Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project

White Papers

July 1992

The purpose of the white papers for the Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project (RRAP) was to provide Michigan-specific background information about each issue so that relative rankings would be based on common understandings of scientific knowledge. The papers also illustrated the current state of scientific knowledge and the major scientific uncertainties pertaining to the risks. It was requested that they include a statement of the issue; a description of the problem source, including the extent to which Michigan is a responsible party; a description of the effects and recovery time; and a description of the risks. These risks could involve a combination of ecological, economic, human health, and social effects.

The white papers for each of the issues, prepared by members of the Scientist Committee, were distributed to all RRAP.committee members. The documents were reviewed by others knowledgeable about the issues. In a few cases, a member of the Agency or Citizen committees wrote or reviewed a white paper.

Following are the 23 white papers as originally completed by the authors. Please keep in mind that there were different authors for each of these white papers and therefore the style and presentation of each vary. Consequently, they are presented here in their original form with no additional editing.

This appendix was designed as a supplement to the final report of the Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project entitled "Michigan's Environment and Relative Risk." To receive a copy of the report contact the Michigan Department of Management and Budget, the Environmental Administration Division, P. 0. Box 30026, Lansing, Ml 48909.

Table of Contents

Absence of Land Use Planning that Considers Resources and the Integrity of Ecosystems ..... l Accidental Releases and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Acid Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Alteration of Surface Water and Groundwater Hydrology, Including the Great Lakes ....... 31 Atmospheric Transpon and Deposition of Air Toxics ............................. 47 BiodiverSity/Habitat Modification ........................................... 60 Contaminated Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Contaminated Surface Water Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Criteria and Related Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Degradation of Urban Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Electromagnetic Field Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Energy Production and Consumption: Practices and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 09 Lack of Environmental Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Generation and Disposal of Hazardous and Low-level Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Generation and Disposal of High-level Radioactive Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Generation and Disposal of Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Global Oimate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Indoor Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Nonpoint Source Discharges 10 Surface Water and Groundwater, Including the Great Lakes . 181 Photochemical Smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Point Source Discharges to Surface Water and Groundwater, Including the Great Lakes . . . . 206 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ............................................ 216 Trace Metals in the Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

ABSENCE OF INTEGRATED LAND USE PLANNING THAT CONSIDERS RESOURCES AND THE INTEGRITY OF ECOSYSTEMS

Land use, by in large, determines the futuTC. The land in Michigan has a fundamental role in sustaining our society for the long haul. Despite this oveIWhelming importance, Michigan lacks a statewide planning system that encourages appropriate land uses with consideration for sustainable resources and long-term ecosystem health. This threatens Michigan's quality of life. The Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project recognizes this problem as one of 24 outstanding environmental issues in Michigan. The lack of integrated land use planning is a broad issue with far-reaching effects. The objectives of this paper are to overview the problem, discuss some of the effects, and provide an up-to-date information base. The paper is presented in six sections. The first outlines Michigan's problem, risk, and opportunity. In the second section, recent developments in the field of land use planning are highlighted. Next, we describe the need for information and the importance of education to help address the probleIIL The fourth section introduces "goal-setting" for Michigan's land use. 1n the fifth section, "Michigan's Land Use Reality," we outline several example problems. Toe concluding section focuses on the planning process.

The Problem, the Risk, and the Opportunity

Our Michigan landscape represents a dynamic interface between social and environmental processes. Ecologists, land managers, and planners have traditionally ignored the interactions between the different elements of the landscape and have treated these elements as separate systems (although see Steiner and Osterman 1988 and Hale et al. 1991).

In Michigan, state and local agencies tend to manage the resources under their jurisdiction as individual commodities. For example, within the Michigan Department of Natmal ResoUit:es (MDNR), Wildlife Division focuses on deer, grouse, and pheasants, Forest Management Division focuses on economic returns from the sale of fiber, Fisheries Division focuses on fish species that suppon a strong recreational induStry, Surface Water Quality Division focuses on clean water, and so on. Other state agencies concern themselves with agriculture, urban development, human health, and transponation at various governmental levels. A multitude of land use authorities and interests express their control and power on a local basis. Little attention is paid to coordinating the goals of these various entities to lay the foundation for integrated land use planning. Ramifications of this lack of coordination are numerous: the natural landscape pattern and its associated natural habitats and biota are generally unprotected and exposed to alteration; renewable resources such as trees and clean water are not being managed in sustainable fashion; a burgeoning deer herd degrades the recruitment of new trees in tl!e forests; wetland degradation robs us of valuable ecosystem functions; urban sprawl supplants prime agricultural land; and the unnatural complexion of our landscape (including poorly planned residential and industrial parks) offends human sensibilities.

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Landscape ecological studies strongly suggest that a broad-scale perspective incorporating spatial relationships is a necessary part of land use planning (Turner 1989). Paraphrasing Richard Forman (1988), it should be a high priority for Michigan to develop a landscape plan that optimizes wood production, resource extraction, biological diversity, .clean water, cultural cohesion, human health, housing, and other societal goals. Not adopting this priority poses a severe, long-term risk to the sustainabilty of resources, integrity of ecosystems, and human health and existence. The concept of intergenerational equity mandates that we pass onto future generations landscapes undiminished in their capacity to yield valuable ecological goods and services (Norgaard 1991 ). Current science and technology is sufficient to allow us to undertake integrated land use planning now.

The Field of Land Use Planning

Numerous land use planning paradigms and methods have been developed. Ian McHarg pioneered a multidimensional approach to land use planning under the name of landscape architecture (McHarg 1971). In the 1970s, system scientists began to build simulation models of complex ecosystems based on mass and energy flows to depict landscape characteristics in functional terms to evaluate efficiency, productivity, and -sustainability (Koenig and Tummala 1972). The most recent developments in land use planning stem from the field of landscape ecology (Forman and Godron 1986). Landscape ecology is a holistic approach and considers the many features of the landscape (including human use) and their dynamics through time. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are tremendous computer tools for characterizing complex spatial patterns of landscapes. GIS can integrate soil characteristics, geological formations, surface and groundwater, biota, reso=s, human land use, and more, into one database system.

The Importance of Information and Education

In environmental planning, we seldom have all the necessary data to make the best possible choices. Our ability to acquire good data is compounded by complex synergisms, thresholds, and time lags operating in the natural world. A comparison of the arctic landscape in 1949 and 1983 demonstrated that indirect impacts of human-caused disturbances may have substantial time lags and the total area influenced by both direct and indirect effects can greatly exceed the area of planned development (Walker er al 1987). Other studies have suggested that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will change qualitatively. Habitat fragmentation, for example, may continue without noticeable effect on a population until the important pathways of connectivity are disrupted. At this point a slight change can have dire consequences for the population (Turner 1989). These observations demand thoughtful, integrated land use planning in Michigan.

Although some groundwork is established, we still require a great deal of baseline information on landscape strueture and function to conduct landscape level planning. The talents of many

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of Michigan's citizens must be integrated: foresters, hydrologists, ecologists, limnologists, economists, social scientists, geographers, cartographers, epidemeologists, urban planners, farmers, and many others must share experiences and expertise. Education is critical to the development of successful land management strategies. It is imperative th_at new management ideas and methods be clearly communicated to those making on-the0ground management decisions. Given the complexities of the landscape, the best option seems to be the fostering of informed and creative decision-making by land use managers, coupled with scientific monitoring and evaluation to assess the success of new techniques. We in Michigan can look elsewhere to learn te.i:hniques to effectively manage our land use. Both good and bad examples are instructive. In Czechoslovakia, for example, landscape level studies serve as a basis for determining the optimal uses of land across large regions (Ruzicka and Kosova 1988).

Education of the public is also essential. The public is a force to be taken seriously, but not simply with a "knee-jerk" response. In many cases, their objections to management scenarios stem from lack of information. Unregulated private rights pose serious problems, yet we seem unwilling to admit to more collective public benefits. Gifford Pinchot (the first head of the U.S. Forest Service) said "Find out in advance what the public will stand for. If it is right and they won't stand for it, postpone action and educate them" (circa. 1915). The tradition of private propeny rights stands in the way of itnproving comprehensive landscape management. If individuals broaden their perspective by considering the adverse effects of their actions when making land use decisions, it will help preserve their future options.

Setting Michigan's Land Use Goals

As a society, we must set goals regarding the future landscape conditions we require to maintain adequate ecosystem functions and ensure our health and welfare. A statewide landscape approach to land use planning will help to ensure the best land uses are employed. Goal-setting is inevitably an expression of public values that includes compliance with existing statutes, allowance for the introduction of new statutes, and a balance between a healthy environment and economic development. The lack of land use planning has generated -frequent and vehement controversies that pit development objectives against conservation goals. These are difficult battles to resolve because the goals of a healthy environment and a healthy economy are both desirable. These goals needn't be mutually exclusive. Comprehensive land use planning could help resolve the debates before they become arguments that force a choice between endangered species and jobs. There is no single correct solution to a planning problem. Each plan reflectS the values of those involved in its development (Gosselink er al 1990).

Michigan's Land Use Reality

A description of all the problems associated with an absence of land use planning is beyond the objectives of this paper. In this section, however, we attempt to provide additional scope to the issue by outlining six example problems.

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Multiple Jurisdictions

Integrated land use management requires that the spatial scale of governmental influence encapsulates the boundaries of the ecosystem of concern. Generally, ecosystem boundaries can be delineated by the boundaries of a watershed. The only state where the political space cOITCsponds to the ecosystem boundaries is Hawaii, where the aaditional tribal boundaries were the crest' of the surrounding mountain ranges. In Michigan, ad hoc arrangements of governmental units cut across the narural landscapes and conflicting jurisdictions confound effective planning. Funhermore, land use constraints are often perceived by private land owners as constirutional "taking;, without due compensation. The not in my back yard attitude of the public adds to the problems of multiple jurisdiction. The powers to implement land use planning and zoning _ procedures are established in two basic planning acts: Township Rural Zoning Act (Act 184 of 1943) and City or Village Zoning Act (Act 207 of 1921). Land use decisions, other than highways, county drains, utility conidors, airports, and·solid waste facilities, rest with local units of government and private landowners.

Michigan has the largest amount of state-owned land of any state except Alaska. Many of these land holdings include substantial portions of watersheds. All of our rivers and streams flow into the Great Lakes and many of the associated watersheds are small enough to be included with state-owned lands. Michigan has a unique opponunity to demonstrate that good land use design and management is both good ecology and good economics.

Urban Sprawl

Between 1960 and 1987, urban areas in the U.S. grew from 25 million acres to 56 million acres. Within the seven-county Detroit Metropolitan area, the projected 20 year population growth of 6% will require some 40% of additional land for development according to a SEMCOG (Southeast Michigan Council of Governments) study. The phenomenon of rapid conversion and scattering of a multirude of urban land uses away from a centralized urban core was coined in the early 1960's as "urban sprawl." Urban sprawl was viewed by the old established urban centers as an aberration to the general notion of public health and welfare. To the local area this new growth and development signified progress and prosperity. The state and federal response in the I960's to the problem of urban sprawl was simple: resolution would come through appropriate planning efforts and massive public spending for highways, housing, sewer and water infraslructurc plants, and social subsidies. A multitude of federal and state initiatives including land use planning grants, model cities demonstration grants, urban renewal grants, community development grants, economic planning grants, and transportation grants were struetured to control urban sprawl and the resulting social decay. Public funds paid for staeks of land use planning reports, redevelopment plans, and urban growth Strategies-all were exhaustively debated and ultimately ignored.

Despite these efforts, urban sprawl continues relatively unabated. The debate continues as to the causes. Improved access via new interstate highways and major road construction is generally cited as a major causal factor for urban expansion. The automobile has also been "fingered" as

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a responsible causal agenL Even legally mandated social integration of schools has been cited as a reason for urban sprawl. Currently, traditional growth subsidies (such as FHA mongages and infrastructure construction funds) favor fringe development Furthermore, the costs of fringe development are borne by raxpayers in existing urban communities. Many other causes for urban sprawl have been postulated. New, politically correct. rhetoric, such as "growth management strategies," "legally mandated regional planning," "mass transit," "taic: sharing," "development concurrence," and "quality of life," represents but a partial listing of new semantic packaging for the "same old stuff."

One of the most important causes for urban sprawl is the improved economic well-being of a large and growing segment of the populace. Within this group is the evolving aesthetic that "country" living is the ideal. Huge numbers of people have raced to escape the cities because the city environment offered so little aesthetic appeal. This vicious cycle magnifies as the cities decay (in part due to loss of population and taX base). Cities are becoming more diny and more dangerous, offering even less of the cultural and social amenities that formerly balanced their inherent problems. Transportation routes were provided and improved because of this demand to escape, thus becoming a catalyst for even more sprawl.

The extent of fragmentation of open space into urban and suburban landscapes may have exceeded the ability of any existing local governmental institution to control or manage. Financial, social, and legal resources needed to reverse urban sprawl and to facilitate the use and reuse of available space in the city center and adjacent developed areas may overwhelm existing political will and feasibility.

A multitude of city councils, local zoning and planning boards, economic development commissions, road and drain·commissions, water and sewer authorities jealously safeguard their · constituent interest groups. The Department of Transportation, Natural Resources, Commen:e, and Management and Budget single-mindedly spend huge sums of federal and state taX dollars to justify expansion of existing infrastructure in suburban and urban areas as mandated by their dedicated rax dollars and local development needs. Environmental interest groups appear to expend more effon and financial resources establishing their own turf than to collectively focus on the slow, but steady ecological damage caused by urban sprawl.

Economic development and redevelopment opponunities of vacant available space within established urban centers cannot compete with the "dollar and cents" siren call of a corn field twenty or more miles away. Vacant land, despite the distance, appears to be cheaper to develop and offers more flexibility to the developer than an urban counterpart property. The urban propeny is confined by existing access and utilities and may require expensive tcnovation, demolition, or even environmental cleanup. The true costs of developing vacant land, particularly costs of environmental degradation, are not considered and are unfairly being passed to future generations. Continued fragmentation or climio•tin'l of the ecological habitats common to an agricultural landscape (forest, scrub, open meadow, wetland, floodplain, and ravine) is all but a cenainty unless costs for c!eveloping vacant property become comparable or exceed the costs for redeveloping a more urban setting. Causal effects and impaets of urban sprawl remain embodied

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in current public and economic policy based on the concept of unlimited availability of resources yet another half hour drive away. The principal conclusion of the recent SEMCOG srudy was to the point: Continuing rhe parrern of urban sprawl is unacceptable because ir will diminish rhe quality of life in southeast Michigan. If we hope to curtail this phenomenon, we must design urban areas that are more acceptable places to live-we must increase the quality of the urban enviroqmenL We must "level the playing field" by creating incentives to develop and redevelop urban areas and disincentives to develop suburban and rural areas.

Problems on the Farm

Within the past three decades, Michigan's agricultural landscape has undergone fragmentation and conversion to other uses, while the remaining agricultural land has become highly specialized in crop and livestock production. The number of farm operations have decreased as have agricultural efficiency and productivity. While we debate the causes, this trend continues and carries with it a number of risks to the rural landscape.

According to the U.S. Depamnent of Agricultural, 20 of Michigan's 83 counties were fanning­dependent in 1950, but by 1986, not a single Michigan county remained dependent on agriculture as its primary economic base. Nationwide, since 1m, the number of farms have decreased by 1 % per year. In this same period, the total amount of land used for farming decreased by 6%.

USDA information for 1989--1990 reflected a 1% decline in total U.S. farmland. This 1% drop represents 3.4 million acres-a Connecticut-sized piece of real estate. In Michigan, cropland fell by a similar acreage between 1940 and 1982. Compounding the problem is the fact that much ,-. of our prime farmland is near large metropolitan areas in southern Michigan. At present, agricultural land often serves as little more than a holding zone for urban growth (Rusrem and Cooper 1989).

"Agribusiness" has all but replaced the family farm. These large operations arc totally dependent on technology, chemical, and energy inputs. Often they expend more energy ID produce foods than is contained within the food they produce. Nurturing the land for family farm subsistence has given way to mining the land for economic survival and USDA subsidies. Ecological risks associated with land fragmentation, conversion, and agricultural specialization arc described in the remaining paragraphs.

The fragmentation of small farm lands and conversion to small parcels for residential or recreational uses has caused increased land use conflicts and demands on local government services and infrastructure. On first glance this conversion appears beneficial to natural habitats and biodiversity as the non-used portions of five, ten, or twenty acre parcel residential lots arc allowed to revert to some semblance of natural condition. Nevertheless, the apparent positive value is overwhelmed by increased and conflicting land use pressures and the high-impact practices of the remaining viable farm operations.

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Economics drives the fragmentation and conversion trend. Subdividing a farm and selling a number of small tracts is far more lucrative than selling the entire farm. The practice of splitting off and marketing the marginal or non-productive portions of farm land at inflated prices has resulted in major increases of propeny values and taXes for the remaining farms. A vicious cycle is set in motion as speculators begin subdividing the remaining faims. The demand for these small rural land parcels is increased by high land prices in the suburban areas, easy access by existing 'local or state roads, cheap fuel, and the perceived absence of social malaise and discord "in the country." The overall environmental impact is directly dependent on the rate of farm land conversion to the new linear residential subdivision, home to residents whose place of employment may be 50 miles away.

To keep up with their higher cost of doing business (that is, higher local ad valorem taXes), the remaining farms have had to increase production and specialize in crops-both have environmental risks. No technique or approach can be ignored if the·predicted results indicate higher potential crop yields and income. Production is stimulated by using more fertilizer, herbicides, and energy. Specialized livestock production facilities (eg. large hog or poultry production facilities) generate huge quantities of animal waste-more than the available acreage can safely absorb and utilize. Specialized waste storage and disposal n-eaanent has become necessary. While animal waste n-eaanent operations may conform to state discharge and disposal guidelines, long term contamination risk to surface and ground water is of public health concern. Agricultural speculation in Michigan has also driven a trend to specialty crops (eg. Christmas trees, strawberries, blue berries, and beans). These crops initially prove profitable, but soon production sites exceed market demand resulting in another cycle of conversion into the speculative real estate market.

