology

d e o l o g y c a n b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s t h e w e l t a n s c h a u u n g

a n d s o c ia l b e li e fs o f a c o m m u n i t y , d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e

p u r p o s e o f j u s ti f y in g a n d p r o m o t i n g t h e i r e c o n o m i c a n d

s o c i o p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s (e . g. , M a n n h e i m , 1 9 3 6; A . R y a n ,

1 9 7 0; S a m p s o n , 1 9 8 3 ; T h e r b o r n , 1 9 8 0; W i l s o n , 1 9 7 7 ).

E v e r y r u li n g g r o u p o f a n o r g a n iz e d c o m m u n i t y r e q u ir e s

t h e e x i s te n c e o f c u l t u r a l m e c h a n i s m s d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e ,

o r a t l e a s t f ac i l it a t e, t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f it s p o s i t i o n . A

v a r i e t y o f s t r at e g ie s a r e e m p l o y e d b y t h e s e g r o u p s t o p e r -

s u a d e t h e p u b l i c t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t i s

n o t o n l y t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e b u t a l s o th e o n l y p o s s ib l e

c i v i li z e d o n e . I t s h o u l d n o t s u r p r i s e u s t o l e a r n t h a t t h e

r e p e r t o i r e o f s t r a t a g e m s t h e s e g r o u p s u s e t o s e c u r e t h e i r

p o s i t i o n o f p r i v i l e g e d o e s n o t e x c l u d e d e c e p t i o n a n d d i s -

g u i s e a s v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c es . T h e s e m e c h a n i s m s , u s e d b y

t h o s e i n p o w e r t o c o n c e a l t h e i r r e a l in t e r e st s a n d a d v a n -

t a g e s ( S a m p s o n , 1 9 8 1, p . 7 3 1 ) , a r e u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o

a s i d e o l o g ic a l . T h e s e i d e o lo g i c a l m e s s a g e s s o d e e p l y

p e n e t r a t e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a c u l t u r e t h a t p e o p l e u n -

q u e s t i o n i n g l y a c c e p t t h e i r p r e m i s e s w i t h o u t f u r t h e r

t h o u g h t ( S a m p s o n , 1 9 83 , p p . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 ) . T h e i d e o lo g y

o f m o d e r n s o c i e t y r e g a rd s p s y c h o l o g i ca l s c i e n ce a s o n e

o f i ts m o r e p r e c i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s ( e. g. , S a m p s o n , 1 9 83 ;

W o o l f o l k & R i c h a r d s o n , 1 9 84 ). T w o m a i n r e a s o n s a c-

c o u n t f o r id e o l o g y ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p s y ch o l o g y. W h e r e a s

t h e f i r s t r e s i d e s w i t h i n t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e o f p s y c h o l o g y ,

t h e s e c o n d i s o f a m o r e s u b t l e a n d

c i r c u m s t a n t i a l

n a t u r e .

A t t h e s t r u c t u r a l l ev e l, a p e r v a s iv e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n

t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y is o b s e r v e d i n p s y c h o l o g y ( e .g . ,

Ing le by , 1972 , 1981 ; Sa ra son , 1981a , 198 1b ; W e x le r ,

1 9 8 3 ) . T h e i m m e d i a t e i d e o l o g i c a l b e n e f i t d e r i v e d f r o m

s u c h a d i c h o t o m y i s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s s t u d i e d a s a n

a s o c i a l a n d a h i s t o r i c a l b e i n g w h o s e l i f e v i c i s s i t u d e s a r e

a r t i f ic i a l l y d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e w i d e r s o c i o p o l i ti c a l

c o n t ex t . C o n s e q u e n tl y , s o l u t i on s f o r h u m a n p r e d i c a m e n t s

a r e t o b e f o u n d , a l m o s t e x c l u s iv e l y , w i t h i n t h e s e l f, l e a v in g

t h e s o c i a l o r d e r c o n v e n i e n t l y u n a f f e c t e d ( A l b e e , 1 9 8 1 ;

F o x , 1 9 8 5; W . R y a n , 1 9 7 1 ). I n t h i s c o n t e x t , B e v a n a r g u e d

i n h i s 1 9 8 2 p r e s i d e n ti a l a d d r e s s t o t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o -

l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n t h a t

I w ish to thank Jack Bailey, Kenneth H ughes, Joseph J. Pear, and A lfred

Shephard for their critical comm ents on a related manuscript. For their

thoughtful evaluation of the final version, I am indebted to Ed B uettner

and O ra Prilleltensky.

I am most grateful to Frederick L. Marcuse for the interest he has

taken in this project and for his valuable suggestions on the present and

earlier draRs of the article.

Correspondenceconcerning his article should be addressed o Isaac

Prilleltensky, Child G uidanc e Clinic, 700 Elgin Ave., Winn ipeg, Mani-

toba, Canada R3E IB2.

On e of the mos t powerful intellectual t ides of this centur y is a

general propens ity, by psychologist and nonpsychologist alike,

to think of all hu m an issues in psychological terms. It is a tem p-

tation that often leads to

overs impl i f i ca t ion

[italics added], but

it is a temptation that is hard to resist . (1982, pp. 1305-1306)

P s y c h o l o g y ' s c i r c u m s t a n t i a l s u p p o r t t o t h e r e i g ni n g

i d e o l o g y c a n b e id e n t i f ie d i n c o n c r e t e g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l -

i c ie s a n d i n t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f h e r a l d e d c u l t u r a l b e l ie f s .

