1

Chapter Two Nuts and Bolts: The Basics of Argument

Second Thoughts, 4th ed.Wanda Teays

McGraw-Hill Higher Ed.© 2010.Wanda Teays.All rights reserved.

2

There are two components to an argument:

(1) the thesis (conclusion) and

(2) the evidence (premises).

An author’s thesis (conclusion) rests on a set of reasons offered as support.

These reasons are called premises.

An argument consists of only one conclusion and at least one premise

If the same set of evidence is used to support two propositions, treat it as two separate arguments and analyze each one separately.

FOR EXAMPLE:

Cutting a pet bird’s wings limits or eliminates the bird’s ability to fly.

Birds that can’t fly are like guinea pigs with feathers.

Only someone who is cruel would turn the bird into the equivalent of a guinea pig.

Therefore, cutting a pet bird’s wings is cruel.

3

When we describe, we try to objectively state a set of facts

—-the essential features of the thing by listing its qualities or characteristics.

An inference is a conclusion drawn on the basis of some evidence or observations.

An inference answers the question, “What's it about? What story does this tell?”

Descriptions, like a set of facts, are statements about what is or is not the case.

Generally, each item in a description is verifiable by examination.

FOR EXAMPLE: We describe a friend by giving her height, weight, eye color, hair color and style, etc.

An inference would be when someone says, “He’s tall, thin, and a real hunk!”

4

CONTRAST:

A description is an attempt to state what is the case, e.g., in terms of physical characteristics or appearance.

An inference is a conclusion drawn on the basis of a description or other sorts of evidence.

People regularly conclude one thing or another on the basis of what they see or hear. They are drawing inferences.

An inference is the same as a conclusion.

Sometimes the inferences we draw are well founded. Sometimes they are not.

5

FACTS:Facts are things or events known to be true (as that which can be empirically verified) and concepts that can be proven true, as in science and mathematics.

Facts are actually the case, known by observation or authentic testimony.

OPINIONS fall into 3 categories:

1. Statements of belief or conjecture2. Reasoned speculation3. Legal opinion (usually expressed as court rulings).

IDEAS AND HYPOTHESES:

Ideas take the form of possible solutions, hypotheses, intentions, plans of action, and theories. Think of a general or ideal form, pattern, vision, or standard.

Not all ideas are good, but “brainstorming” could lead to a major breakthrough.

That’s why problem-solving sessions often start with generating ideas freely, quickly, and without editing, judgment or criticism.

6

GOOD ARGUMENTS,BAD ARGUMENTS

Arguments are all around us—they consist of propositions (at least one of which is offered as evidence for another, the conclusion).

A PROPOSITION is an assertion that predicates some characteristic of the subject. It is true or false.

FOR EXAMPLE“All zoo animals are creatures

fond of looking at people.” The subject is “zoo animals.”

The predicate is “creatures that are fond of looking at people.”

AN ARGUMENT consists of:

The conclusion (= thesis) and At least one premise (=support, evidence)

The first step in dismantling an argument is to locate the conclusion (thesis).

Once the conclusion is clear, we can see how the argument is structured.

An assumption is something taken for granted or supposed to be the case without proof.

Assumptions are often unstated.

7

Assumptions shape how we see the world and how we think.

If there is evidence to support the assumption, it is warranted and, if not, it is unwarranted.

One of our tasks is to recognize and make explicit any assumptions.

We can then decide whether or not they rest on solid footing (i.e., are warranted) or whether they are questionable or without merit (i.e., are unwarranted).

.

8

1. Locate the conclusion (author’s thesis).2. Set out the premises.3. The premises should provide a clear link to the

conclusion. 4. Watch for omissions and questionable claims.5. See how the evidence supports the conclusion—

the premises should supply strong support.6. Note strengths and weaknesses in the reasoning.7. If the argument is not convincing, find the

weaknesses in the reasoning.8. Watch for questionable or unwarranted

assumptions

9

Steps to put an argument in standard form:

List all the premises one by one,

Number them P1, P2, P3, etc.

Stack them like pancakes.

Draw a line under the last line of the premises.

List the conclusion (C)

FOR EXAMPLE:

John went to see the Lakers play. But he forgot his to wear his lucky socks. The Lakers lost. Therefore, John’s not wearing the socks caused the Lakers to lose.

Here it is in standard form:

P1: John went to see the Lakers play.P2 : He forgot his to wear his lucky socks. P3: The Lakers lost. C: Therefore, John’s not wearing the socks caused the Lakers to lose.

10

PREMISE-INDICATORSA premise-indicator is a word

or phrase that introduces a premise in an argument.

EXAMPLES:

Because… Since* In light of… Whereas…. Given that… For the reason that… For… The reason why [conclusion]

is….

CONCLUSION-INDICATORSA conclusion-indicator is a word or phrase that introduces a conclusion in an argument.

EXAMPLES:

Therefore…Accordingly…

As a result… So… Consequently… Hence… It follows that… Subsequently… Thus…

11

Transition words indicate an introduction, amplification, clarification, emphasis, illustration, or contrast.

They do not function as premise- or conclusion-indicators, unless clearly shown in the context—e.g., when a list of premises or several conclusions are listed in sequence.

Transition words could be located anywhere—in premises, in conclusions, or in a sentence not

part of an argument.

12

FUNCTION TRANSITION WORDS Introduction: In order to, Primarily, The first reason, Initially,

In the first place, To begin, In generalAmplification: Moreover, Furthermore, In addition, Provided that,

Similarly, Also, Likewise, First, second, third,Clarification: That is, To restate, In other words, In simpler terms,

Briefly, To repeat, To put it in another light, To put it differently, As seen by

Emphasis: In fact, Notably, Nonetheless, Nevertheless, In effect,Above all, Indeed, And rightly so, As such

Illustration: To illustrate, For example, For instance, Specifically, Namely, A case in point

Contrast: However, Alternatively, On the other hand, Notwithstanding,In opposition to, And yet, Conversely, Atthe same time, In spite of, Despite

13

① State the conclusion (thesis/hypothesis). This gives us a sense of where we're headed. If you don't know the conclusion, you cannot analyze an argument.

② List the premises (reasons/evidence) one by one.

③ Examine the premises to see if they are sufficient to support the conclusion. Look for any holes, such as missing premises, unwarranted assumptions, biased language, or fallacious reasoning. 

④ Listing the premises one by one (P1, P2, P3, etc.) above the conclusion provides order to the argument and makes it easier to read.

You then have the premises and conclusion clearly set out, so you can examine the relationship between them; and you are less likely to overlook a piece of evidence.