Great Lakes and other Michigan Shorelines

Humans consistently demonstrate strong desire to locate developments adjacent to bodies of water. This tendency has driven the historical patterns of shoreline development. Shoreline development involves big money, intense political pressure, and valuable ccosyStemS. Within the U.S., only Alaska has more miles of shoreline than Michigan.

The issues associated with the shorelines of the Great Lakes involve fragile ecosystems, unique habitats, and high-risk development areas. The nature of the problem differs with each one of these. The sand dune ecosystem is physically fragile and is populated with rare species. Dunes are somewhat akin to wetlands in that they have been treated as private property, but are frequently not physically suited to development or housing. In Michigan, there are 250,000 acres of sand dunes, 90,000 of which are designated as critical dunes. These dunes can only withstand sparse and non-intrUsive human activities. Our unique costal areas provide habiws for spawning and nursery activities of economically important fish species. In Michigan. we cum:ntly have 105,000 acres of such habitat, less than 50% of historical estimates. The impacts on coastal marshes and wetlands have come from filling, dredging, and farming. High-risk development areas are those susceptible to flooding and storm damage. Coastal area development has resulted from demand created by better economic well-being and increased population. The demand

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created by private property owners and the related service indusoy, ( cg. marinas and golf courses) to locate close to these aesthetically desirable areas has initiated a large extension of infrastructure (roads, sewers, and utilities). Zoning and land use constraints can seldom withstand the political pressure for development once the infrastructure is in place. Land use planning on this scale would not have resulted in wholesale prohibition of development, -but the development could h~ve progressed without the damage and the continuing threat to the ecosystem that we now recognize.

Shoreline development along rivers and streamS involve issues of riparian habitat, nutrient runoff (nitrogen and phosphorus), herbicide runoff, ambient water temperatures, and ecological food chains (Armour ct al., 1991). Smaller streams are dependent on the riparian vegetative canopy for water temperature control and as a major source of energy for the aquatic food chain (via leaf fall). Riparian vegetation also absorbs nutrients and withholds herbicides long enough to allow degradation.

Shoreline development adjacent to inland lakes and wetlands can seriously impact the ecological quality of the riparian habitat. Most of the mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles associated with lakes and wetlands need upland habitats to complete their life cycles. Developments that maintain manicured lawns and gardens down to the edge of the water, not only increase the nutrient and herbicide loadings, but they also severely restrict the biological diversity.

All of these problems are directly associated with how we design and manage landscapes. The planning and zoning must be done on a waterShed scale, must include both public and private land holdings and must be based on solid principles of landscape ecology. A

Michigan's Forest Management

Through our consumption of natural resources, we are having enormous and accelerated negative impacts on the planet. In Michigan, =nt practices do not always maintain renewable forest resources. As Michigan citizens, we should strive to discover ways to continue to make reasonable use of Earth's resources without destroying the life forms with which we share the biosphere. We have to ensure that our forest management practices do not irreversibly alter natural ecosystems and their functions. Forest management can be viewed as a conservation mechanism. It can strive to mimic natural processes of ecological succession and preserve ecosystem functions.

Extraction of forest products from the landscape presents a concrete opportunity to "have our cake and eat it too." Unlike urban development and most forms of modem agriculture, forest management does not have to involve wholesale permanent conversion of the landscape's natural vegetation and associated fauna. The opportunity exists to extract the resource while still maintaining ecological integrity. In fact, an approach that considers the health of the entire ecosystem is more apt to produce productive, sustainable forests for future generations than will policies that focus only on fiber production. Despite this opportunity, much forest management occurs without a landscape perspective resulting in degraded habitats, poor spatial positioning of

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habitat blocks, few corridors critical for movement of organisms (Hudson 1991 ), and inadequate buffer zones between areas of intensive human activity and adjacent natural habitats.

Landscape forest management, at its most fundamental level, involves the location and size of forest types within a landscape. Such planning is already a pan of ongoing management for fiber production. It is a natural step, therefore, to expand this planning to consider biodiversity. The overall goal is one of creating patterns of forest stand diversity that will translate to landscape biotic diversity, stability, and integrity. This goal requires strategic long-range planning. Landscape management that preserves the integrity of ecosystems, just like forest production, must be maintained over time. It requires understanding and maintaining the contribution of each forest type to the landscape as a whole. With this knowledge, areas possessing unique and essential values can be maintained.

For this perspective to take form, new ·management paradigms, or organizing ideas, are needed. Simultaneously, data are needed that test the efficacy of new management strategics for maintaining landscape diversity and integrity. Guidelines involving riparian buffer zones, unproductive areas, and rare communities, for example, could all benefit greatly from a landscape perspective.

In terms of biodiversity and ecosystem health, we can not focus only on the landscape level, but must balance the landscape view with a habitat perspective. For example, when biodiversity on forested lands is discussed outside forest management circles, there is perhaps no topic more controversial than the conversion of mixed forests to single species softwood (red pine, tamarack, or European larch) plantations. Although forest monoculturcs may not be quite the biological desert represented by a cornfield or cotton field analogy, it is certainly true that tree monocultures are low in native biodiversity. Much of the strucrural diversity and many of the micro habitats have been eliminated through site preparation procedures and the planting of a single species. The contribution of plantations to the biodiversity of the landscape, both in terms of variety as well as unique species, is fairly low. Nevertheless, cmrcnt site preparation techniques for tamarack (e.g. bucket-mounding) differ from those of red pine and larch. It may be that the resulting effect on biodiversity is different as welL We need data that assess these possible differences. We also need data that help generate new forestry techniques that do less harm to habitat and biotic diversity. Strategic placement of plantations on the landscape can mitigate some of the negative impacts on biodiversity. Such time-related planning must include data that demonstrate when the plantation begins to function as a forest in terms of its faunal component

Most of the MDNR Forest Management Division land management funds come from the revenues the Division generates from timber sales. This is a potentially dangerous siruation when a bureaucracy, in order to exist, must sell the resource that it is charged to manage and sustain. In reference to state forest management, a high-ranking state forester commented at a recent public meeting, "A system that has to pay for itself dictates very low level management"

A landscape approach to forest management must also involve better communication between major owners of working forest land (state, federal, and corporate). The mosaic of forest

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ownership in Michigan makes this necessary. Pan of this communication and agreement must r· include setting realistic and attainable quotaS (a.k.a. "allowable sales quantity'') on the amount of state and federal timber to be annually harvested and then adhering to these quotaS. Currently, neither state or federal quotas are met This puts greater pressures on COIJlorate and private ownerships for timber. If ttuly integrated forest management that considers ecosystem health is to occur,. better coordination between these land-holding entities is critical.

Good scientific data on the effects of forest management activities on long-term ecosystem health must be gathered before any meaningful forest practices legislation can be considered. Codification of forest management guidelines prior to intclJ)retation of such data and development of tested methods has high probability of doing more harm than good. Legislation not based in . good science would encumber the process of developing and identifying new techniques of forest management for both public and private forest managers.

Habitats and Biota

Biodiversity is inherently a landscape concept The landscape and its natural biodiversity form a dynamic system, ever-changing because of natural and human-caused forces. Habitat degradation is the ultimate cause of loss of biodiversity. Land use managers must understand natural processes so that their decisions, that inevitably affect habitats and biota, can be framed within sound ecological pcrspcctivcs. This topic is of sufficient importance to be considered in a separate white paper.1 Here we touch only on highlights of the problem.

W ctlands are extremely important ecosystems within the landscape. ln Michigan, we have lost over half of our original wetlands to a variety of human causes. Unfortunately, no-net-loss policies for wetlands focus attention on total wetland acreage and divcn ancntion from important issues of individual wetland· size, configuration, location in the watershed, connections to other wetlands, and habitat heterogeneity. It is these amibutes that often impan a large portion of the functions and values to a wetland. Furthermore, without careful site selection, the creation of wetland habitat from upland sites as a mitigation practice at times causes degradation of valuable upland areas or inadvertent loss of unique habitats. At the policy level, both the current and especially the proposed federal guidelines for delineating wetlands lack scientific rigor in their application. Habitat modification of tcrresnial systems is also a significant landscape problem in Michigan. Our current landscape comprises mixed ownership and supports multiple uses that include wilderness, natural preserves, working (managed) forests, farmlands, urban and rural residential areas, and paved surfaces. All of these uses must be considered in land use planning. To the degree that landscapes with a rich biotic and habiw diversity flora increase the perceived value of adjacent properties, good ecological design of landscapes is also perceived as a wise economic investment

1 For a ,,um: comp/el< tnatment of the Sllbjr:cz the rrJllier is refemd 10 "Lass of Naaual Habilms and Nazi.Ye Biodiversiry in Michigan.," a Reilllive Rist Analysis Projr:ct while paper.

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The issue of soil erosion and nutrient and toxic runoff is related to land use design due to the proximity factor. Practices that disturb the vegetation and soils adjacent to waterways cause much more transport than do more remote activities. Buffer zones of riparian vegetation, undisturbed flood plains, and wetland habitats all provide natural barriers that minimize stream loadings of sediments. Nonpoint source pollution controls cannot rely on traditional regulatory strategies (Schueler 1990). Landscape ecology offers a whole design concept that is efficient and effective'.

Within. the MDNR, the several divisions all develop their own objectives and manage separate databases. There is very little linkage between these divisions such that common resource goals, resource data, and science are integrated into the management process. This places the resources at risk. Forest, wildlife, water, air, and the other resources that the MDNR is charged to protect are used to generate operating funds to suppon the various programs within the agency.

Conclusion

Government agencies tend to manage the environment in a reactive, site-specific manner by making isolated decisions about individual activities. The process of making such decisions is encumbered by controversies about public versus private interests, conflicting goals among different segments of society, and inadequate information for making good decisions. Rarely is attention paid to proactive assessment of societal goals for achieving balance between economic development and conserving a healthy environment. Consequently, environmental management suffers from inadequate broad-based information and ineffective policies and procedures to address such concerns (Hale er al. 1991). In order for planning to be effective at the landscape level, all players (governmental entities, private, public, and corporate landholders, scientists, educators, and other citizens) must discuss their Jong-term and shon-term goals. Not only do we all need to share management objectives, we also need to share management techniques, research results, and newly-found perspectives. Once again, we all have something to contribute to the process.

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References

Armour, C.L., D.A. Duff, and W. Elmore. 1991. The Effects of Livestock Grazing on Riparian and Stream Ecosystems. Fisheries. 16(1):7-11.

Forman; R.T.T. 1988. Landscape ecology plans for managing forests. In: Is forest fragmentation a management issue in the northeast? Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Gen Tech .

• Report NE-140.

Forman, R.T.T. and M. Godron. 1986. Landscape Ecology. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.

Gosselink, J.G. et al. 1990. Landscape conservation in a forested wetland watershed. Bioscience. 40(8): 588-600.

Hale, A.M., W .D. Marshall, and J.D. Scurry. 1991. GIS plus policy research. Geo Info Systems. June 1991. pp. 23-35.

Hudson, W .E. 1991. Landscape Linkages and Biodiversity. Island Press. 196 pp.

Koenig, H.E. and R.L Tummala. 1972. Principles of ecosystem design and Management. IEEE Transportation System Management. Cybem. 4:449-459.

McHarg, I. L. 1971. Design with nature. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

Norgaard, R.B., Visiting Research Fellow, Office of the Chief Economist, Asia Region. 1991. The Rights of Future Generations: Economic Theory, Sustainable Development, and Tropical Rainforests. Incomplete draft of discussion paper.

Rustem, William and William Cooper. 1989. Agriculture and the Environment in 2020. Public Sector Consultants, Inc. Lansing, Michigan.

Ruzicka, M. and M. Kozova. 1988. Results achieved within target-oriented project of basic research, "Ecological optimization of east Slovakian lowland utilization." In Ruzicka, M. Hmciarova, T., Thiklos, L. eds. 1988 Proc. VIII Int. Symp. Probs. Lansc. Ecol. Res. Vol. I Inst. Exp. Biol. Ecol. CBES SAS, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.

Schueler, Thomas R. 1990. Mitigating the Adverse Impacts of Urbanization on Streams: A Comprehensive Strategy for Local Government. Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C.

Steiner, F. R., Osterman, D. A. 1988. Landscape planning: a working method applied to a case study of soil conservation. Landscape Ecology. 1:213-26.

12

Turner, Monica Goigel. 1989. Landscape Ecology: The effect of panem on process. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20:171-97.

Walker, D.A., Webber, P J., Binnian, E.F., Everett, K.R., Led=, N.D., er al. 1987. Cumulative impacts of oil fields on nonhem Alaskan landscapes. Science 238: 757-61.

13

What Are the Impacts of Accidental Releases?

Risks from the accidental releases of toxic substances to the atmosphere may be both direct and indirect. In the former case, direct inhalation of pollutants may precipitate problems to human health and animal life. Such atmospheric pollutants may result from direct transfer from combustion or their volatilization from chemicals in liquid or solid form. Longer term indirect effects may reflect deposition of atmospheric pollutants with moisture and dissolved particulates which may enter food chains or cause deleterious effects more directly on the viability of plant and aquatic life through the deposition of acid rains. These impacts are similar 10 long-term releases at low concentrations, but may require shon-t= solutions to minimize threats to human populations and the environment since such indirect effects may occur quickly. Gencrally such accidental releases of toxic substances may be associated with high concentrations of a particular agent and therefore, there is the danger of exposure to high concentrations albeit over a shon period of time.

What Systems Are in Place to Ameliorate the Consequences of Accidental Spills?

At the Federal Level-Legislation and regulation at the federal level establishes roles that both identify hazardous substances and establish the community "right to know" reporting of hazardous and toxic chemicals (U.S.EPA, 1990). This legislation builds upon the Environmental Protection Agency's Chemical Emergency Preparedness Program (CEPP) and is targeted towards facilitating stale and local governments' abilities to meet their responsibilities. Four reporting ~

requirements have been identified under SARA Title ID: emergency planning (Section 301-303), emergency release notification (Section 304), community right-to-know reponing requirements (Sections 311, 312) and toxic chemical release inventory (Section 313). The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act required the governor of each state to designate a State Emergency Response Commission (SERC). Such a commission in practice should include public agencies and departments concerned with issues relating to the environment, natural resources, emergency service, public health, occupational safety, 1111d transponation. Also intereSted public sector or private sector groups and associations with experience in emergency planning and community right-to-know issues may be included in a SERC. Such roles and regulations pertinent to the above were promulgated (Federal Register, 1987) for comment and discussion. These rules have resulted in the development of State policy for managing accidental release of hazardous and toxic substances to conform with reporting requirements at the federal level

At the State Level-Salient aspects governing accidental spills an: regulated at the State level by the Michigan Environmental Response Act (1982) and other Acts and policies. The spill reporting requirements of the foregoing Environmental Response Act (MERA), Pollution Emergency Alert System (PEAS) plus other statutes an: implemented by reporting to the appropriate district office of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR). Such reporting provides necessary direction to the MDNR to assist in their determination for a future course of action. The responsible pany, once identified is then notified concerning a future

15

course of action by the MDNR official. The response to a spill by.an MDNR official is guided by a consideration of the following: the threat to public health, safety and welfare, the threat to groundwater, the threat to surface water, the geologic characteristics of the area where the spill occurred and the priority of this incident in relation to other activities. A duplicate reporting mechanism to the Michigan Department of State Police under Act 207 of the Michigan fire code is in place. Act 290, P.A. 197 6, as amended, designates the director of the Department of State Police td administer the Michigan Emergency Management Plan. Under this umbrella, the depamnent is responsible for the operation, organization, tasks and execution of a response to a hazan;lous spill (Michigan Department of State Police, 1991).

At the Local Level-As a practical matter, local police, fire and health officials must work in concen with ERD officials to contain and diminish hazards to health and environmental damage resulting from accidental spills. With this in mind, the State Emergency Response Coordinator (SERC) designates local planning districts and appoints, coordinates and supervises local emergency planning committees (LEPCs). To assure a broad range of expertise and perspective, Ti tie m specifies that LEPC members be selected from elected state and local officials, police, fire and public health agencies, hospitals, the media, transponation and other groups. It is the responsibility of an LEPC to develop and maintain emergency response plans. Furthermore, under the umbrella of the public right-to-know provisions of SARA, in some instances, industry must provide information to civil authorities and hospitals even if such information includes trade secrets on the properties of hazardous chemicals. Such information may be critical to a course of action chosen by emergency health care workers and other fust responders to an incidenL

Impacts of Accidental Releases

In the case of accidental releases of hazardous and toxic chemicals, many of the consequences to human health and the environment mirror those identified for the long-term release at low concentrations of the same materials. However, in the case of accidental releases, high concentrations of substances in transport or in storage may pose special problems. Not only may such materials be potentially toxic, but in many instances; such materials may be flammable and constitute a hazard from explosion or fire. Furthermore, such materials may quickly reach potable water supplies either by infiltration of aquifers used for adjacent domestic water supplies or transponed by lakes and rivers to population centers where they may enter domestic water supplies. In addition, some materials when exposed to air or moisture may chemically react, leading to the formation of toxic fumes, which if inhaled may be life-threatening.

Time to Mitigate

If the response to an accidental spill is quick, much of the material can be contained or removed from the site leaving lesser amounts to be removed or treated over a longer period of time though probably from a larger area. The availability of either commercial sector or state personnel to accomplish the cleanup will directly influence the time required to mitigate the spill to acceptable

16

levels. From this it follows that responsible and competent organizations be identified who can perform such remedial cleanups on demand or within a short period of time. Information concerning the capability and past performance should be readily available and on call to responsible parties and concerned local officials. It seems reasonable to assume that the sooner the cleanup begins, the more the problems at hand will be reduced. This can be facilitated by prior knowledge of response capabilities available in the state and private sectors. The greatest risk is from highly toxic materials that can disperse very rapidly over wide areas prior to containment responses, e.g., as occurred in Bopal India in I 984 where 3,350 died as a result of exposure to methyl isocyanate.