A c t i vi t ie s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e n a m e o f p s y c h o l o g i ca l s c ie n c e

h a v e b e e n u s e d t o r a t i o n a l i z e s o c i a l p o l i c i e s w h o s e p u r -

p o s es w e r e n o t a lw a y s t o p r o m o t e h u m a n w e l f ar e . T h e

t e s t i n g m o v e m e n t ( K a m i n , 1 9 7 4 ; S a r a s o n , 1 98 l a ; S ed g -

w i c k , 1 9 7 4 ) a n d s o c i a l D a r w i n i s m ( A l b e e , 1 9 8 6; W . R y a n ,

1971 ; Sh ie ld s , 1975 ; Th ie lm a n , 1985 ) a re sa l i e n t e xa m ple s

o f p s y c h o l o g y a t t h e s e r v i c e o f p o l it i c a l t h o u g h t . P s y -

c h o l o g y ' s p r o m u l g a t i o n o f p r e v a l e n t v a l u es s u c h a s i n -

d i v i d u a l i s m ( e . g . , S a m p s o n , 1 9 7 7 ; S p e n c e , 1 9 8 5 ) , m a l e

s u p r e m a c y ( N a h e m , 1 9 8 1; S h i e ld s , 1 9 7 5) , p o l i t i ca l c o n -

f o r m i t y ( J a c o b y , 1 9 7 5) , a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f t e c h n o l o g y t o

s o l v e h u m a n p r e d i c a m e n t s ( e .g . , S k i n n e r , 1 9 7 2 ; W o o l f o l k

& R i c h a r d s o n , 1 9 8 4) i s a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n u p h o l d i n g

t h e p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y .

F u r t h e r m o r e , i t s h o u l d n o t b e f o r g o t te n t h a t m o s t

soc i a l sc i e n t i s t s be long to a soc i a l c l a ss w hose po l i t i c a l

a n d e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s a r e u s u a l l y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h

t h o s e o f t h e d o m i n a n t s e c t o r s ( S a r a s o n , 1 98 1 a ; S u l li v a n ,

1 9 8 4) . A l t h o u g h w e d o n o t i n t e n d t o r e d u c e t h e s c i e n ti f ic

e n d e a v o r s o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s t o o n l y l e g i t i m a t i n g t h e s t a t u s

q u o a n d t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e t o a c l a s s w e a p o n , a s

s o m e M a r x i s t s s e e m t o d o ( e. g ., N a h e m , 1 9 8 1; s e e a l s o

A . R y a n , 1 9 7 0) , it i s p e r c e i v e d t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t

o f th e i r c l as s b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e i r p r a c t i ce h a s b e e n s e -

r i o u s l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d ( B r o w n , 1 9 3 6) . T h e i r a s s i s t a n c e

i n p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f a f f ai r s d o e s n o t d e r i v e ,

i n m y o p i n i o n , f r o m a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o s e r v e t h e m s e l v e s

b y d e c ei v i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n a s t o t h e n a t u r e o f p o w e r

r e l a t i o n s i n s o c i e t y . I t d e r i v e s m a i n l y f r o m a v e r y e f f i ci e n t

s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h a t t a u g h t t h e m n o t t o q u e s t i o n , t o a n y

t h r e a t e n i n g d e g r e e , t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s y s t e m ( C h o r o v e r ,

1985 ; Sa ra son , 1981 a , 1981 b ) . A t t he sa m e t ime , i t c ou ld

b e a r g u e d t h a t i t i s t h i s v e r y l a c k o f i n t e n t t h a t m a k e s i t

m o r e i n s i d i o u s . S a r a s o n ( 1 9 8 1 a ) d e s c r i b e d t h e s o c i a l iz a -

t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s a s f o ll o w s :

As a group, th ey have undergon e a socialization process. W e

ma y call the process edu cation or training: a long series of ri tes

that make them eligible for certain roles in certain places. It is

a process in which self, others, and the n ature of society get

defined. I t i s , of course , a con t inua t ion of a process tha t begins

a t b i r th . They do not come to h igher educa t ion wi thout the i r

soc ie ty a l ready be ing in them . T he m ore prolonged, systemat ic ,

and effective the socialization, the less self-conscious p eop le are

about the different factors and forces that shaped them. To be

s o c i a li z e d m e a n s t h a t o n e h a s a b s o r b e d a n d a c c o m m o d a t e d t o

p r e d e t e r m i n e d c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e w a y th i n g s a r e a n d o u g h t t o

b e [italics added]. One may resist and resent the process but if

one wants to occupy a cer ta in p lace and ro le in soc ie ty (e .g . ,

lawyer, physician, psychologist) one has to traverse successfully

the rites of passage. Th e socialization m ay be partial but i ts

e ffec ts a re never absent . For mo st people the process i s fa r mo re

than partial; i t is so successful that for all practical purposes

7 9 6 M a y 1 9 89 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i s t


3/8

there is no qu estioning, no self-consciousness, abo ut the forces

that shaped th em and thei r concept ion of socie ty. The lack of

this type o f self-consciousness is no less a source o f bias in the

psychologist tha n the distortion-producing motivations th at he

possesses like everyone e lse. (p. 148)