Suggestions for Improvement

The private sector must be held accountable for following proper procedures in the event of an accidental release. This accountability, however, must be accompanied by cooperation with local and state agencies to insure that relevant information is published and widely distributed concerning notification of regulatory authorities at the state and local levels. Other civic organizations must be part of the information network so that procedural details and cooperation will occur. For example, local police and fire organizations must work with state and federal officials to insure that proper measures are taken immediately upon notification of a spill. Local potential hazards reflecting the nature and content of local industrial manufacturing or distribution activities should lead to the formulation of action plans adequate to meet local emergencies if containment is breached following a spill. Communication between all interested parties is

' .

essential for the effective management and atnelioration of accidental releases. ~'

There also is the need to better coordinate the functions assignable to either the MDNR and the Michigan State Police. In either instance, reporting of spills to these agencies is not directed immediately to .a person(s) with technical expertise to evaluate the nature of the spill and to route infonnation to appropriate organizations for immediate action. A central agency to which all spills would be rcponed such as obtains in the Province of Ontario might better serve this need.

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.•

References

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. SARA Title III Fact Sheet Emergency Planning and Colllfllunity Right-To-Know, February.

Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Register. 1987. 40 CFR Pans 300 and 355, Vol. 52, No. 77 .p. 13378.

Michigan Environmental Response Act, 1982. Public Act 307 as amended and administrative rules.

Michigan Department of State Police, Emergency Management Division. 1991. Michigan Emergency Management Plan. September.

18

ACID DEPOSffiON

L Introduction

This white paper discusses the issue of acid deposition. Toe state of the science for acid deposition has been established and documented by the National Acid Ptecipitation Assessment Program (NAP AP) in their Integrated Assessment Report (NAP AP, 1991 ). This paper is intended to highlight NAP AP findings, as well as others, in order 10 provide the reader with an overview of the issue, with a Michigan perspective.

IL Discussion of Acid Deposition

Acid deposition is the process by which acidic material from the atmosphere is brought to the surface of the earth. Acid deposition involves anthropogenic and biogenic sources. This process or phenomenon is commonly referred to as acid rain.

Acidity is measured on the pH scale. This scale ranges from O to 14. Toe lower the value, the more acidic; the higher the value, the more basic. A value of 7 .0 is defined as being neutral. Distilled water has a pH of 7 .0.

Natural rainfall is typically considered 10 have a pH of 5.6. This value will vary with geography 10 a pH as low as 5.0, due to the influences of vegetation cover and climatology. This indicates that in the absence of anthropogenic influences, rainfall is slightly acidic. Toe presence of carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere is the principal factor in this slight acidity. Other natural sources of acidic material to the atmosphere include the oceans, volcanic activity and the decomposition of organic material. Convention defines acid rain as rain having an annual average pH less than 5.0.

Anthropogenic influences accelerate the acidification of rainfall, clouds and fog. These impacts have been observed as early as 1872 by the English scientist Robert Angus, who noted damage to plants and materials and coined the term "acid rain" (Angus, 1872). The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) has observed variations in the pH of rainfall in the United States, ranging from 5.2 (greater than 5.0 due to the presence of alkaline dust) in the western states, 4.5 east of the Mississippi, and 4.1 to 4.2 in western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, southwestern New York and nonhern West Virginia. Measurements of mountain clouds and fogs show even lower pH values. Mountain clouds in the Appalachian chain have an average pH of 3.6 versus 4.2 for rain, with the most acid cloud measured at 2.5 on Whiteface Mountain in New York. Toe most acid fog occurred in the Los Angeles basin, having a pH of 1.7 (NAPAP 1987 and 1991).

19

,

Weekly average pH measurements for Michigan stations, collected during 1990, are presented in Table 1.

Acid deposition is technically defined as the total hydrogen loading on a given area over a given period of time, typically one year. This hydrogen ion loading can result from acidic rain, snow, aerosols, fog and gases. Acid deposition can be either wet or dry. Wet deposition occurs through'rain or snow, with the principal components being dissolved H,SO, and HNO,. Dry deposition involves acidic gases or particles from the aunosphere, such as acid sulfate particles, being retained by the earth's surface. Dry deposition, while being more difficult to measure, is considered to be a small fraction of the total acid deposition.

The chemical precursors responsible for the production of acid deposition are sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds. It is worth noting that these are all pollutants regulated by the Federal Clean Air AcL These precursors react, independently or in combination, with other compounds present in the atmosphere, and/or in the presence of sunlight, to form acids. These reactions begin upon emission from a source and proceed at varying rates, depending upon the compound, weather and the time of day. Acidic deposition may take place near the source or can involve a receptor tens or hundreds of miles from the source.

m. Sources and Emissions Inventory Data

NAP AP compiled an emissions inventory for the sources of the major precursors of acidic precipitation: sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds, for the year 1985 (NAPAP, 1989). In the United States, anthropogenic sources contributed approximately 23 .1 million tons of sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere. Of this total, 16.1 million tons were emitted by the electric utility industry. Over 90% of the utility emissions result from the burning of coal. Other sources include smelters, pulp and paper processing, petroleum refining, chemical manufacturing and transportation sources.

The NAP AP inventory attributed 20.5 million tons of oxides of nitrogen emisS1ons to anthropogenic sources in the United States. Transportation sources accounted for 8.8 million tons: 53% attributed to light-duty gasoline vehicles and 24% attributed to heavy duty gasoline and diesel vehicles. Electric utilities contributed 6.6 million tons, with 90% of the emissions from this category resulting from coal combustion.

For volatile organic compounds, 22.0 million tons were emitted in the United States. Less than 10% of that total came from plantS with annual emissions greater than 100 tons per year, typically referred 10 as point sources. The balance of these emissions come from uansponation and area sources. Transportation contributed an estimated 8.8 million tons, with light-duty gasoline vehicles accounting for 75% of that total.

Emissions trend data, specific to Michigan stationary sources are presented in Table 2.

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IV. Effects of Acid Rain

The impacts of acid deposition on the ecosystem are generally placed into five categories: aquatic, tenestrial, materials, human health and visibility. Evidence exists that acid deposition causes effects in each of these categories. However, the extent of the effects and their impact on human health and welfare remain open to debate, even after the NAP AP study.

Effects are dependent upon the total loading deposited in a specific area and the relative sensitivities of the particular area receiving the loading. For example, the Midwest, with acid­neutralizing compounds in its soils can withstand more deposition than the soils in the Northeast, with a lesser acid-buffering capability.

A. Aquatic Effects

Watersheds vary in their physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The chemistry of the soils and bedrock with which deposition comes into contact with on its way to the stream or lake. The soils in large regions of the United States contain sufficient neutralizing material to allow most surface water to remain neutral or alkaline. However, where soils are thin and/or the bedrock is hard, . acid deposition is less likely to be neutralized and more likely to cause effects. The major questions that arise pertain to the ctuTCnt status of the lakes, how they have changed historically, and wiiat impact changes in furore deposition rates may have.

NAPAP (NAPAP, 1987 and 1991) followed the lead of the National Surface Water Survey and divided the United States watersheds into geographic regions: Adirondacks, Catskills and Poconos, Maine, Southern New England, Upper Midwest, Southern Blue Ridge, Florida and West. In the Upper Midwest, less than one percent of the total lake area was found to be acidic, with a pH less than 5.0. The majority of these acidic lakes were found in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, where 9% of the lakes were found to be acidic (NAP AP, 1987).

The primary concern for aquatic systems is the impact of acidity, chronic and episodic, on fish populations. Chronic exposure relates to long term exposures; episodic exposures relate to sudden changes or surges in pH due to an action like rapid snowmelt for a snowmass with a relatively high concentration of acidic material. Most fish species will tolerate pH levels above 5.5. Few species can sustain populations in water below pH 5.0. Sensitivity varies by species and life stages. In the Adirondacks, 9% of the lakes with adequate data were determined to have lost several acid-sensitive fish species. None were reported in the Upper Midwest (NAPAP, 1987 and 1991).

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B. Terrestrial Effects

NAP AP conducted field studies of 13 varieties of 8 economically important crop species to determine the impact of acidic rain and deposition on crop production. These included corn, oats, potatoes and soybeans. The results indicated no consistent, demonstrable effect by acid rain on agricultural crop yield. The conclusion was that acidic deposition had a negligible effect on crop yield.

_NAP AP did find crop yield losses when examining ozone concentrations between 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. during the growing season (NAPAP 1987 and 1991). Ozone is a secondary pollutant produced from acid deposition precursors oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds. It is a factor in the chemistry of acid deposition. For the average maximum 7-hour daily mean ozone concentration 50 ppb over the eastern United States, crop yield reductions were estimated at 5 to 10%.

With respect to forest, NAP AP was able to establish that acid deposition and ozone appear to intensify the effects of natural stresses upon red spruce at eastern mountain-top locations. Also, that soil process models show that cumulative effects of acid deposition at current levels may change the chemistry of some sensitive forest soils in the lower midwest and southern United States. Finally, ozone adversely affects the forest of southern and central California, and may be responsible for effects in the southeast. NAPAP's surveys conclude that the majority afforests remain healthy (NAPAP, 1990 and 1991).

C. Materials

Acid deposition, in the form of sulfur dioxide gas, nitric acid vapor or acid rain, can increase the rate of deterioration of some constr11ction and culturally important materials (bronze, carbonate stone, galvanized steel and carbonate-based paints). For galvanized steel, 50% of zinc corrosion was due to natural rain, 30% was attributed to sulfur dioxide exposure and 20% to the increase in acidity over natural rain (NAP AP, 1990 and 1991 ).

Limestone and marble, the most widely used carbonate-stones are among the most sensitive to acidic deposition. Exposure tests indicate the Joss or recession of 15 to 30 micrometers per year for marble and 25 to 45 micrometers per year for limestone (NAPAP, 1990 and 1991).

D. Health Effects

Major precursors of acid deposition are sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) exist for these two pollutants and they are among the success stories for the Federal Clean Air Act and the Federal and State regulators. Few nonattainment areas exist for these two pollutants. No monitored nonattainment areas exist in Michigan. Since the NAAQS are health-based, there is

22

V.

minimal concern that these pollutants result in adverse health risk. Shon-term exposures r_

arc still being evaluated, Some questions also remain that indirect health effects may l result from acid deposition altering human exposures to toxic substances by increasing their availability in soils, drinking water, food or other media.

For ozone, a secondary pollutant formed from voltile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen, we have a major failure of earlier versions of the Federal and State regulation, Ninety-eight urban areas of the United States arc designated as nonattainment Two of

• these areas arc in Michigan. One, the Detroit-Ann Arbor area includes seven counties: Wayne, Oakland, Macomb, Washtenaw, Monroe, Livingston and St Clair. The second area is in West Michigan, and includes Kent, Ottawa and Muskegon counties. All ten counties are designated as moderate nonattaianment for ozone, meaning that their design excecdance value is between 138 ppb and 160 ppb, with the acceptable standard set at 120 ppb. Health effects are associted with ozone, even at the standard. Ozone is a respiratory tract irritant that reacts rapidly with the tissues and fluids lining the airways of the lungs. Exposure 10 ozone, at levels as low as 120 to 160 ppb, while performing heavy exercise, can produce acute, reversible decrements in lung function and in=ased respiratory symptoms such as cough and shortness of breath.

More details specific to ozone are addressed in the white paper on Photochemical Smog in Michigan.

Michigan's Sulfur in Fuel Regulations

In addressing earlier nonattainment problems concerning sulfur dioxide, Michigan indirectly took an initiative in dealing with acid deposition. Michigan's air regulatory program is based on the Michigan Air Pollution Act, Act 348, as amended and Administrative Rules for Air Pollution control, as amended. As pan of this package, a significant effort was made 10 limit the sulfur content of fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, burned in power generating facilities. Ruic 336.1401 became effective on April 26, 1972 and required that large coal burning facilities utilize coal having a maximum sulfur content of 1 % by July 1, 1978. While extensions were granted, all major power generating facilities in the state arc now implementing this rule.

Michigan's initiative and implementation of a 1 % sulfur in fuel limitation is in sharp contrast to the neighboring industrial states: Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and PeMsylvania. These states are also major coal producers, with massive reserves of coal with sulfur content in excess of 2%. Michiggan currently has no viable coal mining industry. Table 3 provides a comparison of the annual state-wide emissions of sulfur dioxide for these states in 1984.

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VI. Control Technologies

The earliest control technology for air pollutants, including acid deposition precursors was the use of tall stacks. This methodology did not actually control or reduce the amount of pollutants coming from a source. Rather, the thinking was that if the emissions were put high enough into the atmosphere, the natural diluting capability of the atmosphere would result in minimal concentrations of pollutants eventually reaching the ground. Inherent in this logic was that the pollutants were assumed to be inert and would not react to produce secondary pollutants, such as acid.deposition. This was the "dilution is the solution to pollution" approach. It resulted in numerous power plant stacks in the 300 to over 1000 foot height range.

The second generation of control was to switch fuels. For a coal burning plant, this would entail designing a new unit or retrofitting an existing unit to bum coal with a lower sulfur contenL This concept required serious design and maintenance considerations for the boilers in question, in order to avoid equipment damage. It also generated regional hostility by causing shifts in existing coal markets.

The next step was to either remove sulfur emissions from the exhaust gas prior to releasing it to the atmosphere or find a way to clean the coal before the .combustion process.

In order to preserve regional coal markets and utilize an abundant energy resource, the concept of Clean Coal Technology ( CCT) arose. Its intent is to have industry and government work to produce innovative and energy efficient projects that will develop advanced coal-based technologies to address issues including acid deposition, global climate change energy efficiency, eenergy security, improved export opportunities nd environmental quality (USDOE, 1991).

CCT is intended to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and other pollutants at three major points along the path that coal normally follows from the mine to combustion:

1. Pre-combustion Stage-Physically, chemically or biologically cleaning coal before it is combusted.

2. Combustion Stage-Modifying the combustion process, such as staging the combustion or fluidizing and/or pressurizing the coal and ash in the combustion zone, or in jeering other fuels and/or additives into the combustion zone for the purpose of capturing or breaking down pollutants.

3. Post-combustion Stage-Removing pollutants from the flue gases after they exit the boiler, such as employing cleanup devices beyond both combustion and heat transfer parts of the power generating process.

A fourth alternative also exists, coal conversion. This would entail converting coal into a gas or liquid that can be cleaned and then used as fueL

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VII. The Federal Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 And Acid Rain

Prior to November 1990, the control of air pollution, both at the federal and state levels, focused on local control of local problems. The costs associated with these local controls were justified by the improvement of local environmental quality.

This Idgic breaks down for issues such as acid deposition. In this case, controls would be intended to protect large, interstate regions. SoUICes of acid deposition precursors are not distributed uniformly. Receptor regions are not necessarily in the same state as the sources. Costs would not necessarily be distributed uniformly. The maximum benefits would not necessarily be received by those states bearing the maximum cost

In November 1990, Congress passed and President Bush signed into law, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. This piece of legislation was designed to curb three major threats to the nation's environment and human health: acid deposition, urban air pollution and toxic air contaminants.

In addressing acid deposition, the Act mandates reductions in the amounts of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted annually in the United States. . The Act set as its primazy goal, the reduction of annual sulfur dioxide emissions by ten million tons below 1980 levels. To achieve these reductions, the law requires a two-phase approach to restrictions on fossil fuel power plants.

Phase I begins in 1995 and affects 110 electric utility plants, most of which are fired by coal,

(

located in 21 eastern and midwestem states. Only two of these units are located in Michigan, ~ and these units had variances to Michigan's sulfur in fuel limitation rules.

Phase II begins in the year 2000. All existing generating units with a capacity of 25 megawatts or greater, and all new units, will be affected. This phase requires even tighter annual emissions limits and sets restrictions on stnaller, cleaner plants fired by coal, oil and gas. This phase will cover most of the fossil fuel electric utility boilers in Michigan.

The Act also calls for a two million ton reduction in the nation's annual oxides of nitrogen emissions by the year 2000. A significant portion of this reduction will be achieved by utility boilers, which will be required to install low NOx burner technologies and meet new emission requirements.

Other portions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 deal with additional sources of acid deposition precursors. Title I of the Act includes sections which address ozone nonanainment. Control measures mandated or proposed address ozone precursors, volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen from a variety of stationary SOUICCS not covered in the acid deposition portion of the Act. Similarly, Title II addresses mobile soUICes of ozone precursors.

25

Vll. Summary

Michigan is both a source of acid deposition precursors and a receptor of acid deposition. As a source, it is significantly ahead of its neighboring industrial states in reducing its emissions, as a result of rules passed 20 yers ago, reducing the allowable sulfur in fuel_ content for electric generating facilities. This forethought was recognized by congress in drafting the Oean Air Act Amendments of 1990.

As a ~eptor, Michigan, along with the rest of the eastern one-third of the nation, is subject to rainfall that has an annual average precipitation that is regarded as acidic, that is having a pH less than 5.0. This may be impacting the pH of surface waters, particularly in the Upper Peninsula. There may be additional effects on agricultural crops, forests, and materials that may be attributed to acid deposition. The sources of the precursors of acid deposition received in Michigan are predominantly located in states to the south and west

Actions to control acid deposition precursors are mandated by the Oean Air Act Amendments of 1990. These actions are intended to address the issues Michigan faces as a source and a receptor. Michigan's initiatives should focus on the implementation of the Oean Air Act Amendments by this state, as well as an awareness of the status of implementation by the other industrial states in the region.

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TABLE 1

MICHIGAN 1990 WEEKLY PRECIPITATION SAMPLES

Field pH Measurements

Volume-Weighted

Site Readings High pH Low pH Average pH

Benton Harbor (BH) 24 5.90 3.78 4.70

Mount Clemens (MC) 33 5.52 3.88 4.50

Port Austin (PA) 25 6.58 3.98 4.46

Bay City (BC) 24 4.93 3.69 4.27

Beaver Island <Bn 30 6.06 4.01 5.01

Ontonagon (ON) 28 5.46 4.42 4.90

27

..

r

,.-...

TABLE 2

MICHIGAN STATE-WIDE STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSION TRENDS*

(tons/year)

Year Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Dioxide voes

1974 • 1,562,715 437,571 260,487

1975 1,319,654 353,299 213,402

1976 1,189,189 332,206 251,124

1977 1,175,069 341,745 252,694

1978 1,077,301 350,914 257,272

1979 1,111,546 368,866 367,655

1980 768,150 340,965 214,708

•• 1981 811,569 338,393 175,436 ~ ...

1982 713,918 308,852 151,641

1983 718,121 315,223 145,885

1984 739,777 320,128 149,902

1985 532,274 329,575 144,847

1986 591,122 353,393 135,486

1987 632,103 391,745 126,230

1988 566,811 353,531 107,082

1989 574,740 382,518 108,904

* Does not include transponation, residential, and commercial sourt:es.

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TABLE3

ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN 1984

Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

State (Millions of Tons)

Ohio 2.58

Indiana 1.67

Pennsylvania 1.60

Illinois 1.38

Michigan 0.74 ~

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References

Angus, Roben. (1982) Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical Climatology

NAPAP. (1987) Interim Assessment, The Causes and Effects of Acid Deposition.

NAPAP. (1989) 1985 Emission Inventory (Version 2): Development of Annual Data and .Modelers Tapers.

NAPAP. (1990) 1989 Annual Repon to the President and Congress.

NAPAP. (1991) Integrated Assessment Repon.

U.S. Department of Energy. (1991) Comprehensive Repon to Congress: Proposals Received in Response to the Clean Coal Technology IV Program Opportunity Notice.

30

ALTERATION OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY, INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES

1. Statement of the Issue

The quantity of Michigan's surface and groundwater resources is abundant and the systems arc very closely linked with each other. Chemical stresses (e.g. contaminant release and transport, transformations, etc.) and physical stresses (e.g. sedimentation, coastal erosion, etc.) active within these hydrologic systems have had to continue to excn impacts on human and natural ecosystems. Regulatory programs predicated on either maximum effluent concentration levels or frequencies of exceedences of concentration thresholds do not provide the basis for assessments of trends in net contaminant loadings or actual emissions. For these purposes, it is necessary to analyze discrete (i.e. point-wise) or averaged water and effluent quality data together with water discharge, net storage and recharge data. The available water quality or quantity databases and their collection systems arc barely adequate to suppon the most simple evaluations of trends in net chemical loadings for limited watersheds over time-frames of years to decades. Basin and region-wide resource evaluations for major river systems or the Great Lakes ecosystem can now be approached only by very superficial coarse-scale models which may not be applied in predictive modes. As regards physical stresses on human and natural ecosystems, some attention has been focussed on the loss of coastal shoreline and wetlands, sedimentation and bank erosion in streams, runoff and flood control However, the linkages between physical processes, chemical reactions in transpon and the long-term consequences of exposures on aquatic ecosystem and water resource quality have not been addressed in a systematic fashion. We have only recently A come to appreciate the dynamics of surface-water level controls, groundwater resource management, availability, and suitability on aquatic ecosystems. Improved understanding of contaminant loadings and mass-balances over time must be forthcoming if environmental protection goals arc to be achieved.

Given the fact that Michigan's boundaries account for more than 40% of the Great Lakes, and nearly half of all Great Lakes shorelines, the state has been challenged to maintain a leadership position in the protection and development of the Great Lakes ecosystem. The extent to which existing land and water contamination sources have been identified provides a perspective on the magnitude of the challenge to the state. However, it is clear that substantially more in-depth analysis and regulatory attention need to be focused on the direction of Michigan's leadership role in water resource management, remediation and protection.

31

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2. Description of the Source of the Problem

Hydrologic Overview

Michigan is situated in the nonhem temperate zone but enjoys a semi-marine climate due to it pro~ty to the world's largest bodies of freshwater and its other extensive water resources. With fairly abundant precipitation (e.g. annual averages in the 28-36 inch range; 71-92 cm/yr) and varied topography, the state includes numerous types of land and aquatic ecosystems which depend on water availability and quality for their survival. The Great Lakes coastline of the state is greater than 3,200 miles including portions of lakes Michigan, Superior, Huron and Erie. More than 36,000 miles of streams and rivers drain the watersheds of the state. Inland lakes number. in excess of 11,000 with a combined surface area over 1,000 mi2. Subsurface glacial and bedrock hydrogeologic systems provide groundwater to support manifold uses as well as vital hydraulic connections (i.e. baseflow) to the surface water resources of the state. The dynamics and movement of water within and among surface and groundwater reservoirs demands on understanding natural and anthropogenic influences on water quality and quantity. The hydraulic continuity expressed in the state's water resources underscores the need for a unified approach to managing water quality, quantity and the ecosystems which depend on water. There have been a number of excellent reviews of the hydrologic and climatic regimes of the state which are referenced at the end of this section.

Water Use

The major uses of water in the state are: thermoelectric power generation (75% ), self supplied industry (12%), public supply (11 %), and irrigation water (=2%) (Great Lakes and Water Resources Planning Commission, 1987). Approximately 90% of the total water use is drawn on the Great Lakes and connecting waterways. Groundwater resoun:es provide the drinking water supply serving >40% of state's population and nearly all of water used for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation usage, though only =2% of the total, is a concern since the practice has grown significantly in the past three decades. Nearly 95% of this water is lost from the system by evaporation, transpiration and crop incorporation. In order to meet more stringent quality regulations for public drinking water supply (e.g. lead (Pb) and trihalomethane concentration levels in finished water) metropolitan areas have moved to increase withdrawals from the Great Lakes and reduce their dependence on river withdrawals.

Water Quality and Quantity

Amidst the diversity of uses and abundance of water in Michigan there are serious challenges to these resources which must be faced if the improvements in water quality achieved by point­source regulations instituted in the 1970's are to be sustained. Recent surface water quality summaries point out the generally good condition of Michigan's lakes and streams. Persistent problems include urban and agricultural runoff, combined sewer overflows, non-point sources of contamination (i.e. in-place sediments, contaminated groundwater/discharges to surface water, etc.) and aquatic habitat deterioration/losses. Of the more than 40 "~ of Concern" identified

32

by the Great Lakes' International Joint Commission, 14 are within the jurisdiction of the state. r Many of these involve major river tributary systems, embayments and connecting channels \ between the Great Lakes. Groundwater contamination situations number in the thousands involving a variety of man-made and natural chemical constituents released from domestic, agricultural, and commercial sources. There exists clear evidence that human activities on land have exened chemical stresses on both surface and groundwater quality in the state and the region.' In most cases, the water quality problems noted above will not yield to effluent quality restrictions or similar point-source control solutions implemented in the pasL The reason for this is that water quality and quantity cannot be regulated unilaterally. Considerations of water quantity below underscore the need for comprehensive management of water resources.

The distribution, dynamics of movement, and extent of surface and groundwater resources must be understood in order to ameliorate the effects of existing or future chemical streSses. The quantity of water available for human use or habitat support is the fundamental consideration for wise water managemenL In the past, we have sought to control water quantity by regulating: water levels in the Great Lakes primarily for navigational pwposes, river and stream flows for power generation and flood control needs, and development or utilization of wetland areas (including flood-plains and bottomlands) for the protection of aquatic habitat and flood control goals. Hydrologic control measures have undoubtedly had beneficial effects. However, the long­term effectiveness of these hydrologic alterations has rarely been considered in a comprehensive fashion.

Table l contains a listing of principal hydrologic compartments, natural processes and anthropogenic alterations which influence both the water quality and quantity of Michigan's water Jl!!!t,< resources. Common natural processes within and among these compartments are precipitation, flow, erosion, sediment movement, evaporation and transpiration. Since precipitation varies in space and time, level and flow controls have been instituted both to regulate stream flow, lake levels and withdrawals as well as to moderate fluctuations in water availability panicularly during periods of flood or droughL The effectiveness of these controls need to be considered within the time-frames and magnitudes of action and those of natural processes over which we have little control.

The time-frames of action corresponding to both natural processes and anthropogenic alterations in hydrology are shown in Table 2 (Lennan, 1978; Quinn, 1985). For surface waters, the natural processes bearing on the quantity of water are active primarily in the immediate (i.e. hours to days) to shon term (i.e. weeks to years) time-frames while alterations have their effects at slightly longer periods. Water quantity in inland hydrologic compartments, including wetlands, swamps and groundwater systems is recharged over seasonal to annual time-frames while flow and discharge processes, which could possibly be controlled, generally occur over much longer periods. Apan from the immediate consequences or benefits of emplacing level or flow controls it is clear that many anthropogenic activities would be expected to have effects over much longer time frames. Some examples at this point illustrate the shift in phasing between natural and anthropogenic hydrologic influences which will determine the magnitude and seriousness of risk involved in water resource management Strategics.

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TABLE 1. HYDROLOGIC COMPARTMENTS, HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES AND AL TERA TIO NS

Compartment Hvdrologic Processes and Alterations

Surface Waters

Great Lakes

Rivers, Sueams

Inland Lakes, Ponds Impoundments

Wetlands, Swamps

Groundwater

Evaporation Precipitation Coastal Erosion Sedimentation Basinal Sedimentation CulTCllts, Waves, Overwm Stonn Surges Crusral Rebound Groundwater Recharge

High/LOW Flows Sediment Transpon Runoff, Sedimeniation Evaporation Precipitation

Sucam Io-Flow/ Outflow Recharge/Discharge Sedimentation Evaporation Precipitation Ovenurn

Sucam Io-Flow/ OutDow Evaporation Prccipitatioo Sedimentation Groundwaier Recharge/ Discharge

Flow Pen:olalion. lofdtration Recharge/Discharge Upwelling

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Anthrooogenic

Withdrawals Level/Flow ConD'Ols Coastal Strua= Transfers Diversions

Level/Flow ConD'Ols Wilhdrawals Channelization Armoring/Bank Stabilization

Wilhdrawals Level/Flow ConD'Dls

Drainage Level ConD'Ols Filling

Wilhdrawals Drilling/Borings Mulliaquifer Completions Brine or Wasre lojection

TABLE 2. HYDRAULIC COMPARTMENTS AND TIME-FRAMES OF DYNAMIC PROCESSES

COMPARTMENT TIME-FRAME+

Surface Waters Immediate ShQll Term Intermediate Tu!lD Lon11: T!;rm (Hrs. to Days) (Seasonal- (Years to Decades) (Decades to

Weeks to Years) Centuries)

-Great Lakes Precipitation 2·

Waves 2· Offshore Currents 2·

Storm Surges 2· Level/Flow Controls"-~2·

2· Level Trends 2· Crustal Rebound

Precipitation 2·

Rivers, Streams Flood Flows 2· Low Flows 2· Ground Water

Discharge 2· 2· Withdrawals

Level/Flow Controls - 2· = Precipitation 2·

Inland Lakes, Ponds Stream Flow 2· Impoundments Recharge

Ground Water 2•

Discharge 2" Level· Controls 2"

Wetlands, Swamps Precipitation 2· Level Controls 2·

· Stream Flow 2" Ground Water

Discharge 2· 2· Sedimentation 3•

Ground Waters

Shallow (N< 150m) Flow 2· Recharge 2· Discharge 2· Withdrawals 2"

Deep (N > 150m) Flow 2· 2· Recharge 2· Discharge

Unwcllin- 2·

+ (Primary time-frame of action denoted by positions of individual processes; 2• denotes secondary time-frames) • Level Controls - dams, flow structures, locks, drainage structures, dredging

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..

'

•

Great Lakes Levels. During the mid nineteen-eighties, annual average lake levels were recorded at values well above (i.e. 2 to 4 feet; 0.6 to 1.2 m) the 1900-1990 mean levels. This may be attributed to generally increased precipitation since 1940 (i.e. after 1934-1936 lake level lows) coupled with a generally lower temperarure regime since 1960. The middle-lakes, (i.e. Michigan, Huron, St. Clair and Erie) experienced the brunt of high water consequences during the mid eighties since their levels and outflows are determined by outflows from Lake Superior and river discharges to them. The coastal zones of the lakes experience severe erosion, flooding, habitat and structure damage during high water level periods compounded by wind and wave driven storm -surges. This was the case in 1986 as it had been in the other recent record high years, 1952 and 1973. Michigan with the largest number of shoreline miles of states in the region most often suffers the greatest damage and costs incurred for shoreline protection measures. The outcry for government action is most evident during annual high water periods, yet an examination of the time-frames and magnitudes of hydrologic influences on lake levels and peak effects suggests that little can be done to directly manage level-related damages over shon time periods. Table 3 contains estimates for these parameters for the Lake Michigan and Huron systems which may be considered a single system hydraulically.

TABLE 3 MAGNITUDES OF LAKE LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS AND HYDRAULIC PROCESSES/ALTERATIONS­

LAKES MICHIGAN AND HURON

Lake Levels Fluctuations (meters) ±3

±2

±1

±0.5

±3 ±0.11 to 0.05

Influences

Paleoclimatic Effects Regional Precipitation Temperature ff "

ff "

Wind/Storm Surges Diversions; Dredging and Large-Scale Navigation/Control Projects

Time Frames

Centuries to Millennia

Centuries to Decades

Decades to Annual

Seasonal

Seasonal to Hourly Y cars 10 Decades

Clearly, the major influences on lake levels are out of anthropogenic control since climate change and weather panems suggest that, if anything, the levels were much higher (i.e. 5 to 6 m) 5,000 years ago than they have been in the last 120 years. It follows that though we may seek to mitigate the effects of a seeming episodic overabundance of water in the Great Lakes, that net system losses of shoreline propeny and coastal structures may be inevitable. There exists a body of evidence which suggests that the diversity and vitality of coastal wetlands and marshes may

36

in fact depend on water level fluctuations. In this sense, control of water ie-,cJs may have r deleterious environmental effects. \ .•

Rivers and Streams. Dams, weirs, retention basins and surface runoff control measures have been used since the mid lSOO's to moderate peak flows, provide water storage capacity, and the introduction of sediments and associated contaminants into surface waters. The benefits of these measures have been substantial. Y ct the effective operation of controls as part of Michigan's water management strategy involves real risk to public safety and natural n:sources. Many of Michigan's dams are either in poor condition or no longer serve their original purposes. Apart from the risks of sudden dam failures and flooding, the impoundments which dams create have become n:positories for sediments which rivers and StrcamS transpon. Many of the now-regulated point source discharges to rivers and streams have been successfully regulated, but the legacy of past discharges and continued non-point soUICe inputs of contaminants remain. Channelization and armoring of river and stream courses in developing areas can further aggravate bank erosion in downstream reaches leading to property losses and habitat loss or degradation.

Groundwater. Perhaps one of the most troublesome and ill-recognized problems in water resources management results from the "mining" of groundwater by consumptive uses (i.e. irrigation, etc.) which may have consequences far beyond immediate concerns of sustaining agricultural production or base-flow (groundwater discharge) in-Stream flow requirements. Incomplete understanding of shallow groundwater flow systems and their influence on the surface waters which are dependent on groundwater discharge can result in drastic reductions in flow, water availability for direct withdrawal and habitat loss during drought periods. Selection of ~ long-term flow management options for a variety of uses depends on corresponding long-teI1Il information bases and analyses of surface water/groundwater hydraulic interactions. Further, both the quality and quantity of current water supplies will depend on the management option selected. In most cases, detailed data are not available to evaluate the impacts of competing water quantity strategies on the net contaminant loadings in various hydrologic compartments.

Anthropogenic alterations to natural water systems have had serious long-term quality and quantity consequences which may well end up costing far more to deal with than the perceived benefits which they were expected to provide. How we deal with combined chemical and physical stresses on water bodies and attendant aquatic ecosystems will largely determine the future of the water and land resources of the state and the region. In this sense, alterations of natural hydrologic systems have a direct bearing on the residual risks represented by 15 of the 24 environmental issues considered in the RRAP project.

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3. THE IMPACTS, MAGNITUDES AND POTENTIAL RISKS OF HYDROLOGIC ALTERATIONS

The preceding sections have described the extent of the states' water resources, water uses and the nature and time-frames over which various hydrologic alterations may be active. Many publications and datasets point out the critical hydraulic interactions between groundwater and surface water systems. This knowledge argues for a holistic approach to the management and use of-Michigan's Water Resources. Since Michigan lies almost entirely within the Great Lakes Basin it should be evident that international, regional and stare water management efforts must work in common directions. Otherwise, guaranteed high-quality water supply available for a variety of uses and the viability of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems can not be guaranteed.

Fundamental Considerations Underlying Risk-Reduction Strategies

It should be recognized that no single entity exists with jurisdiction over all aspects of water quantity and quality in the Great Lakes Basin. The operations of major water diversions (i.e. Long Lac, Ogoki and Chicago) which directly affect water levels in Lakes Michigan and Huron are not entirely within the jurisdiction of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 and the International Joint Commission. Indeed, even if the Chicago diversion could be engineered and expanded in the future, with the risk of downstream flooding in the Illinois River Basin, the long­term lowering effect on Lakes Michigan and Huron water levels would be less than 1.0 fL (Quinn, 1985). This is less than the average seasonal range of variation though, to some extent, increased diversion may mitigate shoreline damage, flooding and coastal habitat loss. It is acknowledged that diversions and transfers affect only outflows. Oimatic influences and water quantity management eff0rts in the states and provinces affect water inflows. It should be noted that Phase II of the UC's Water Level Study will be issuing a report soon on the options which exist for Great Lakes diversions and transfers. The results should speak directly to these issues.

Similarly, Michigan and other Great Lake's Basin governments have resolved to worlc towards toxic substances controls and cleaner Great Lakes' ecosystems through the Great Lake's Water Quality and Toxic Substance Control Agreements. Both agreements have among their goals virtually zero discharge and elimination of persistent toxic 5.11bstanccs from the Great Lakes.

Major improvements in water resource quality has been achieved in the last two decades due to point-source discharge controls. There remain serious challenges to meeting these goals in the next century even if point-sources and recognized non-point sources of contamination can be further reduced by a factor of ten. In-place contaminants, the discharge of treated sewage and storm water and non-point discharges of contaminated groundwaters to surface streamS should be expected to deliver significant quantities of persistent chemical constituents to the surface waters of the state. In many cases, reasoned water use, management and hydrologic alterations may reduce the net contaminant discharge to acceptable levels.