Value N eutra l Psycho logy: I t s Ideo log ica l

U s e s

T h e p e r s i s t e n t r e fu sa l o f p sy c h o l o g i s ts t o e l a b o r a t e o n t h e

r o l e o f v a lu e s i n t h e i r d i s c i p l in e h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t

i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r s i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

p sy c h o l o g y in a so c i a l c o n t e x t ( D e e se , 1 9 8 5; T o u l m i n &

L e a r y , 1 98 5 ). H o w e v e r , a s t h e u r g e n c y t o a c k n o w l e d g e

v a l u e d i l e m m a s b e c a m e a p p a r e n t , t h e r e s is t a nc e t o c o n -

s i d e r su c h i s su e s l e s se n e d . T h i s t r e n d h a s l e d R o b i n so n

( 1 9 8 5) t o s t a t e t h a t w h e r e t h e so c i a l s c i en c e s o n c e d e -

f e n s iv e l y i n s i s t ed t h e y w e r e v a l u e - n e u t r a l , t h e y n o w t e n d

t o p r e se n t t h e m se l v e s a s u n a v o i d a b l y v a l u e - l o a d e d ( p .

1 42 ). A l so i n d i c a ti v e o f t h i s c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d v a l-

u e s i n s c i en c e i s H o w a r d ' s ( 19 8 5 ) a s se rt i o n t h a t a l t h o u g h

p h i l o so p h e r s o f s c i e n c e s ti ll d e b a t e t h e r o l e o f v a l u e s i n

sc i e n t i f i c r e se a r c h , t h e c o n t r o v e r sy i s n o l o n g e r a b o u t

w h e t h e r

v a l u e s i n f l u e n c e s c i e n t i f i c p r a c t i c e , b u t r a t h e r

a b o u t h o w v a l u e s a r e e m b e d d e d i n a n d sh a p e s c i e n t i f i c

prac t i ce (p . 255) .

A c c o r d i n g t o K r a s n e r a n d H o u t s ( 1 9 8 4 ), m o s t b e -

h a v i o r a l s c i en t i st s e n d o r se v a l u e s su c h a s so c i a l D a r w i n -

i sm (vs . soc i a l a l t ru i sm) , conse rva t i sm (vs . l i be ra l i sm) ,

a n d a v a l u e - n e u t r a l a s o p p o se d t o v a l u e - l a d e n v i e w o f

sc i en c e . T h i s l a s t fi n d i n g fu r n i sh e s f u r t h e r su p p o r t t o o u r

l e a d i n g a s su m p t i o n t h a t p sy c h o l o g i s t s h a v e p e r s i s t e n t l y

c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c e n d e a v o r s a r e i m m u n e t o

n o n e p i s t e m i c v al u e s . T h e n o t i o n o f a v a l u e - n e u t r a l p sy -

c h o l o g y i s p i v o t a l i n o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r it l en d s i t s e l f

t o v a r i o u s i d e o l o g i ca l u se s . F i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t , i t h a s t h e

p o w e r t o p o r t r a y p sy c h o l o g y a s d e p o l i t i c i z e d , a n d t h i s

i m a g e c a n b e u se d t o p r o m u l g a t e t h e r e g n a n t i d e o l o g y .

P sy c h o l o g y h a s sh o w n a c le a r b i a s i n su p p o r t i n g t h e i n -

t e re s ts o f t h e p o w e r f u l a n d t h e s t a tu s q u o , m a n y t i m e s i n

the

n a m e o f

scient i f ic object iv i ty

[ i ta l i cs add ed] (S te in-

inge r , Newel l , & Garc i a , 1984, pp . 21 6-217 ) . By por -

t r a y i n g i t s e lf a s a ¢ t r i c tl y o b j e c t i v e e n d e a v o r , m a n y o f

p sy c h o l o g y ' s

prescriptive

b i a se s a r e e r r o n e o u s l y i n t e r -

p r e t e d a s m e r e l y descriptive a s s e rt io n s a b o u t h u m a n b e -

h a v io r . V a l u e c o m m i t m e n t s ar e a l m o s t in e v i ta b l e b y

prod uc t s o f soc i a l ex i s t ence , and a s pa r t i c ipan t s i n s oc ie ty

w e c a n s c a r c e ly d i s so c i a te o u r se l v e s f r o m t h e se v a l u e s i n

p u r su i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l e n d s ( G e r g e n , 1 9 73 , p. 3 1 2) . C o n -

sequent ly , i t i s h igh ly un l ike ly tha t we , a s psychologi s t s ,

m e r e l y d e s cr i b e w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e , w i t h o u t a t t h e s a m e

t i m e su b t l y p r e sc r i b i n g w h a t w e r e g a r d a s d e s i r a b le . O u r

d e f i n i t io n o f d e s i r a b l e , h o we ve r, i s u su a l l y i n c o n f o r m i t y

w i t h t h a t o f t h e i d e o lo g i ca l a p p a r a tu s e s w h o s e m a i n

f u n c t i o n i s t o e f f e c t a su c c e s s f u l so c i a l iz a t i o n ( S a r a so n ,