38

The overall risks involved in attempting to manipulate or control the consequences of narural processes include little improvement or even aggravation of existing situations. The result would be to increase the likelihood of human or ecosystems exposures to chemical or physical stresses. Actions at the well-head, stream bank, dam or effluent discharge pipe level, though within the limits of specific regulatory guidelines, may exert impacts on regional, long-term resoUICe quality and quantity conditions. The most serious residual risks in this sense are those which arise from hydrologic alterations begun or continued in the absence of adequate data and analysis to predict the long-term consequences on coupled hydrologic compartments.

Specific Risks, Impacts and Magnitudes

Water Resources in General Hydrologic alterations to the state's water resoUICes have been practiced since the early to mid-1800's with the development of agricultural lands by draining bonomlands, wetlands and swamps as well as by dam building activities. The practices became more commonplace and involved with the establishment of drainage districts, power and dam control structureS and corresponding authorities on the Great Lakes and connecting waterways.· State or local environmental control initiatives may be constrained even funher in the future by these complicated arrangements.

1) Water Budget As a basis for action, the state should develop an overall water budget which, even if based initially on incomplete data on water flow, use, loss or storage, etc., would provide a reasonable framework for evaluating potential risks involved in new or continuing hydrologic /!"t,, alterations. The preliminary budget would at least identify the most critical needs for supplementary and more detailed information towanis an accounting system which would be

· responsive to future state water planning efforts. The risk involved in not developing the water budget and the attendant focussed data collection effort would be continued decision-making in a relative vacuum as to the impact of competing water uses on future resoUICe availability and quality.

2) Water Conservation. A commitment to water conservation for all public and self-supplied users would have immediate economic and environmental benefits as well as reduce risks associated with the development of: new water supplies, increased power generation capacity, increased capacity for water or waste water treatment and increased demand for high quality water. Risk reductions would be achieved in the ecological, economic, human health, natural resource and social contexts. This is a positive action option without the major pitfalls associated with no-growth, no further development, environmental protection strategies. It would be a natural path to follow in the conteXt of the water budget development as realistic benchmarks for water management could be set based on current or predicted future conditions.

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Surface Water: Great Lakes

3) Coastline Erosion and Inundation Protection Measures. There can be no doubt that erosion and inundation of shoreline property, structures and habitats particularly during periods of fluctuating water levels cause substantial ecological, economic, social and natural resource losses. The historical losses of wetland areas have been carefully documented (Dahl, 1990). Also, areas with excessive coastal recession (i.e. > 1 ft/yr.) have been identified for over 300 miles of Michigan's coast However, there is little quantitative data available to document and predict the continuing rates and mechanisms of coastal wetland, shore and bluff erosion on which to base a measured risk management strategy. Continued efforts to fortify shoreline, stabilize beaches and protect coastal wetlands must be directed towards saving those resources, etc. which can be saved. To continue widespread protection and relocation measures in the absence of sound data and a ·1ong-term strategy entails the risk of loss of critical resources, etc. because financial resources arc limited and engineered protection measures are not fail-safe. It should be recognized that shoreline erosion is the consequence of narural processes which act over long periods of time, not only during high water, wave or stormy conditions but also due to slumping, runoff, freeze-thaw cycles, etc. This measured risk management strategy could be based initially on comprehensive historical and current land use data, accelerated mapping of the coastal margin and identification of the most valuable properties, resources, etc. which can be protected with proven engineering measures. It is essential that continued vigilance and enforcement activities should be placed on protection of unique natural resources (e.g. St John's Marsh-St Clair County, the mouths or embayments of wild and scenic rivers, i.e. Au Sable and Manistee, etc.), protected environmental areas and selected recreational resources.

Other Surface Waters

4) River Dams and Reservoir Management. This issue also addresses the residual risk of past hydraulic alterations to natural water systems. Many of Michigan's power, flood conaol or reservoir storage dams arc entering a critical period of safety recertification. infrastructure rehabilitation and perhaps reassessment of purpose. Reliable estimates of the magnitude of these needs or priorities for specific structures arc not widely available. Contingency planning for dredging or other maintenance operations may be complicated by the chemical composition of the reservoir sediment or the need to maintain flow or level conaol during such operations. This planning should be conducted with a clear view of in-stream flow needs and the need to minimize resuspension and release of in-place contaminants to downstream receptors, particularly the Great Lakes. The risk involved in dam operations, evaluations, rehabilitation or maintenance in the absence of comprehensive watershed protection planning, is that serious damage to downstream habitats or receiving waters could occur. Of course, the most serious risks would be greater under sudden dam failure conditions, but the impacts of large releases of contaminated sediments could be substantial. The result could be the expansion of current areas of concern under DC scrutiny.

40

5) River and Stream Channelization/Armoring. The growth of suburban areas and other developments often call for the channelization and armoring of streams. These hydrologic alterations may have serious implications for aquatic habitats due to the increase in peak flow velocities in straightened reaches with the consequence of downstream scour and to the aggravation of low flow conditions resultant from decreased groundwater discharge to the natural water course. Administration of the Michigan Drain Code needs to be carefully reviewed in this respect' because a large part of the state's surface and groundwaters arc affected by this statute. Decisions which seek to alter drainage have been made on the basis of water quantity concerns alone -with serious potential consequences on resource value. This issue crosscuts the discussions of inappropriate land use change, urbanization and habitat destruction where the risk in further hydrologic alteration would be felt

6) Wetland, Bottomland and Swamp Management This issue is critical to a comprehensive water resource management strategy. Quantitative data on continued wetland loss in the past century is lacking despite state regulation. It is quite clear that these hydrologic environments arc valuable aquatic habitats in addition to the roles they play in moderation of peak flows, contaminant sequestration, nutrient cycling and net sediment transpon control

In serving these roles certain wetlands may be expected to naturally fill in with sediments and their effectiveness as components in the hydrologic cycle may diminish. How the effects of natural processes, anthropogenic alterations and the long term resource value of wetlands can be balanced in a static water management strategy is very difficult to evaluate at this time. It is clear that the approach of cumulative impact analysis prior to further development or reduction in wetlands areas should be followed within any proposed strategy. The risk in acting to alter -· such habitats without thorough consideration of their competing functions is that irreplaceable high quality resources can be lost forever.

7) Wastewater and Stormwater Management (See appropriate "white" papers)

8) Irrigation Influences on Surface Water Resources (See also Water Supply Planning #10) Withdrawals of water from surface streams or from wells can exert severe influences on surface water flows. This issue is one which clearly illustrates the inter-related na.tUrc of some water resource problems. Since imgation is practiced during the growing season, water withdrawals may be highest during low-precipitation, low stream flow periods. In some instances, (e.g. Pine River and River Raisin) the result of coincident peak withdrawals and low-flows can seriously impact in-stream water quality needs. The long-term hydrologic effects, however, may not be immediately apparent, even during periods of drought

Groundwater

The hydraulic connections between groundwater and surface water systems arc critical considerations in the management of water resources. The time-frames and magnitudes of impacts due to hydrologic alterations to groundwater compartments arc often much longer and far more difficult to measure or mitigate than those on surface water systems. It should be

41

,•

evident therefore that the ri_sks associated with hydrologic alterations to groundwater can be of a prolonged and chronic nature with long-term effects on both the quantity and quality of surface waters and associated habitats. Risk assessments of quality or quantity impacts on groundwater resources suffer from a serious fundamental limitation. This is that water-quality deterioration and overpumping effects (i.e. mining) have occurred already in numerous zones of the subsurface resource. Most readily apparent are chemical or physical stresses to shallow groundwaters in populated areas. The locations, magnitudes, and seriousness of the impacts as well as the risks to future water uses have yet to be recognized. Shallow flow systems which communicate most actively with surface waters can be quite complex exhibiting significant temporal and spatial variability. This fact further complicates attempts to hydrologically control contaminant distributions. Existing subsurface contamination cannot be effectively remediated to background or zero-risk contaminant levels. Therefore, the most reasonable approach within a water resource management plan is to: minimize further contamination potential, identify and protect the quality and quantity of unstressed resources and minimize potential contaminant exposures to humans or sensitive ecosystems.

9) Recharge and Shallow Groundwater Management. The shallow groundwater resoUICC is most susceptible to anthropogenic hydrologic alterations and sttrface sources of contamination. Apart from direct releases to groundwater from pipelines, sewer-lines and leakage from corroded deep well casings, the supply of both water and contaminants to this compartment occurs via infiltration, percolation and aquifer recharge processes. The recharge areas of the most susceptible aquifers are often quite local to points of water use and discharge. Strictly, any release of poor quality recharge water could result in degradation of the resource which may ultimately cause impaired use via wells or surface water withdrawals. The technical basis for groundwater protection efforts should be advanced by incorporating physical and chemical data on shallow groundwater systems into the states water budget Critical water supply aquifers should receive increased protection from impaired recharge water quality and consumptive uses than usually afforded in well-head protection programs. The use and amounts of persistent toxic elements or compounds or materials which may be transformed in the environment to toxic substances should be restricted Water use in these critical aquifers should receive priority attention in comprehensive conservation and protection elements of the state's water management strategy. Remediation efforts for existing contamination problems should emphasize hydrologic control over further contaminant transport and containment of flow within impaired zones. Where possible, water created to meet background quality levels or drinking water standards should be used rather than discharged to surface water or sewage systems. Failure to act in a concened fashion at all government levels to protect both groundwater quantity and quality essentially commits the state to accept increasingly higher costs of domestic water supply and fundamental limits on future developmenL

10) Water Supply Planning. Amidst plenty, the state has focused the bulk of its water resource . protection and regulatory efforts on problem areas caused by contamination or points of

consumptive uses. Detailed inputs to the State's water budget (i.e. water withdrawals, use, storage, recharge, and discharge) can aid in water supply forecasting and in focusing further developmi!nt and remedial actions in the areas of greatest current or future need Impaired

42

groundwater resources (which in turn impair surface water quality and quantity) have resulted r· from past practices in areas of highest use and need. Remedial actions at known sites are unlikely to result in renewal of the resource in the next twenty-five to fifty years. The state should therefore lead the way in future water supply planning to coordinate county and local government efforts to meet long-term water supply demands in much the same way which it cum:ntly addresses sites of contamination. Reasonable constraints on land use, development or water use must be based on quantitative analyses of data on both background and impaired conditions. In this way, limited fiscal and human resources can be focussed where they will do the m~st good. Failure to act in this fashion consigns the protection of water supply in currently unstressed or low demand areas to diminished future value with obvious risks in cost, human and environmental exposures and resource loss.

Summary of Residual Risks due to Hydrologic Alterations (Parts 4 & 5)

Hydrologic alterations have been pan of the state's water history. The consequences of these attempts to capitalize on, or engineer relief from natural water occurrence, distribution and flow dynamics cross-cut a number of areas of environmental concern and residual risk. Overall, the state must come to grips with the likely magnitude and time frame of these risks seeking to manage them in a measured risk strategy. Critical components of this strategy are the current status of water resources in various hydrologic compartments, ongoing chemical and physical stresses on them and the time it will take for renewal of the resources if comprehensive water management efforts are not implemented.

A summary of the residual risks due to hydraulic alterations is provided in Table 4. In nearly all cases, the residual risks and impacts involve ongoing resource deterioration and damage unless cum:nt control programs are placed on a more technically sound comprehensive basis. In these particular cases, the renewal time to mitigate further impacts or risks is either very long or not feasible given current remediation technology. Rank ordering of the magnitude or severity of the risks and the most directly impaeted spheres of concern (i.e. economic, social, etc.) suggests that local and statewide natural resource, economic and ecological spheres are those of greatest risk due to hydrologic alterations. The exception here is the issue dealing with chemical and physical stresSes to shallow groundwater resources for which human health figures prominently in the type of impact.

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TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF IMPACT/RISK ISSUES DUE TO HYDROLOGIC ALTERATIONS

IMPACT/RISK ISSUE

Water Budget

Water Conservation

IMPACT HORIZON

10-100 years

10-100 years

Coastline Erosion Continued and Inundation Protection Measures*

River, Dams and < 1-50 years Reservoir Management

River and SII'Cam Channelization Armoring*

Continued

Wetland,Bonomland, Continued Swamp Management*

Recharge and Continued Shallow Ground-Water Management*

Water Supply 10-100 years Forecasting

IMPACT MAGNITUDE/ SEVERITY

Local - Medium State - Medium Regional - Medium

Local - High State - Medium Regional - Low

Local - High State - High Regional - Medium

Local - High State - High. Regional - Medium

Local - High State - High Regional - Low

Local - High State - High Regional - Low

Local -High State - High Regional - Low

Local - Medium State - Medium Regional - Low

TYPE OF IMPACT (descending rank)

Narural Resource Economic Social Human Health Ecological

Economic Narural Resource Social Human Health Ecological

Economic-Ecological Narural Resource Social Human Health

Ecological Narural Resource Social-Economic Human Health (Note I)

Narural Resource Ecological Economic Social Human Health

Ecological-Natural Resomce

Economic Social Human Health

Human Health Narural Resource Ecological Social

Economic Human Health Narural Resomce Social Ecological

= LJenotes ISsues w ~en mvo1ve ongomg resource aerenorauon or aamage u lIIISmanage and renewal is either very long term Le. > l 00 years or not feasible.

Note 1: Impact would be reversed in rank in the event of catastrophic dam failure.

44

References

A Summary of Water and Related Land Resources in Michigan, 1966, Michigan Department of Conservation, Water Resources Commission, 74 pp.

An Introduction to Michigan's Water Resources, 1987, Institute of Water Research, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 64 pp.

Bn:dehocft, J.D., S.S. Papadopulos, and H.H. Cooper Jr., 1982, "Groundwater: Toe Water Budget Myth". In Scientific Basis of Water-Resource Management, pp. 51-57. National Research Council, Geophysics Study Committee, National Academy Press, Washington D.C.

Canter, L W., R.C. Knox, 1985, Ground Water Pollution Control, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. 526 pp.

Dahl, T., 1990, Wetland Losses in the U.S.: 1780's to 1980's. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.

Gosselink, J.G., L.C. Lee, and T.A Muir (eds.), 1990, Ecological Processes and Cumulative Impacts: Bottomland Hardwood Wetland Ecosystems, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI 708 pp.

Great Lakes Basin Framework Study Appendix 2, Surface Water Hydrology, Great Lakes Basin Commission, Public Information Office, Great Lakes Basin Commission, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 133 pp.

Hydrogeologic Atlas of Michigan, 1981, Western Michigan University, Department of Geology, U.S. Environmental Proteetion Agency, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 100 pp.

Lerman, A. (ed.), 1978, Lakes: Chemistry, Geology and Physics, Springer-Verlag, New York, New York.

Quinn, F .H., 1985, Presentation on Great Lakes Levels, International Joint Commission Briefing to Great Lakes Basin Congressional Representatives, Washington, D.C., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers - North Central Division, 7 /19/85.

Sommers, L.M (ed.), 1978, Atlas of Michigan, Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, Michigan, 242 pp.

Stead, D., F. Jinsheng, R. Brazee, and J.W. Bulkley, School of Na1111'al Resources, University of Michigan, 1987, Final Report to Great Lakes and Water Resources Planning Commission Contract DPO No. 87-GA8217, 75 pp.

45

Summary Repon, Technical Document and Appendices, 1987, Great Lakes and Water Resources Planning Commission, 151 pp.

Vanderleeden, F., F.L. Troise, and D.K. Todd, 1990, The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd Edition, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. 808 pp.

Wallace; R.B., M.D. Annable, and Y. Darama, 1987, Technical Report to Great Lakes and Natural Resources Planning Commission, 30 pp.

Wallace, R.B., and Stelzer, D., 1985, Water Management in Michigan, VoL 4,Michigan Water Resources Data: An Inventory of Existing Data and a Collection of!dentified Data Needs,Michigan State University, College of Engineering, E. Lansing, Michigan, 192 pp.

Water Resources of the Lower Lake Huron Drainage Basin, The, 1968, Water Resources Commission, Department of Conservation, State of Michigan, 189 pp.

Water Resources of the Lower Lake Michigan Drainage Basin, The, 1968, Water Resources Commission, Department of Conservation, State of Michigan, 172 pp.

Water Resources of the Northern Lake Michigan and Lake Huron Drainage Arca Lower Peninsula, The, 1968, Water Resources Commission, Department of Conservation, State of Michigan, 189 pp.

Water Resources of the Upper Peninsula Drainage Arca, The, 1968, Water Resources Commission, Department of Conservation, State of Michigan, 164 pp.

Water Resources of Southeastern Michigan, The, 1968, Water Resources Commission, Department of Conservation, State of Michigan, 162 pp.

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ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF AIR TOXICS

The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments identify 189 chemicals and classes of chemicals as air toxics, including both carcinogens and non-carcinogens. Little is known, however, about the concentrations of these substances in the ambient air and their impact on public health and on the environment. The Relative Risk Analysis Project recognizes this problem as one of 24 outstanding environmental issues in Michigan. The purpose of this paper is to review what is known about the presence of air toxics in Michigan.

1. General Background

There are thousands of commercial chemicals used in the United States. Hundreds of these substances are emitted into the atmosphere and may have the potential to adversely affect human health at certain concentrations. Some are known or suspected carcinogens. Identifying all potentially harmful substances and promulgating emission standards for them is beyond the present capabilities of existing air quality management programs. Consequently, air toxics need to be prioritized so that those posing the greatest threats to health can be regulated. Although "Criteria Pollutants" (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and lead) were so designated because they can have significant public-health impacts, the criteria pollutants are not included in air toxics because the criteria pollutants are already regulated elsewhere by the Clean Air Legislation. A distinguishing feature between air toxics and criteria ~-pollutants is that criteria pollutants arc considered national issues while air toxics on the other hand, are most often isolated issues, localized near the source of the emissions. For example, ozone is likely to be an issue in all large U.S. metropolitan areas, whereas. air toxics usually are of concern only in areas with specific typeS of sources.

There are three types of air toxic emissions: continuous, intermincnt, and accidental. A continuous source emits a air toxic continuously. Intenninent sources can be routine emissions associated with a batch process or a continuous process operated only occasionally. An accidental release is an inadvertent emission. A dramatic example of this type was the release of methyl isocyanate in Bhopal, which was responsible for over 2,000 deaths. As a result of this accident, the U.S. Congress created Title m. a free-standing statute included in the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986. Title m provides a mechanism by which the public can be informed of the existence, quantities, and releases of toxic substances, and requires the states to develop plans to respond to accidental releases of these substances. Further, it requires anyone releasing specific toxic chemicals above a certain threshold amount to annually submit a toxic chemical release fonn to EPA. At present, there are over 300 specific chemicals subject to Title ill regulation (Fisher ct al., 1988).

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The 1970 Clean Air Act required that EPA provide an ample margin of safety to protect against "Hazardous Air Pollutants" (HAPs) by establishing national emissions standards (NESHAPs) for certain sources. From 1970 to 1990, over 50 chemicals have been considered for designation as HAPs, but up to now, EPA's review process was completed for only 28 chemicals. Of the 28, NESHAPs were promulgated for only eight substances: beryllium, mercury, vinyl chloride, asbestos, benzene, radionuclides, inorganic arsenic, and coke-oven emissions. EPA decided not to list 10 of the substances and intended to list the other ten substances as HAPs (Cannon, 1986). However, in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, 189 substances are listed (Table 1) that EPA must regulate by imposing "maximum achievable control technology (MACT)" requirements. By November, 1992, EPA must publish a list of sources of these chemicals, and the schedule for promulgating MACT standards. Forty-one categories must have promulgated standards by November, 1992 and then 25 percent of the listed categories must be regulated by 1994, 50 · percent by 1997, and I 00 percent by 2000. In addition, eight years after the promulgation of a standard, EPA must evaluate the residual risk posed by that source category. If the risk is unacceptable, a new standard must be developed.

Because EPA was so slow in promulgating standards for HAPs prior to the 1990 Amendments, most states, including Michigan, developed and implemented their own air toxic contra! programs. In Michigan, the DNR has develop a list of over 250 air toxics. Such programs, as well as the pollutants they regulate, differ widely from state to state. Some states have emissions and/or ambient, health-based standards, while others have source-specific hardware requirements. The ambient standards for a given substance are usually selected as an arbitrary fraction of the occupational "Threshold Limit Values (11..V)" for that substance. The 1LVs are the workplace air standards developed as "guides" in the contra! of occupational-health hazards and represent conditions under which a worker can be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effects (ACGIH, 1989). .

2. Air Toxics in Michigan

Data on ambient concentrations of the air toxics are sparse, and most of the data that have been analyzed was collected in the Detrait Metrapolitan Area. Additional state-wide data, which have been collected but not subjected to any data analysis, can be found in MDNR (1991). As mentioned above, air toxics tend to be a localized problem; they tend to occur in the highest concentrations near their sources. Since the Detrait area has the gn:ateSt number of emission sources, the highest emission densities, and the gn:atest number of vehicles, Deo-oit should represent the worst case exposure scenario for Michigan.

Two preliminary air toxics studies have been completed in the Detroit area in 1990 by the International Joint Commission (DC, 1990) and by Engineering-Science, Inc. (ESI, 1990) for EPA Region V. 1n the UC study, limited ambient air quality measurements in Southeastern Michigan were examined to sec if the concentrations of any measured air toxics exceeded ambient levels that would be of concern from a public health point of view. The UC selected 125 chemicals where existing emission estimates and ambient air measurements had been made. They combined

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this infonnation with available evidence on presumed chemical carcinogenicity and reproductive or teratogenic effects. The authors felt that sufficient infonnation existed to rank 20 identified carcinogens by risk. Of the list of 20, 15 chemicals have been estimated to exist in sufficient concentrations to produce a theoretical cancer risk of greater than 1 Clll!cer for every million exposed people. These chemicals arc listed in Table 2. They identified the highest priority pollutants to be benzene, formaldehyde, and 1,3-butadienc. Of the remaining carcinogens, two, coke oven emissions and asbestos, are considered human carcinogens. The authors, however, refused to use these theoretical cancer risk estimates along with population distribution data to csti~te probable cancer incidence because they felt this would convey an erroneous sense of accuracy in the cancer risk estimates.

For the substances with probable reproductive and teratogenic effects, the carcinogenic risk was greater than the noncarcinogenic risk.

Comparing the levels of five major compounds (benzene, 1,3-butadicnc, 1,4-dichiorobenzene, chiorofonn, and 1,2-dichiorocthane) found in the Detroit area to those found in other urban areas outside of Michigan, the IJC concluded that the levels in Deiroit are similar but lower than the averages in 24 North American cities. They also concluded that there is insufficient information available to detennine whether there is excess morbidity or mortality due to exposure to air toxics in Southeast Michigan.

The EPA sponsored ESI study used a different approach to assess the issue. Emissions inventory estimates were developed for 57 substances with potential carcinogenic or other significant health risk. The 57 include the 15 carcinogens identified by the IJC (see Table 2) as well as coke oven ~ emissions and asbestos. In addition, the list included additional chemicals. While ESI admits that the study was not designed to cover all possible sources of the 57 substances, they claim they have included the largest coniributors to the overall emissions of the substances. However, given the large uncenainties of the inventory estimates, this may or may not be the case.

ESI prepared emission inventory estimates for 42 of the 57 substances in the Greater Detroit-Windsor area. No sources were identified for the other .15 substances. Toe estimated emissions were allocated to grids which ranged from 2.5 x 2.5 km in Detroit to 10 x 10 km in the surrounding suburbs. The Indusirial Source Complex-Long Tenn dispersion model (ISCLn was used to calculate average annual concenirations throughout the area. Toe background concentrations were assumed to be zero with two exceptions. Formaldehyde, which is generated by photochemical reactions, was assumed to have a background concentration of 2.23 ug/m3

(based on a few summer measurements in the Chicago area), and carbon tetrachloride, which is very stable in the atmosphere, was assumed to have a background concentration of 0.76 ug/m3

•

The model-derived concentrations were then converted into estimated excess cancer cases in each grid cell using theoretical carcinogenic risk factors similar to those used by the IJC and population data. The estimated excess cancer cases are the number of additional cancer cases predicted to occur if a person was exposed to the average calculated conceniration continuously 24 hours a day for 70 years. The results are shown in Table 3.

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The total estimated excess cancer cases amount to 373 cases over a 70-year period, or 5.33 per year. Of these, 81 percent are atoibuted to 4 substances: formaldehyde (36 percent), coke oven emissions (16 percent), 1,3 butadiene (15 percent), and carbon tetrachloride (14 percent). It should be noted, however, that these calculations are based on upper plausible limits to risk (upper 95 percent confidence limit). There is no scientific foundation for using upper plausible limits as predictors and there is no foundation for adding them. This will be discussed further in section 5.

3. Deposition of Air Toxics

Because of the stability of a number of gas-phase air toxics, they can be transponed in the annosphere for weeks or months before deposition on water or land. This persistence has made some of these compounds ubiquitous in Michigan's environment even though they may not be emined in Michigan. The substances of greatest concern are those that bioaccumulate in the food chain and thus, pose health risks to both wildlife and humans. Eleven of these substances have been identified to be of particular concern for the Great Lakes Basin and they an: listed in Table 4 (EPA, 1991a). The first 8 substances on the list are chlorinated hydrocarbons which include a number of pesticides as well as PCBs, dioxins, and furans. There are two metals, mercury and alkylated lead, on the list The last substance is benzo(a)pyiene (BaP).

Although there are a number of potential sources (point sources, runoff, contaminated sediments) of these chemicals into Michigan's watersheds, a major source appears to be atmospheric deposition. Once deposited, the substances will eventually settle into the sediments and enter the food chain via bonom feeding organisms. High concentrations of Hg found in fish in inland lakes and high concentrations of PCBs found in fish in the Great Lakes are the primary reasons fish consumption advisories are presently in effect Consumption of fish by wildlife has resulted in reproductive failures and deformities of predators such as herring gulls, connorants, and mink. Tumors in fish have been related to the presence of toxics, in particular, BaP (EPA, 1991a).

Data from sediments and fish tissue indicate that the concentrations of most of the toxics are decreasing. However, recent trends indicate that the concentrations of some of the toxics amy pc leveling off at concentrations above desired values. The greatest improvements occurred for those substances that were discharged directly into a water body from a point source or were in widespread use such as pesticides. As the discharges were eliminated or the substances banned from use, dramatic reductions occurred. The remaining residuals are thought to be largely due to atmospheric deposition.

One substance that has not exhibited a downward trend is mercury, and this problem is not unique to Michigan (Raloff, 1991). Besides having significant natural sources, it is emitted from coal burning and incineration. In addition, some exterior latex paint contains mercury which eventually volatilizes. Recently, mercury was banned in latex paint in an anempt to eliminate this source.

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4. Recovery Time

Substances are designated air toxics if they pose a risk through inhalation. From this perspective, the elimination of the emissions of the all of the substances in Table 2, would result in an almost immediate elimination of the risk posed through inhalation because, with two exceptions, the residence time of these substances in the atmosphere range from hours to days. The two exceptions are carbon tetrachloride and fonnaldehyde. The atmospheric residence time of carbon tetrachloride is about 50 years. Consequently, although concentrations in "hot spots" will decre:i,se immediately, it will take years before background atmospheric concentrations would decline appreciably if the emissions were eliminated. Formaldehyde has a shon atmospheric lifetime (on the order of hours), but most of the predicted formaldehyde is formed from photochemical reactions involving gaseous organic compounds. Consequently, to reduce formaldehyde, emissions of all organic compounds would need to be reduced. Since reductions of these compounds will be occurring for the purposes of reducing photochemical smog (03),

there should also be some reductions in formaldehyde concentrations.

Even though their residence time in the atmosphere is relatively shon, a number of substances, particularly the ones listed in Table 4, will pemst for decades in the environment. They pose risks to humans and wildlife because they bioaccumulate· through other environmental media. As a result, these substances deserve special attention.

S. Risk of Maintaining Air Toxics at Present Emission Levels

Both the UC and ESI studies seem to indicate that the cancer risks would be the primary concern of the air toxics issue in Michigan. The ESI study estimates that air toxics are responsible for 5 additional cancer cases a year in Southeast Michigan and adjacent pans of Ontario. However, several factors must be considered: 1) the excess cancer rates were calculated for a highly

. urbanized and industrial area and will be much lower in the rest of the state which is predominantly rural; 2) these studies are based on limited measurements or estimated emission inventories, 3) the excess cancer estimates were based on worst case risk assumptions. All of these procedures are known to suffer from potential biases and substantial errors.

Since all sources of air toxics were not included in the ESI study, the five additional cases could be underestimate. Underestimates could also occur if the stUdy failed to identify local "hot spots," (this is a possibility even with a 2.5 x 2.5 km grid size). The magnitude of this type of underestimate would be unknown, but these hot spots should be localized and few in number.

On the other hand, there are a number of reasons that leads to the conclusion that the estimated excess cancer cases may have been overestimated. First, the studies incorrectly assumed that a person remains outdoors exposed to the average annual concentrations 24 homs a day for 70 years. Numerous studies have shown that individuals spend the major ponion of their time (91-94 percent) indoors and only a small time in their own grid cell outdoors. Second, 36 percent of the predicted excess cancers were attributed to exposure to formaldehyde, most of

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~

which was produced through photochemical reactions. The calculations assumed a background concentration based on summertime measurements while during the other partS of the year, photochemical formation of formaldehyde will be unimportant and concentrations should be much lower. Furth=orc, more recent assessments of public health risk from formaldehyde indicate that the greatest exposure to formaldehyde is not from the outdoor air but from their own homes. In California, where ambient formaldehyde concentrations are much greater than in Detroit and it persists year round, the indoor exposure exceeded the outdoor exposure by almost 50 times (CARB, 1992).

However, the most important reason to suspect that the estimates are overestimates is the methodology used to determine cancer risk factors. Of the excess cancers attributable to air toxics, 25 percent are attributable to "known human carcinogens," and about 75 percent are attributable to "probable human carcinogens." For the "known human carcinogens," risk factors are based on occupational exposures where concentrations are ·orders of magnitude higher than ambient air concentrations. When the dose response relationships are extrapolated down to ambient levels, conservative factors are automatically introduced to decrease the likelihood of underestimating the risks. The majority of the "probable human carcinogens" have been identified because they produce cancer in large doses in laboratory animals, and there is no evidence that they cause cancer in humans. Discussions in the scientific community regarding mechanisms of cancer causation (genotoxic or epigenetic) recently recognized that some chemicals cause cancer only at high doses routinely used in the animal testing programs, while there was a safe threshold at levels comparable to ambient concentrations (Ames and Gold, 1990). These new aspects can seriously affect the credibility of the public health risk assessments based on animal data.

Because a 95 percent upper confidence level is selected for the animal response data, the final estimates are inherently conservative. Additional conservative aspects are frequently incorporated to extrapolate from high to low ambient levels and exaggerated safety factors (10 to 100) are

. sometimes added when extrapolating from animals to humans or when converting other entry routes to inhalation exposures. Consequently, the final cancer risks in these preliminary risk assessments (like the DC and ESI studies) could be overestimated by orders of magnitude.

The above discussions indicate that the estimated excess cancers due to air toxics are probably significantly overestimated, and present an exaggerated estimate of the real-world risk to public health. Even if the five excess cancer cases per year in the greater Detroit area were "in the ball park," they represent a very small number that would be in the noise level of cancer cases from all other sources. It would be, therefore, difficult expect that the specific contribution from exposure to ambient air toxics could be detected or differentiated from other carcinogenic risks given the overall probability of a cancer death from all causes is one in five among Michigan residents.

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As mentioned earlier, the substances listed in Table 4 require special attention because of the C observed effects on wildlife and the risk to human health through the consumption of contaminated fish. For these substances, the.risk of doing nothing means llllUDtaining the present concentrations (or slightly lower if anthropogenic sources have already been eliminated) in the ecosystem, which means that fish consumption advisories will remain in effect.

,

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"' ...

L t ./

Table 1. Substances listed as hazardous air pollutants in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.

Bubetance CAB number Aceta e y e 75070 Acelamide (60355) Acelonitrile (75058) Acetophenone (98862) 2-AcetylaminoOuorene (53963) Acrolein jl07028) Acrylaml e (79061) Acrylic acid (79107) Acrylonltrile (I071SI) Ally! chloride (107051) 4-Amlnobiphenyl (92671) Aniline (825S3) o-Anisldine (90040) Aobeatoe (IS322U) Bensene (71432) Bensldine (928751 Bensotrlchloride 98077} Bensyl chloride ( 1004d) Biphenyl 192524) Bis,2-ethy hexrljphthalate (117817) Bis chloromelhy Jether (542881) Bromoform (76252) 1,S-Butadlene (108900) Calcium cyanamlde ( 168827) Caproladam {105802) Caplan (ISS082) Cubaryl (8S252) Cubon dleullide 17&1&0} Cubon tetrachlor de (H2S&) Cubonyl sulfide (463581) Catechol (120809) Chloramben (US004} Chlordane (57749} Chlorine (778250&) Chloroacetlc acid (70118) 2-Chloroacetophenone (5b2T4) Chlorobenseno (108007} Chlorobensilate (5101511) Chloroform \67883) Chloromethy methyl ether (107S02)

Substance CAB number Chloroprene 126998 Cmolo/Cmy ic acid (IS1977S) o-Cmol (95487} m-Cmol ( l08394) p-Creool f 106H5) Cumene 98828 2,4-D, oa to an~ eaten (94757) DDE (3547044) Diasomethane ISS488SI Diben10Furan1 JS2649 1,2-Dibromo-S-chloropropane (96128) Dibutylphlhalate (84742) 1,4-Dichlorobensene(p) (106467) 3,3-Dichlorobensidene (91941) Dichloroethyl ether \111444) 113-Dichlorol'ropene 542756} Dichlorvo• 1112737) Diethanolamine (111422) N,N-Diethyl anihne (121697) Diethyl eulrate (84675) S,S-D1melhoxyben1ldine (119904) Dimethyl aminoasobensene (60117) S,S'-Dlmethyl ben1ldlne (ll99S7) Dimethyl cubamoyl chloride (79447) Dimethyl formamlde (88122) 1,1-Dlmethyl hydraslne (57147) Dimethyl phthalate (JS1113) Dlmethr.l oulrate 177781) 4,8-Dln,tro-o-creoo,1 and oallo (5S4521) 2,4-Dinilrophenol \51285} 2,4-Dinltrololuene (12U12) 1,4-Dloxane (123911) 1,2-Dlphenylhydrasine (122667) Eplchlorohydrln (106898) 1,2-Epoxybutane {106887) Ethyl acrylate ll40885l Ethyl ben1ene 100414 Ethyl cubamale (51798) Ethyl chloride (75003) Ethylene dibromlde (106934)

Subolance OAS number Ethylene ichloride l07062) Ethylene glycol (107211) Ethylene imine 1151564) Ethylene oxide 75218) Ethylene thiourea (96457) Ethylidene dichloride (75343) Formaldehyde (50000) lleptachlor (76448) llexachloroben10ne ( 1187 U) llexachlorobutadiene (87683) llexachlorocyclopentadiene (77474) llexachloroethane (67721) llexamethyl-1,8-diisocyanate (822060) llexamethylpho•phoroamide (680319) Hexane (110543) llydra1ine (302012) Hydrochloric acid (76470IO) Hydrogen Ouoride (7664393) Hydroquinone (12SS19) loophorone (78591) Lindane (all i•omero) (58899) Maleic anhydride (108316) Methanol \67561} Methoxych or (72435) Methyl bromide (74839) Methyl chloride (74873) Methyl chloroform (71556) Methyl ethyl ketone (789SS) Methyl hydra1ine (BOSH) Methyl iodide (74884) Methyl loobutyl ketone (108101) Methyl loocyanate (614839) Methyl methacrylate (8062e) Methyl tori butyl ether (1634044) 4,4-Methylene bis(2-chloroaniline) (101144) Methylene chloride (76092) Methylene diphenyl diioocyanate (101688) 4,4'-Methylenedianiline (101779) Naphthalene (91203) Nitroben1ene (98953)

'

" u, u,

Table l . Subetances listed M hazardous air pollutante in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. Con't

Substance OAS number 4-Nttro tp eny 92933 4-Nitrophenol (100027} 2-Nitropropane (79469) N-Nitrooo-N-metliylurea (684955) N-Nilrooodimethylamlne (62759) N-Nitrrioomorpholine (59892) Parathion (56S82) Penlachloronltrobenaene (82688) Penlachlorophenol (87885) Phenol 1108952) p-Pbeny enediamlne (11M150S) Phoogene (75445} Phoophine (7803512) Phoophorna (772Sl 40) Phthalic anhydride (85449) Polychlorinated bipbenyla (1S3636S) 1,S-Propane aaltone (1120714) bet ... Propiolactone (57578) Proplonaldehyde (123386) Propoxur (Banon} (1142611 Propylene dichloride (78875 Propylene oxide (75569) 1,2-Propylenlmlne (75558)

Subolance OAS number Quine in• 91225 Quinone (108514 Styrene (100425) Styrene oxide (98093) 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenao-p-dioxin (17 46016) 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane (79345) Telrachloroethylene 1127184) Titanium tetrachloride (7550450) Toluene (108883) 2,4-Toluene diamine (95807) 2,4-Toluene diioocyanate (584849) o-Toluldine (95534) Toxaphene (8001S52) 1,2,4-Trichlorobenaene (120821) 1,1,2-Trichloroethane (79005) Trichloroelhylene (79016) 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol !959541 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 88082 Trimethylamlne (121448) Trlfluralin (1582098) 2,2,4-Trlmethylpentane (540841) Vinyl acetate (108054) Vinyl bromide (59S602}

4

Subotance OAS number Vinyl chloride 75014 Vinylidene chloride (75S54) Xylene, (isomer, and mixture) (US0207) o-Xyleneo (95476) m-Xyleneo (108S8S) p-Xylen•• (106423) Antimony compound11 Arsenic compounds Beryllium eompoundo Cadmium compounda Chromium compounds Cobalt compound• Coke oven emission1 Cyanide compound, Glycol ethero Lead compound, Mangane11e compound11 Mercury compounds Fine mineral fibers Nickel compound■ Polycyclic organic matter Radionuclide■ (including radon) Selenium compound,

Ta.hie 2 - Fifteen chemica.l identified a.s ha.ving the highest potential due to inha.la.tion in Southeast Michlga.n (IJC, 1990).

priority a.re the first three.