1981a) .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v a l u e - n e u t r a l i d e a p r e d i sp o se s t h e

p u b l i c t o a c c e p t p sy c h o l o g y ' s a s se r t io n s u n c r i t i c a l ly a n d

t o r e g a r d t h e m a s a p o l i ti c a l t r u i sm s r a t h e r t h a n so c i o h i s -

t o r ic a l ly c o n d i t i o n e d s t a t e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a m p l e

e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h i s n o t i o n h a s b e e n w i d e l y u se d

for i deo log ica l purp oses ( see , fo r ex am #e , B i l li g , 1979;

L a r se n , 1 9 86 ; W . R y a n , 1 9 71 ; S a m p so n , . 1 9 8 3 ) , i t s p o p -

u l a r i t y c a n n o t b e so l el y a t t r ib u t e d t o so c i o p o li ti c a l i n t e r e s t

b u t a l so t o t h e h e g e m o n y o f th e p o s i t iv i s t ic - e m p i r ic i s t

s c i en t i fi c p a r a d i g m ( S a m p so n , 1 9 78 ; T o u l m i n & L e a r y ,

1 9 85 ). T h e i n i t ia l e p i s t e m i c v a l u e a sc r i b e d t o t h e c o n c e p t

o f v a l u e - n e u t r a l p s y c h o l o g y b y p o s it iv i s m c a n b e

t h o u g h t t o h a v e o p e n e d t h e d o o r f o r i ts u s e a s a n i d e o -

l o g ic a l n o n e p i s t e m i c v a l u e . W h a t e v e r t h e p r e c i s e d e g r e e

o f i n f l u e n c e t h a t i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s ts m i g h t h a v e e x e r t e d

o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o s it i v ism , i t sh o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t

o n c e e s ta b l i sh ed , t h e n o t i o n o f v a l u e - n e u t r a l p sy c h o l-

o g y h a s b e e n u se d t o a d v a n c e i d e o l o g ic a l o b j e c ti v e s .

T h e e s se nc e o f v a l u e - n e u t r a l t h e o r i e s a t t h e se r v ic e

o f i d e o l o g y c a n b e b e s t c a p t u r e d i n t h e t i t le o f R y a n ' s

( 1 9 7 1 ) s e m i n a l b o o k Blaming the V ic t im . I a m n o t r e -

f e r r i n g t o a s i n g le t h e o r y h e r e b u t r a t h e r a b a s i c a s su m p -

t i o n o n w h i c h m a n y p s y c h o lo g i ca l ex p l a n a t io n s a r e c o n -

s t r u c t e d - -n a m e l y , a n a c o n t e x t u a l v i e w o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

I n t h i s a p p r o a c h , t h e a n a l y s is o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r is c o n -

d u c t e d w i t h o u t a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e so c i a l

a n d h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . W h e n t h i s a p p r o a c h i s a p -

p l i e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f m a l a d a p t i v e b e h a v i o r , i t o f t e n r e -

su l ts i n w h a t A l b e e ( 1 9 8 l ) h a s t e r m e d t h e

defect

m o d e l .

A c c o r d i n g to t h i s m o d e l , t h e m a j o r i t y o f u n f a v o r a b l e e x-

p e r i e n c e s i n a p e r so n ' s l i f e a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o f a u l t y m e c h -

a n i s m s

wi th in

h i m se l f o r h e r s e l f. A n e x t e n s iv e l e x i c o n o f

p e r so n - b l a m i n g c o n c e p t s c a n b e s a i d t o su p p o r t t h e d e f e c t

m o d e l , i n c l u d i n g m a l a d a p t i v e c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s ,

w e a k - e g o , m a l a d j u s t e d p e r s o n a l it y , a n d c h a r a c t e r

d i so r d e r . T h i s l a n g u a g e i s n o t a t a l l su r p r i s i n g g iv e n t h a t

A m e r i c a n p sy c h o l o g y h a s b e e n q u i n t e s se n t i a l l y a p sy -

c h o l o g y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i sm ( S a r a so n , 1 98 l b , p .

8 2 7 ). H e n c e , t h e r a p e u t i c e f f o r t s a r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e ly

d i r e c t e d t o w a r d c h a n g i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d n o t t h e so -

c ioec ono mic s i tua t ion (A lbee , 1981; W. Ry an , 1971; Sa r -

a son , 1981a , 1981b; W ine m an , 1984).

P s y c h o l o g y a t t h e S e r v i c e o f t h e S t a t u s Quo

Som e I l lus trat ive xam ples

Psycho logy i s no t a un i f i ed sc i ence (Ko ch & Leary , 1985) ,

a n d a s a c o n se q u e n c e , d i f f e r e n t sy s t e m s i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e

p o r t r a y t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d so c i e t y in a d i f f e r e n t fa sh i o n .

A l t h o u g h s e p a r a te a n d r e la t iv e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m e a c h

othe r , t hose psycholog ica l pos tu l a t e s sha re som e s t ruc tura l

e l e m e n t s ( e .g ., t h e d i c h o t o m y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d so c i e ty

a n d n o n e p i s t e m i c v a l u e - n e u t r a l a sp i r a t i o n s ) t h a t c r e a t e

t h e p r e d i sp o s i t i o n f o r p sy c h o l o g i s t s t o v i e w t h e p r e se n t

s t a t e o f a f f a ir s in so c i e t y w i t h a n u n c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e .