CHEMICAL

benzene formaldehyde 113-butadiene

chromium 1,4-dichlorobenzene

nickel benzo(a)pyrene

cadmium chloroform

ca.rbon tetrachloride arsenic

trichloroethylene beryllium

1,2-dichloroetha.ne perchloroethylene

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carcinogenic The highest

Table 3: Summary of estimated excess cancer cases by pollutant a.cross the study area. over a 70 year period.

Substance Tota.I

Formaldehyde 134.7

Coke oven emissions 61.0

1,3 buta.diene 56.5

Carbon tetra.chloride 52.l

Chromium 13.5

POM 12.3

Dioxins 12.0

Arsenic 7.4

Beryllium 5.8

~bestos 5.7

Benzene 5.0

Gasoline Va.pars 3.0

Cadmium 1.4

Benzo(a.)pyrene 0.7

Ethylene dibromide 0.6

Vinyl chloride 0.4

Trichloroethylene 0.3

Perchloroethylene 0.2

PCBs 0.1

Styrene 0.1

All others .!!:1

TOT.AL 372.9

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#Jll,r,..

..

Table 4: Eleven pollutants identified by the Water Quality Board of the IJC

as being the most critical in the Great Lakes Basin

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) DDT and metabolites

Dieldrin Toxaphene

2,3,7,8 - TCDD (dioxin) 2,3,7 ,8 - TCDF (furan)

MiI1:x Hexachlorobcnzene

Men:uzy Alkylated lead

Benzo(a)pyrcne (BaP)

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References

ACGIH (1990) Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.

Ames: B.N. and Gold, LS. (1990) Too many rodent carcinogens: mitogenesis increases mutagenesis. Science 249, 970.

Cannon, J.A. (1986) The regulation of toxic air pollutants. J Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 36, 562-573.

CARB (1992) Proposed Identification of Formaldehyde as a Toxic Air Contaminant, State of California Air Resources Board, Sacremento, CA

Engineering Science, Inc. (1990) The Transboundary Air Toxics Study. Available from EPA Region V, Chicago, IL.

EPA (1991a) Lake Michigan Lakewide Management Plan - Stage l, Region V, Chicago, IL.

EPA (1991b) Great Lakes Basin Risk Characterization Study (draft), Great Lakes National Program Office.

MDNR (1991) Air Quality Repon 1990. Air Quality Division, Lansing, Ml

Fisher, P.W., Cwrie, R.M, and Churchill, R.J.(1988) SARA Title III, Section 313 - Looking Ahead. J Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 38, 1376-1379.

IJC (1990) Report to the International Joint Commission, Washington, DC.

Raloff, J. (1991) Mercurial risks from acid's reign. Science News, 139: 152-156.

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•

BIODIVERSITY/HABIT AT MODIFICATION

Michigan citizens and our descendent generations are losing the valuable natural resources of habitats and native biodiversity. Members of the Relative Risk Analysis-Project recognize this problem as one of 24 imponant environmental issues in Michigan. The purpose of this paper is to provide an up-to-date information base on this subject. The first two sections of this document define the problem and discuss its sources. The third section describes some imponant impacts.. Finally, the fourth and fifth sections discuss the duration and risks associated with the loss of natural habitats and native biodiversity in Michigan.

What Is the Problem?

Biodiversity can be defined as "the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they live" (OTA 1987). In this definition, "ecological complexes" refers to habitats and habitat is the place where an organism lives (Odum 1971). In nature many species share common habitat requirements, and hundreds of species can coexist in close proximity. This has given rise to a broader use of the term habitat to encompass a place where many species live. Thus, we speak, for example, of stream habitat, coniferous forest habitat, or prairie habitaL It is this broader concept of habitat that we consider in this discussion. Habitats are degraded when they can no longer suppon associations of plants and animals in a natural condition. Erosion of native biodiversity is manifested as species extinctions, restriction of geographic range, unusual population fluxes, reproductive failures, and depletion of genetic diversity. Lost are potentially valuable organisms and biological compounds for agriculture, silviculture, and medicine.

It is the complete dependence of organisms on appropriate environments that has convinced ecologists that habitat destruction and modification is the sure path to biological impoverishment (Ehrlich 1988). This is the case within Michigan where native biodiversity is being eroded through loss or degradation of habitats. These degraded habitats include a wide spectrum of· aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial systems. Changes in both biodiversity and natural habitats are caused primarily by activities associated with expanding human population size and dispersion and increasing natural resource demands (Norse 1990).

A consequential attribute of habitat degradation and erosion of biodiversity is long duration or permanence. Losses are extremely difficult if not impossible to regain. As Michigan citizens, we fail to estimate properly the full benefits of natural biological systems. We do not account for the actual costs of degrading these systems to present and future generations. Shon-term gain often is given more weight than long-term sustainability. Since all manner of human existence is dependent on environmental health, maintenance of natural habitats and native biodiversity are inexorably linked to human health and condition.

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Is Michigan the Source of the Problem?

The degradation of natural habitats and erosion of native biodiversity are caused by a multitude of human-related sources. The environmental issues identified by the Relative Risk Analysis Project, and all other human-caused perturbations, arc ultimately manifested as loss of natural habitats and native biodiversity. Sources of the problem emanate from both outside and inside Michigan. For example, global climate change and acid deposition result from national and global activities, yet their impacts are felt by Michigan's native biota. Deforestation in the new world .tropics results in changes in our native biodiversity, by a reduction of neotropical migrant birds that breed in Michigan.

Yet, most sources of the problem reside in Michigan. Habitat degradation, and associated losses in biodiversity, directly result from such diverse stresses as recreational activity, impoundment of rivers, agriculture, forest practices, wildfire suppression, wildlife and fisheries management, urban sprawl, wetland dredging and filling, and construction of highways and transmission corridors. Sometimes natural habitats are degraded by overpopulation of native species or introduction of non-native species (exotics).

What Are Some Impacts of the Problem?

In this section, several examples of habitat and biodiversity loss are described to characterize the large dimensions of the issue. The treatment is not exhaustive, but indicative of the variety of

(

impacts and causes of this problem. .~.

From a global perspective, it is difficult to estimate the number of species becoming extinct because we lack knowledge of the numbers originally present or how many exist today. The rate of extinction is proceeding far faster today than it did prior to 1800 (Wilson 1988). 2 Extinction is very rarely wimessed, but usually estimated indirectly from principles of biogeography. The current extinction episode approaches the most extreme in the past 65 million years and is distinct in one important way. In the past, most plant species survived even though animal diversity was severely reduced. Today plant diversity is declining sharply (Knoll 1984).

We cannot overemphasize the imponance of maintaining viable populations of organisms With each population Joss, unique genetic diversity is !oSL The ecological functions these discrete populations provide are also lost. Species extinction is not rcally a process distinct from loss of

2 The average badground rau of atin&tio11 before luunon inlervtnlion was approzimoltfy I species per ytJZT. This rau was «low the average rau of new speciOJion, ,..,,Jting in a net incrtast in species through mDSI of histDry. TM currtlll rau of atin,:lion may « Ont thousand or StVtral llrDwand species per,.,,,_ This resull in species dtplttion (Non• 1990 ). Eslinuuts of sptcits IDss raJts suggest that from ont qu.arter to Ont half of the earth's species will become Ulinct in the nut 30 years (Black 1989, Lovejoy 1980, Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981).

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-·

populations, but rather its endpoint along the same continuum. It is imponant to note that these concerns extend to all forms of plant and animal life, not just birds and mammals.

Aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial habitats are intricately intermeshed. Stresses on one habitat inevitably result in stresses on another. Impacts of single activities may be of local nature and apparently of small consequence. When taken collectively, however, the cumulative impact may result in large and irreversible loss of natural habitats or ecosystems and a concomitant loss in biodiversity.

As an example of aquatic habitat degradation, nonpoint-source inputs of sediments, nutrients, and hazardous chemicals cause great adverse impacts. The causes are primarily the result of soil erosion and runoff from agricultural and silvicultural practices and urban development. These inputs degrade the benthic habitat and negatively affect diversity of aquatic biota. Degradation of riparian habitat exacerbates effects of rurt off.

Wetlands are extremely important ecosystems within the biosphere. In Michigan, we have lost over half of our original wetlands to a variety of human causes. Unfonunately, no-net-loss policies for wetlands focus attention on total wetland acreage and divert attention from important issues of individual wetland size, configuration, location in the watershed, connections to other wetlands, and habitat heterogeneity. It is these attributes that often impart a large portion of the functions and values to a wetland. Furthermore, without careful site selection, the creation of wetland habitat from upland sites as a mitigation practice can degrade of valuable or unique uplands while creating marginally valuable wetlands. At the policy level, both CUII'Cnt and proposed federal guidelines for delineating wetlands Jack scientific rigor in their application.

Habitat modification of terrestrial systems is also a significant problem in Michigan. Our current landscape is comprised of mixed ownerships and suppons multiple uses that include wilderness, natural preserves, working (managed) forests, farmlands, urban and rural residential areas, and paved surfaces. As an example, the northern Michigan landscape is dominated by working forests in corporate, state, and federal ownership. These forests offer tremendous opportunity for creative, scientific, and coordinated landscape management for maintenance of natural habitats and native biodiversity. Despite this opportunity, much forest management occurs without a landscape perspective, resulting in degraded habitats, poor spatial positioning of habitat blocks, few corridors appropriate for movement of organisms, and inadequate buffer zones berween areas of intensive human activity and adjacent natural habitats. Riparian areas along streams and other corridors of natural vegetation form extremely important habitats and provide valuable ecosystem functions (Hudson 1991 ). These riparian areas must be considered in land managemenL

In Michigan, overpopulations of some native species contribute to the erosion of native biodiversity. These instances of overpopulation result directly from intentional game management and indirectly from forestry and agricultural practices. An obvious example is the overabundance of white-tailed deer. Currently, high deer populations threaten biodiversity of both plant and animal communities in Michigan. Over-browsing by deer harms native flora (including economically imponant tree species and rare plants) and the thousands of animals that depend

62

on this flora. Extraordinarily high deer populations also pose direct threats to human health (car­deer collisions and Lyme disease) and agricultural crops. In other landscapes, beavers, grackles, crows, and brown-headed cowbirds have deleterious effects on the overall biodiversity. Examples of native plants that have proliferated because of human activities and now threaten native biodiversity are quack grass and witch grass.

Introductions of exotic species of animals and plants also pose extreme threats to native biodiversity. These introductions can be intentional (as is the case with ring-necked pheasants and cJ:iinook salmon) or inadvertent (as with the zebra mussel, rusty crayfish, European starling, norway rat, purple loosestrife, buckthome, European hawkweeds, spotted knapweed. and Russian thistle). Ecological communities are associations of biotic species that have co-evolved and interact by way of predation, competition, mutualism, symbiosis, and obligatory physical associations. Some of these associations are so interdependent that entire groups of species have their fates inseparably bound. In addition to the direct ecological impact, management for exotic game and fish species frequently takes an inordinate proportion of effort and money available for natural resource managemenL

Fish stocking programs pose a great threat to genetic diversity of our native fish species. Brood stock for the State's fish plantings draw from a very limited gene pool relative to the natural genetic diversity existing in native populations. As these planted fish compete for food and space with native stocks, native genetic diversity is lost and can never be regained. Full ramifications of this phenomenon are being recognized with the salmon fishery in northwest North America. Another imponant, but overlooked, aspect of "exotic" introduction is the planting of "native"

(

hatchery-reared game fishes to lakes where the species do not naturally occur. This can easily r~ upset natural biotic balance.

Many of our land management activities have far-reaching effects on biodiversity. For example, within forest management, our current practice of wildfire suppression contributes to an erosion of native biodiversity in ecosystems that evolved in the presence of recurring fire. In the Upper Peninsula there are-remnant tracts of oak-savanna prairie, a globally imperilled ecosystem. This prairie will be lost through gradual attrition if nanu-al fire is not allowed or prescribed burning is not employed.

Within Michigan, state and federal resource agencies devote most management attention (and money) to organisms that are on the brink of extinction (threatened and endangered species) and to those organisms that we intend to directly harvest through activities such as fishing, hunting, lumbering, or agriculture. The vast majority of plants anti animals in between these extremes is managed by default as corollaries to game, fish, forest, and agriculture management. As a result of the limited anention that these "in between" organisms rcccivc, very linlc is known about their habitat requirements, distribution, and population levels.

Populations of rare species are generally given expensive, emergency management attention. Unfortunately, many endangered species recovery plans deal with captive breeding, stocking, and

63

handling of individual organisms. This very costly "last resort" management is avoidable by maintaining intact natural habitats in the landscape.

Potentially misleading terminology used by the resource agencies is an unfortunate aspect of the biodiversity management issue. A good example is the term "wildlife." To most resource managers and to most of the public, wildlife means, effectively, "game" animals. Redefining the term "wildlife" to include all species does not solve the problem. The historical meaning is simply too well entrenched. Our choice of terminology has fundamental importance to the way we thi)lk about and manage for our native biota. Language is not just informative, but formative-it influences our perspectives, opinions, and policies.

One important and poor! y understood aspect of habitat loss and erosion of native biodiversity relates to microorganisms. Microbiology is poorly known from the standpoint of species diversity and systematics, because of the difficulties in classification (Black et al 1989). Despite this limitation, we know that microbes constitute important links between trophic levels, between abiotic and biotic factors, and between biogeosphere and the level of gaseous atmospheric constituents. Microorganisms transfer nutrients between plant species, form a source for "greenhouse gases," cause plant and animal disease, provide important sources of medicinal antibiotics, and form critical links in nunient cycling. Despite these many roles, the precise taxonomy and community ecology of these microorganisms are unknown. Likewise, little is known about the effects of habitat degradation on this microscopic component of our biota.

What Is the Duration of the Problem?

Species diversity, the world's available gene pool, is one of our planet's most important and irreplaceable resources. Losses in native biodiversity are extremely difficult if not impossible to regain. Species extinction and losses of genetic variability are permanent. Some research indicates that habitats such as streams may rebound from perturbations once the stress has been removed. This resiliency is true in siruations where damage is not extensive.

As ecosystem degradation has spread. laws demanding mitigation of damage have resulted in attempts at restoration or creation of habitats. The infant field of restoration ecology provides the technology for this process. Restoring ecosystems to their original condition, however, is often difficult or impossible for the following reasons: detailed ecological information about the original condition is not available, techniques for recolonizing the damaged ecosystem with original species are not adequate, and a source of recolonizing organisms is unsatisfactOty for restoration to the original condition (Cairns 1988). In some cases, therefore, we accept alternative ecosystems that would be ecologically superior to the damaged condition, but often ecologically different from the original system (Cairns 1988). Unformnately, laws regarding the restoration of damaged ecosystems tend to be so prescriptive that they impede implementation of obvious solutions to relatively simple problems (Cairns 1986). Existing laws do not encourage the experimentation necessary to develop both the science and the an of ecological healing. The

64

best solution is to stem the rapid changes taking place so that some semblance of natural { recovery is possible.

What Are the Risks of Ignoring the Problem?.

Maintaining biodiversity is not just a numbers game. There is more to preserving biological diversity than conserving only the areas richest in species. Rather, conserving biological diversity means_ maintaining the integrity of genetic structure within populations, the richness of species within ecosystems and a representative mix of ecosystems that prevailed before modern human impacts (Norse 1990). There are dire consequences of delaying full attempts to mediate the problems of habitat and biodiversity loss. In this section, I discuss these consequences under five subsections: Global Concern, Managemenr for Future Condition, Economics, The Need for Data, and Healthy Ecosystems.