T h e e h a v i o r a l P e r s p ec t i v e

P i o n e e r s o f b e h a v i o r i sm h a v e i n v e s t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t

i n a t t e m p t i n g t o c r e a t e a p h y s i c s -l i k e s c i e n c e o f p sy c h o l -

o g y. S u c h a n a t t e m p t w a s p r i m a r i l y d e s i g n ed t o e n h a n c e

t h e c r e d i b i l i ty o f p sy c h o l o g y in t h e s c i e nt i fi c c o m m u n i t y

b y c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t z e it g ei st . A c c o r d i n g t o

T o u l m i n a n d L e a f y ( 1 98 5 ), W a t s o n ' s r e s o l u t i o n w a s t o

m a k e p sy c h o l o g y as c lo se t o e x p e r i m e n t a l p h y s i c s a s h e

M a y 1 98 9 * A m e r i c a n P sy c h o l o g i s t 7 9 7


4/8

knew how, banishing all subjective appeals to introspect-

able data and focusing exclusively on public, observable

reactions to arbitrary stimufi" (p. 601). Although Skinner

has differed from Watson on other issues, he has been

equally fervent in his pursuit of a physics model for the

science of human behavior. In his book,

VerbalBehavior

Skinner indicated that "there is a promising possibility

that meanings will be kept outside the skin. In this sense,

they are as observable as any par t o f physics" (1957, p. 8).

Behaviorism tends to foster a reactive, machine-like

image of the human being. The individual is viewed

mostly as a physical entity responding to external stim-

ulation. His or her actions and movements are the objects

of study, and measurement is the main concern within

this framework. Control and prediction o f behavior have

been considered the parameters of a successful psycho-

logical science (Deese, 1972).

It is not difficult to draw some parallels between this

terminology and the semantics of the technological era.

In a society where technology has been many times un-

critically used as a synonym of progress (Ellul, 964),

psychology was bound to acquire not only its procedures

but also its weltanschauung. An unfortunate side effect

of this innovative weltanschauung was the notion that

technology would provide the necessary tools to answer

moral and ethical questions. This conceptual confusion

is epitomized in Skinner's (1972) book, Beyon d Freedom

and Dignity.

Skinner suggested solving ethical concerns

by means of a technology of behavior. This could assist

in designing a desired type of human being, but it cannot

determine what kind of image is to be created.

Woolfolk and Richardson (1984) contended that be-

havior therapy--a direct derivation of behaviorism--is

consonant with the ideology of modernity, of which the

glorification of technology is an indispensable feature.

The conforming message behind the technological ide-

ology is that problems of inequity and social injustice

could be solved through the development of newer tech-

niques of social engineering and more efficient managerial

strategies. By masking social and moral conflicts with the

appearance of being mere technical inconveniences, the

individual is led to believe that in principle the present

state of affairs in society is satisfying, and only techni-

calities stand between suffering and the at tainmen t of a

happier life. Fundamenta l issues pertain ing to the moral

and ethical values preserved by the rul ing institutions are

eluded by offering solutions to social riddles in terms of

efficiency, reorganization, better management, and tech-

nical progress. Questions of essence are distorted into

questions of form. The substitution of technical for ethical

concerns diverts attention from inquiries that might

eventually question the present state of affairs in society.

Some authors might argue that the conservative out-

look attributed to behaviorism in this article is inconsis-

tent with its premises. Behaviorism emphasizes the mod-

ification of environmental conditions in helping the in-

dividual and could therefore be considered a progressive

theory. A significant differentiation should be made be-

tween the alteration of the focal and immediate external

conditions and more encompassing, socially oriented

modifications (Fiske, 1981). Behaviorism has almost ex-

clusively concentrated on reorganization at the micro-

level.

Th e Or ganic Perspect ive

The origin o f functionalism in modern psychology could

be traced to the concept of adaptat ion initially proposed

by Darwin (Deese, 1985; Notte rman, 1985). Function-

alism in psychology studies "'mental processes of sense

perception, emotion, volition, and thought as functions

of the biological organism in its adaptational effort to

influence and to control its environment" (Sullivan, 1984,

p. 12). Of particular interest to us is the classification of

individuals as adaptive or maladaptive, which in con-

junc tion with the development of eugenics helped to pro-

mote the notion that maladapted persons are the sole

product ofa less able organism and/or a genetic handicap.

This notion was, and is, widely held not only among psy-

chologists but also among psychiatrists and influential

social thinkers (Albee, 1986; Hofstadter, 1955; Thielman,

1985). The clear conforming message in that theory was,

and still is, that human suffering is predominantly the

result of a deficient organism. From this viewpoint, en-

vironmental factors such as poor nutrition, detrimental

living conditions, and unemployment are thought to be

"caused" by the inability of those people to help them-

selves. To the extent that functionalism in psychology

assisted in the dissemination of this theory, it collaborated

with the ruling ideology in disguising social injustice as

a biological or psychological inferior ity (Albee, 1986).

Albee 0986) cogently argued that as long as psy-

chologists and social policy legislators believe in the un-

modifiability of intelligence and hold the view that crim-

inal tendencies are due to genetic defects, early compen-

satory education and primary prevention programs will

never be adequately implemented.

Although individual differences do exist, this vari-

ability is only partially attributable to a genetic compo-

nent (Billig, 1979; Kamin, 1974). Economic and social

factors, which play a significant role in the mental and

physical well-being of the population (Arthur, 1971; Cer-

eseto & Waitzkin, 1986), have been seriously neglected

because of the prevailing social Darwinism and func-

tionalism in psychology.

The uman i s t Perspective

It has been argued that humanist ic psychology gained

many of its supporters because of its reaction to Freudian

(e.g., Buhler, 1962) and Skinnerian determinism (e.g.,

Rogers, 1961). The humanistic approach clearly empha-

sizes the human potential for personal change and growth.

This school believes in the capabili ty of the psychological

organism to liberate itself from circumstantial barriers

and to overcome external constraints. Humanistic psy-

chology succeeded in returning to the person some basic

trust and belief n freedom of choice. However, in its battle

against determinism it overlooked some environmental

variables that exercise considerable influence on human

798 May 1989 • merican Psychologist


5/8

personality and behavior. In its eagerness to show how

flexible and adaptive the human sou l is, it did not pay

enough attention to socioeconomic problems and eco-

logical determinants of hum an suffering and the need for

reform.

Rogers, a pioneer and leading figure in humanistic

psychology, fostered the idea that personal problems are

basically of an internal or endogenous nature (Rogers,

1961 ). Sarason ( 1981 b) was right in asserting that Rogers's

Counse l ing and Psycho therapy defined the problems of

people in terms of an individual psychology: Problems

were personal or narrowly interpersonal and for all prac-

ileal purposes independent of the nature and structure of

the social order (p. 830). Although Rogers did not deny

the existence of acute social problems and their reflection

on the mental health of the population (Rogers, 1986),

his elucidation of their origin was erroneous in that prob-

lems of social order were reduced to the lack of exposure

of individuals to a growth-promoting climate. Accord-

ingly, if life or therapy gives us favorable conditions for

continuing our psychological growth (Rogers, 1967, p.

21), the individual will develop the qualities which would

cause him to value those experiences which would make

for the survival and enhancement of the hu man race. He

would be a worthy participant and guide in the process

of human evolut ion (Rogers, 1967, p. 20). The funda-

mental mistake committed by Rogers was to believe that

society is run as a therapeutic session or an encounter

group where feelings of equality and communi ty arise as

part of the healing process. Commenting on the lack of

sociopolitical awareness shown by humanists and thei r

persistent involvement with the self, Jaeoby ( 1975) went

as far as asserting that the reali ty of violence and de-

struction, of psychically and physically damaged people,

is not merely glossed over, but bur ied beneath the lingo

of self, meaning, authenticity, personali ty (pp. 56-57).

Social, economic, and political predicaments require so-

lutions of a social, economic, or political nature. Psy-

chology might occasionally facilitate understanding be-

tween persons and groups, but it is definitely not the only,

or even the preferred, tool for the attainment of a better

society.

Although its political innocence has been the subject

of discontent within the humanis t movement and social

critiques are emerging (Greening, 1986), the individual-

istic approach seems to have long dominated humanistic

psychology. Whether humanistic psychologists intention-

ally support the predominant individualistic ideology is

a debatable question. What is hardly debatable is tha t by

diverting attention from social problems and presenting

them as a matter of individual psychological immatur-

ity humanistic psychologists in effect are supporting

those interested in prolonging the existing state of affairs

in society.

he

Cognitive Perspective

As in the case of humanistic psychology, the cognitive

perspective adheres to subjective and individualis tic re-

ductions of reality. Its objects of study are the internal

processes by which the individual filters and manipulates

physical and/or psychological stimulation. By focusing

almost exclusively on internal processes, the cognitive

psychologist is exposed to the risk o f losing sight of so-

ciohistorical variables that may influence our way of

thinking and operating in society. Behavior is no t the sole

product of thinking but also of external conditions. The

individualist approach reduces reality to the acts of the

individual's constitution; objects of reality are seen as

products of individual cognitive operations rather than

as products of social and historical const itution (Samp-

son, 1981, p. 73 l). The primacy attributed to the knower's

ideas and perceptions of reality is often at the expense of

an equally important scrutiny of material conditions in

society.

Sampson (198 l) argued that cognitive psychology's

concern with the transformation and flexibility of menta l

processes is likely to reduce interest in the pursuit of actual

changes in the objective world. In subst ituting thought

for action, mental transformations for real world trans-

formations, cognitivism veils the objective sources and

bases of social life and relegates individual potency to the

inner world of mental gymnastics (Sampson, 198 l, p.

735). Sampson's cogent analysis indicates that the status

quo is reinforced when people are led to believe, inten-

tionally or unintentionally, that inner changes are more

important than external modifications in their reality.

Cognitivism plays a very active role in the dissemination

of this notion.

Psychology at the Service of Social Change

Desiderata

In portraying the good society, philosophers usually

make reference to attr ibutes such as social cohesion, sta-

bility, social harmony, f reedom, distributive justice, and

mater ial prosperity (Olson, 1978). Clearly, the approxi-

mation to these ideals necessitates a lucid perception o f

the social forces shaping our society. Unfortunately, such

understanding is impeded by the distortion radiated by

ideological apparatuses. Stratagems employed by the

power elite to obfuscate the unjust nature of the social

structure render the powerless politically disoriented and,

by and large, paralyzed. Consequently, no serious threat

is posed to the status quo.

Unless individuals are aware of the ideological de-

ception of which they are victims, they are unlikely to

engage in product ive change-promoting activities. Al-

though awareness does not necessarily guarantee con-

structive action, it is certainly a condit ion s ine qua non

Psychology is probably the most appropriate science to

develop tha t awareness. In exposing the mechanisms of

the prevalent ideology, psychology can make a meaningful

contribution to the course of social change. This project

would have to be complemented by deliberations on what

constitutes the good society that is most likely to pro-

mote human welfare. Otherwise, psychologists will merely

engage in denunciation without annunciation. Both of

these funct ions will be briefly discussed.

May 1989 • American Psychologist 799


6/8

Consc ien t i za t i on

The concept of conscientization as utilized by Freire

(1975), describes best the task proposed for psychology.

Conscientization refers to the process whereby people

achieve an illuminating awareness both of the socioeco-

nomic and cultural circumstances that shape their lives

and the ir capacity to transform that reality. Freire (1975)

pointed out tha t conscientization is first of all the effort

to enlighten men about the obstacles preventing them

from a clear perception of reality. In this role, conscien-

tization effects the ejection of cultural myths which con-

fuse the people's awareness (p, 51). In essence, it is both

the ant idote and antithesis to the ideological message.

If psychology is to become a vehicle of conscienti-

zation for the public at large, it must be the first one to

subject itself to this very process. Only then will psy-

chologists be in a position to scrutinize the cultural he-

gemony of which they are a constituent part. This plea

concurs with the following advice given by Judge Bazelon

(1982) to an APA audience: Unveil

your

values. Unveil

our

values. In combining those two tasks, you will be

setting an enviable standard of social responsibility (pp.

120-121).

A formal framework for the disclosure of the disci-

pline's nonepis temic values could be elaborated upon the

principles o f the sociology of knowledge (Berger & Luck-

mann, 1967; Mannheim, 1936). This field of inquiry,

which has not been given the attention it merits by psy-

chologists, has the potential to elucidate the 'penetration

of the social process into the intellectual sphere (Mann-

heim, 1936, p. 268). The teaching of the

sociology ofpsy-

chological knowledge

(Buss, 1975) would constitute an

important first step in demythologizing psychology's

value-neutral demeanor.

People's acceptance of the prevalent ideology, even

when it does not reflect their interests, can be a legitimate

topic of psychological investigation. Insights from research

in the areas of conformity, introjection of norms and ex-

pectations, and obedience can be helpful not only in ex-

plaining why people accept this ideology but also in in-

oculating them against the potentially pernicious impact

of such doctrine (cf. Lessing, 1986).

It is encouraging to observe that women's groups

have already started to capitalize on the propositions of

conscientization. The literature indicates that in their at-

tempts to analyze and modify male-oriented cultural

practices, women participating in consciousness-raising

groups both advance their social interests and experience

beneficial psychological changes such as increased auton-

omy and self-esteem (Hyde & Rosenberg, 1980).

nnunc ia t i on

Borrowing yet another concept from Freire (1975), I shall

refer to

annunciat ion

as the act of conceiving a just social

arrangement in which the well-being of the population is

fostered. In my view, psychologists ought to engage in

annunciation, for without an ideal to replace the present

social system the contribution of psychology to social

change will be halted at the stage ofconscientization . Be-

fore we are in a position to give psychology away for

the promotion o f human welfare, as Miller (1969) put it,

we must be able to delineate the 'good society that will

likely advance the well-being of its members.

Unlike the task of conscientization, which can be

independently performed by psychology, the present as-

signment cannot be completed without assistance from

ethics. Although, as Olson (1978) correctly pointed out,

'et hic s' suggests primarily a moral code, or a body of

rules of right conduct (p. 3), it should be clearly stated

that moral philosophers also deal with...the good society

(p. 3). Unfortunately, psychologists have paid very little

attention to the latter.

Symptomatic of American social science's indiffer-

ence to the utopian society is tha t courses on ethics, which

were very rare before the mid-1970s, focus almost exclu-

sively on standards of right conduct and neglect to address

the good society (e.g., Warwick, 1980). Furthermore,

for a long time social scientists thought that their ethical

duties toward society were fulfilled by adhering to the

following syllogism: Social science is science; science

contributes to human welfare; therefore social science

contributes to human welfare (Warwick, 1980, p. 31).

This syllogism, predicated on a number of unsubstan-

tiated assumptions, promoted a highly simplistic view of

the relation between science and social welfare.

Unless psychologists extricate themselves from their

moral and political naivet6, the advent of annunciation

will remain an illusion.

Probably the major obstacle to be encountered by

the promoters of annunciation in our discipline will be

the historical quest for independence from philosophy.

One can only hope that the gradual introduction of the

teaching of ethics reflects a level of maturity in which

psychology is no longer threatened by a dialogue with

philosophy.

on c l u s i on

The penetration o f the reigning ideology in the realm of

psychological knowledge is largely determined by the so-

cialization of psychologists. This, in conjuction wi th psy-

chology's apparent inability to self-reflect on its nonepi-

stemic biases, has permitted its utilization for the ad-

vancement of ideological purposes. Psychology is

instrumental in maintaining the societal status quo by

(a) endorsing and reflecting dominant social values, (b)

disseminating those values in the persuasive form of so-

called value-free scientific statements, and (c) providing

an asocial image of the human being, which in turn por-

trays the individual as essentially independent from so-

ciohistorical circumstances. Consequently, the recipient

of psychological knowledge or services is likely to believe

that these theories are primarily a reflection of truth

or objectivity and are not affected by the psychologists'

set of nonepis temic values. Furthermore, the psycholog-

ical client is likely to underestimate the impact of adverse

social conditions on her or his life, thereby reducing the

800 May 1989 • American Psychologist


7/8

p r o b a b i l i ti e s t h a t sh e o r h e w o u l d e n g a g e i n a c t i v i ti e s in

d e f i a n c e o f th e s t a t u s q u o .

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f p sy c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s

i n t h e p u b l ic f o r u m a n d t h e l ar g e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r en a n d

a d u l t s c o n su m i n g so m e t y p e o f p sy c h o l o g i c a l s e r v ic e , i t

i s n o t d i f f i c u lt t o r e a l i z e t h e su b s t a n t i a l i m p a c t t h e c o n -

f o r m i n g m e s s ag e o f p s y c h o lo g y m i g h t h a v e o n s o c ie t y a s

a w h o l e . A t b e st , i t m a y b e p r e v e n t i n g c h a n g e s t h a t c o u l d

e n h a n c e t h e w e l l -b e i n g o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . A t w o r s t , i t

m a y b e s i l en t l y e n d o r s i n g u n j u s t so c i a l p r a c ti c e s .

I f , i n f a c t, p sy c h o l o g i s ts a re s u p p o r t i n g a n u n d e s i r -

a b l e so c i a l sy s t e m b y f u r n i sh i n g i t w i t h i d e o l o g i c a l a m -

m u n i t i o n , w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e a b o u t i t ? C o n s t r u c t iv e

a c t i o n m u s t b e p r e c e d e d b y r e f l e ct i o n . T h e r e f o r e , a c o m -

m i t m e n t t o so c i a l c h a n g e m u s t b e g i n w i t h c o n sc i e n t i z a -

t i o n a n d a n n u n c i a t i o n . F o l l o w in g a n e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s

i n w h i c h p sy c h o l o g i s ts w o u l d b e c o m e a w a r e o f th e so c i o -

c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e i r p r o f e s s io n a l e n d e a v o r s a n d

j u s t i f i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n s , t h e d i s c i p l i n e w i ll b e i n a p o s i t i o n

t o f a c i l i ta t e so c i a l c h a n g e b y u n c o v e r i n g t h e c u l t u r a l a n d

p s y c h o lo g i ca l m e c h a n i s m s i n v o lv e d i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n

o f t h e so c i a l sy s t e m . O f e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e i s th e n e e d t o

a d m i t o u r l i m i t a t io n s a n d a l lo w m o r a l p h i l o so p h e r s to

a s s is t u s i n d i s c e r n i n g w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e g o o d so c i et y .

W h e t h e r t h e s e o r a n y o t h e r p r o je c t s c o n c e r n e d w i t h

f o s t e r in g so c i al c h a n g e s e v e r w i l l b e u n d e r t a k e n , l e t a l o n e

i m p l e m e n t e d , i s la r g e ly a n e t h i c a l q u e s t io n . I n t h e p a s t ,

so c i al s c i en t i s ts c o u l d h a v e e l u d e d t h i s q u e s t i o n b y c l a i m -

i n g i m p a r t i a l i t y o n so c i al i ssu e s , b u t a t p r e se n t , w h e n t h e

i n c u r s i o n o f i d e o l o g y i n t o o u r r a n k s i s b e c o m i n g so e v i-

d e n t , su c h a n e x c u se c a n h a r d l y b e a c c e p t e d . A s a r e su lt ,

t h e m o r a l d i l e m m a o f w h e t h e r t o e n g a ge i n s o c ia l tr a n s -

f o r m a t i o n o r r a t i f i c a t io n h a s b e c o m e i n e sc a p a b le . T o t h e

d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o f m a n y , t h is i s th e t y p e o f d i l e m m a s ci -

e n c e c a n n o t s o lv e . W h a t t h e s c ie n c e o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r

c a n d o , h o w e v e r , i s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f

w h a t i s e t h i c a l ly j u s t e .g . , D e w e y , 1 9 0 0) . E n o r m o u s a s

t h i s e n te r p r is e m a y b e , i t i s n o t i m p o ss i b l e . I t s u n d e r t a k i n g

s h o u l d n o t b e h i n d e r e d b y l a c k o f a p p r o p r ia t e m e t h o d -

o l og y , a s p sy c h o l o g i s t s a r e v e r y a s t u t e i n m e e t i n g t h e se

n e e d s ; it c a n o n l y b e o b s t r u c t e d b y t h e r e f u sa l o f o u r

d i s c i p l in e t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e u b i q u i t y o f i d e o l o g ic a l in -

c u l c a t i o n .

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