Global Concern-The Joss of biodiversity harms society through the impairment of ecosystem functions. All plants, animals, and microorganisms are involved in maintaining the mix of gases in the atmosphere. Dependable freshwater supply is also a function of healthy, functioning ecosystems. Insects serve as pollinators and as agents of biological control of pests. The fertility of the land depends on soil biota. The examples are countless, but the point is but one: all organisms play roles in ecological systems that are essential to human existence. Fossil fuels, rich soils, ancient groundwater, mineral deposits, and genetic diversity are all components of the inheritance of capital that humans are squandering (Ehrlich 1988). As ecosystem functions diminish, a cascade of problems will confront human existence. . ~

Management for Future Conmtion-Loss of habiw and biodiversity is inevitable with increasing human population and development As a society, we have to make a decision as to what future condition of habitat quality and biodiversity we are willing to accept and make plans for the maintenance of this condition. A swcwidc landscape approach to forest management and agriculture will help to ensure the best land uses are employed.

More cffon and money should be devoted to managing lhc landscape for the majority of organisms that are not game species and whose populations at present are apparently healthy. We need to catalog their geographic distributions within Michigan and identify their habitat requirements. This will position us in the future to appropriately manage the landscape for lhesc species so that they do not slip into the threatened and endangen:d categories.

The overall health of our environment depends on the presence of balanced biological communities throughout Michigan landscapes. These are cnrnrnuoities where the population sizes of common organisms do not dcttimcntally affect the habiws of other species and the population sizes of rare organisms are not so small as to threaten iircvocable loss of genetic diversity or extinction. Finally, tr.rough aggressive harvest and strict management prescriptions, we should curb Michigan's burgeoning deer herd. The goal should be biologically stable ecosystems where deer presence as a large herbivore is not deleterious to the overall health of the habitat and

65

continued balanced existence of its biota. In other areas of our landscape where current pa11ems of human dwelling or resource use does not allow fire to exist as a natural component of the ecosystem, controlled burn management of prime tracts of fire-dependent ecosystems should be used. In urban portions of our landscape, green spaces and wooded areas should be restored for not only native biota, but to satisfy human sensibilities.

Scientific prudence demands that any anticipated species introduction be carefully scrutinized. Because successful introductions are usually irreversible, proactive evaluations of potential impacts should be mandatory. More effon should be devoted to aquatic habitat improvement and harvest regulations to encourage natural reproduction of fishes with less effon devoted to stocking of hatchery-reared fish.

Economics-"Option value" (Hanemann 1988) is an overlooked concept with respect to loss of biodiversity. That is to say, decisions we make about future condition of the environment may have irreversible consequences. Because the passing of time brings information about the consequences of present actions, there is a premium on actions that preserve the flexibility to exploit this information. If a current decision is irreversible, we abandon that flexibility. If we ignore the potential value of future information, we undervalue policies, such as conservation programs, that preserve options for future action.

The Need for Data-There is a serious need for scientific data relating to native biodiversity and human impacts in Michigan. Research identifying current levels of biodiversity is needed. Searches of historic data in original survey notes, museum collections, herbaria, and libraries are a valuable source of baseline data. Where such seminal information is lacking, new studies of basic biodiversity should be instituted. More information is required regarding such issues as the role, of timber harvest regimes in the creation of reproductive sources and sinks, and the appropriate size for forest blocks needed to maintain balanced biological communities. We also need a bener scientific understanding of the effects of fish and other animal introductions on genetic diversity. Both research and data gathering are needed to evaluate recovery times from human-caused penurbations. More information is needed about specific habitat requirements of species and the locations of special habitats across the state. Habitats critical to plant and animal species are often not identified and protected from degradation. A good example is habitat for migratory birds. This not only includes game species (waterfowl and woodcock), but migratory shorebirds and neotropical migrants such as wood warblers. Non-migratory organisms, including many venebrates, most anhropods, and plants, also have specific habitat requirements that are critical to their existence. Other unique habitats such as fens, prairies, and alvar are sensitive to modification and their distribution in Michigan is poorly inventoried. This information is crucial to management for an acceptable future environmental condition.

Healthy Ecosystems-The science of ecology teaches us that productive and healthy environments are those that can withstand environmental stresses. Naturally diverse systems withstand these penurbations better than less diverse or artificially altered systems. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain the native biodiversity of all Michigan's ecosystems.

66

Biodiversity represents a way to effectively and economically monitor the health of our r_. environmenL We can measure the severity of stress on a community by examining either \ reductions in overall species diversity or changes in abundances of indicator species. In congressional testimony, Thomas Lovejoy of the Smithsonian Institute described biodiversity "as the basic library of biological sciences and the best indicator of environmental change."

Despite our dominion over nature, we rely on the diversity of life for food, raw materials, medicines, breathable air, drinkable water, current climatic panems, and aesthetic pleasure. Demands of an ever-increasing human population for food, water, and other natural resources will likely have priority over biodiversity and habitat concerns as it generally does today. Controlling human population size is key. The existence of Homo sapiens is ultimately dependent on healthy ecosystems.

67

,.

References

Black, C.C., P.L. Adkisson, G. Brown, R.R. Colwell, c.E. Hess, J.B. Holderman, K.J. Lindstedt­Siva, W.A. Nierenberg, P.H. Raven, T.M. Smith, and E.O. Wilson. 1989. Loss of biological Diversity: A Global Crisis Requiring Internacional solutions. A repon to the National Science Board., NSF, Washington D.C.

Cairns, J. Jr. 1986. Restoration, reclamation, and regeneration of degraded or destroyed habitats. · Pp. 465-484 in M. Soule, ed. Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinaure Associates, Sunderland, Mass.

Cairns, J. Jr. I 988. Increasing diversity by restoring damaged ecosystems. Pages 333-343 in: Wilson, E.O. (ed.) 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Wash. D.C. 521 pp.

Ehrlich, P.R. 1988. The loss of diversity: causes and consequences. Pages 21-27 in: Wilson, E.O. (ed.) 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Wash. D.C. 521 pp.

Hanemann, W.M. 1988. Economics and the preservation of biodiversity. Pages 193-199 in: Wilson, E.O. (ed.) 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Wash. D.C. 521 pp.

Hudson, W.E. (ed.) 1991. Landscape Linkages and Biodiversity. Island Press. Washington D.C. 196 pp.

Knoll, A. H. 1984. Patterns of extinction in the fossil record of vascular plants. Pp. 21-68 in M. H. Nitecki, ed. Extinction. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.

Norse, E. 1990. Threats to Biological Diversity in the United States. Repon under EPA Contract #68-W8-0038. 56 pp.

Odum, E.G. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Company, 3rd ed. 574pp.

Wilson, E.O. (ed.) 1988. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Wash. D.C. 521 pp.

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CONTAMINATED SITES

Special Nore:

In preparing this paper on conraminared sires, rime consrrainrs precluded rhe incorporation of all commenrs from qualified reviewers. For example, the aurhor proposes rhe developmenr of a second screening model ro undertake a more thorough analysis of rhe exposive parhway(s) associated wirh conraminared sires which receive a high score on rhe presenr risk evaluation procedure. However, rhe aurhor was nor aware rhar rhe srare of Michigan previously had a rwo­model approach which was discarded because of human and financial limitations. Funhermore, rhe aurhor has nor had rhe opporruniry ro review wirh MDNR the numbers and characrerisrics of rhe differenr rypes of conraminared sires within rhe srare.

Accordingly, ir should be recognized rhar rhis whire paper has a number of limirarions. Nevenheless, ir is imperative rhar rhe procedures in place be urilized effectively ro idenrify and prioritize srare and privare responses to minimize rhrears from immediare hazards coming from conraminared sires. Furthermore, given rhe range of conraminared sires and rhe exposive parhways 10 borh human and narural sysrems, periodic review and improvemenr of the evaluation processes should be undenaken.

Statement of the Issue

1. There exist in the state of Michigan certain facilities conwrung hazardous substances that pose a danger to the public health, safety or welfare, or to the environment of the state.

2. There is a need to provide for a method of eliminating the danger of environmental contamination caused by the presence of hazardous substances at sites within the state.

3. It is the purpose of The Environmental Response Act (Act 307 of 1982) to provide for appropriate response activity to eliminate the environmental contamination caused by the presence of hazardous substances at sites within the state. (Michigan Environmental Response Act 1982)

These three points-namely the presence of certain contaminated sites, the need to establish a process to identify such sites and to provide appropriate remedial measures for the elimination of the danger posed by these sites led to Act 307 and its associated rules and regulations. Basically, if a site in the state of Michigan is identified and subsequently evaluated by the Michigan Department of Nawral Resources utilizing the current risk assessment procedure for site evaluation and this site evaluation procedure results in !!!Y positive score, the evaluated site is designated a contaminated site.

69

At the present time, the Michigan Deparnnent of Natural Resources has proposed listing a total of 3,437 sites of environmental contamination in the state. This is nearly a 30 percent increase in the number of sites listed in 1990. These contaminated sites are located in all 83 counties of the state of Michigan. However, the distribution of identified sites is cenain]y not uniform across the state. While the overall average of sites/county is 41, twenty-three counties each of which has at least 45 contaminated sites constitute 28 percent of the counties, but contain 59 percent of the identified contaminated sites. At present, founeen previously identified sites are proposed to be delisted because these sites have had clean-up action completed at each individual site, It should. be noted that at the present time there are at least 5,500 confirmed releases from leaking underground storage tanks which are J!Q1 on the proposed list of contaminated sites Michigan. The South East Regional Field Office of MDNR has a backlog of 1,000 leaking underground storage tank cases in their office alone.

A similar process exists at the federal level. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) passed in 1980 provides for the identification and ranking of the hazards associated with sites which have experienced significant environmental damage (Environmental Law and Policy: Nature, Law, and Society; Plater, Abrams, Goldfarb). Sites which are examined by the federal procedures and which meet the federal criteria are placed on the National Priorities List (NPL). Currently, there are-over 1.200 sites on the NPL. These sites are ranked such that the most seriously contaminates sites are given a priority schedule for clean-up and remediation. It takes between 3-4 years on the average for a site to be evaluated and placed on the NPL following U.S. EPA being made aware of the site (Environmental Law and Policy: Nature, Law, and Society; Plater, Abrams, Goldfarb). The intent of the federal CERCLA legislation and the federal Supcrfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) is to identify the most hazardous sites nationwide and remediatc them in a priority fashion. These are a total of seventy-eight (78) contaminated sites in Michigan which currently are placed on the Federal National Priorities List for CERCLA Remedial Actions. Of these 78 sites identified by federal action, 67 also appear on the state of Michigan contaminated site list, Why eleven (11) sites listed on the NPL so not appear on the state of Michigan list is not clear. Three (3) are cleaned up and steps are underway to delist these sites from the federal list, MDNR is checking on the remaining eight sites.

The presence of contamination sites in Michigan poses a number is issues. First, how docs one identify a site initially. Second, once identified, how docs one prioritize the effon to reduce the human and environmental risks from the contaminated site(s). Third, how docs one choose the technology to be utilized to clean-up the contaminated site(s). Founh, to what level of cleanliness or remediation docs on require for any given contaminated site. Fifth, how docs one identify the panics responsible for creating the problem,. Sixth, once identified, how docs one obtain appropriate financial resources from these responsible panics to pay for the needed clean­up.

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Description of the Source of the Problem

Federal legislation has been in place since 1980 to identify, prioritize, clean-up, and restore contaminated sites. Public Act 307, The Michigan Environmental Response Act, has been in place in the State of Michigan since 1982 to accomplish to following: ·

"To provide for the identification, risk assessment, and priority evaluation of environmental contamination at cenain sites in this state; to provide for response activity at certain facilities and sites ... "

Under -both the federal CERCLA legislation and state clean-up legislation, one estimate of the magnitude of the national problem has recently been cited (New York Times, September 1, 1991).

Category

1. Super Fund abandoned sites

2. Federally owned sites

3. Corrective action on active private sites

4. Leaking underground storage tanks

5. State law mandated clean-up

6. Inactive uranium tailing

7. Abandoned mine lands

Number of Sites (estimated)

9,000

5,000 - 120,000

2,000 - 5,000

350,000 - 400,000

6,000 - 12,000

24

22,300

Estimated Cost for Clean-up {Billions)

$80 - 120

75 - 250

12 - 100

32

3 - 120+

1.3

55

258 - 778+

Sites in Michigan listed by MDNR should include sitcS in all of these categories with the possible exception of #6 (Inactive uranium tailings).

The estimated costs associated with the remediation of contaminated sites identified as a consequence of either federal or state legislation are very significant. The federal government has spent $11 billion on emergency response clean-up at 400 abandoned sites and full-scale clean-up at an additional 60 sites. No one can accurately estimate the magnirude of the final number of sites nor the exact coSts associated with cleaning-up/mncdiation of the sites. The federal legislation itself mandates certain levels of clean-up remediation which can require the expenditure of large amounts of limited fiscal resources. Questions exist as to what level of

71

clean-up should be required at an individual site. While there is conceptual agreement that sites which pose immediate risk to humans need immediate anention, there are a range of diverse opinions upon the level of clean-up to be required at other sites which do not pose immediate risk. It is important to note that work is needed to help identify those sites that pose the greatest immediate threat to humans and the environmenL Once these primary sites are identified, policies need to be clarified as to the limits of the remedial action undertaken-should it primarily be to protect human lives or should the action be directed toward restoring the contaminated environment to some pre-industrial condition.

The source of the problem is that Michigan is an industrial state that historically has produced residuals which have proved, in pan, to be capable of producing environmental contamination as a consequence of extraction, refinement, manufacturing, use, and disposal activities in the state. The identification, to date, of at least 3,437 contaminated sites is stark evidence of the magnitude of the problem facing the people of this state today.

Description of the Impacts

Each county in the state has one or more contaminated sites within its boundaries. Keweenaw County in the Upper Peninsula has two (2) sites; Wayne County in southeast Michigan has 185 sites. The media impacted includes soil, groundwater, surface water, and air. The risks accrue to both humans and environmental systems.

The Michigan Legislature (Act 307) required MDNR to develop a risk assessment model to help prioritize needed actions. It should be noted that Michigan previously used two different models to screen sites. The first model assigned a maximum of 15 points to each site. Those sites that scored greater than nine points were further assessed using a model that assigned 2,000 points to rank contaminated sites. The agency found that the time and human resources required for this two-step process were too greaL Accordingly, MDNR developed a new revised risk assessment system to score or evaluate the risk of each identified site.. The higher the assessed score for the risk model, the greater the environmental and human risk associated with the contaminated site. MDNR has developed a site scoring sheet to assist the in the identification and ranking of contaminated sites in the state. There are six categories which are individually assessed and assigned a score according to MDNR guidelines. 3 These six individual scores are then added together for a total possible maximum score of 48 points. A site is listed if it has ~ non-zero total score. The evaluation categories are as follows:

'S..: Michigan Environmcmal Re,panse Aa 19112 Public Aa 3m u .......i and-Rules Midugan llepuum:nl afNamnl Resources Ermnxuncntal Rcspomc DiYWan November 1991.

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1. Environmental Contamination (Includes media, potential contamination, suspected contamination, confirmed contamination and human exposure).

Maximum Points = 20

2. Mobility Ratings (Movement of pollutant to air, surface water, groundwater). Maximum Points = ,2.

3. Sensitive Environmental Resource (Reflect presence - within 1/2 mile of site of a rare . natural community and/or a plant or animal species that is threatened or of special

concern). Maximum Points = l

4. Population (Reflect presence with 1/2 mile of site of various population densities or the number of people potentially exposed outside 1/2 mile distance).

Maximum Points = ~

5. Institutional Population (Presence of at least one occupied school, hospital, licensed child care center or nursing home within 1/2 mile of a site).

6.

Maximum Points = .l

Special Wastes/Severclv Toxic Wastes (Toxicity/quantity waste category). Guidelines exist to apply one of three methods to assess the toxicity/quantity of waste at each individual site.

Maximum Points = ll

TOTAL maximum points = ~

The 3,437 sites identified in Michigan have scores which range from 48 (G and H Landfill in Macomb County) to 2 (Grocery stores in East Saugawck, Allegan County). If one takes scores from 40-48 as an indication of the sites which pose the greatest overall risk. 109 sites have scores which are greater than or equal to 40 and Jess than or equal 10 48. The highest ranked risk sites constitute 3.17 percent of the contaminated sites in Michigan.

Of the 109 highest risk sites, two have been approved by the MDNR for final cleanup and the remedial action is underway. Ninety-three do not have remedial action plans approved by the MDNR but do have an interim response activity or evaluation being provided. Rnally, 14 have had NO ACTION-i.e. no approved remedial action plan, no interim response, and no evaluation-basically .!!£ action. Accordingly, it is difficult 10 assess the threat posed by the highest scoring sites since only two have received approved remedial action plus which are being implemented. More than 90 percent of these sites are either being evaluated (86 percent) or have had .!!£ action at all (12 percent).

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(

The rank score is only one factor which is presently used to detennine whether or not immediate remedial action is taken at a specific site. For example, if people have contaminated drinking water, MDNR takes immediate action to fund alternative water for the impacted population. In the specific case of contaminated drinking water sites which range from one well to a well field serving a municipality, more than 270 such contaminated water sites have been replaced and these sites serve a total population greater than 100,000. It is MDNR 's objective that if an immediate hazard exists at a site that prompt action be taken to minimize such hazards to humans. At the present time, MDNR is engaged in cleanups at 300 sites using environmental bond ftmds. Private panics are engaged in the cleanup of more than 4,000 sites including leaking underground storage tanks in the state.

The scoring procedures are specified such that each category scores are defined. (See Michigan Environmental Response Act, November 1991) For example, the environmental contamination category consists of the following four subcategories: (1) Potential contamination; (2) Suspected contamination; (3) Confirmed contamination; and (4) Human exposure. Under each of these four subcategories, the scoring is done for each of four environmental media-namely, soils, groundwater, surface water, and air. A potential contamination in any media would be scored with one point; a suspected contamination in any media would be scored with three points; a confirmed contamination in any media would be scored with six points. Human exposure is a special subcategory. Human exposure from soils would be scored with nine points. These nine points would be scored if hazardous substances are present at the soil surface and the area of contamination is accessible or efforts to restrict access to the area of contamination have been unsuccessful and the site is unlikely to be secured. For each of the other media, either zero, nine, or twenty points are assigned according to specified guidelines specific to the media. Note: zero points are assigned where the conditions are not met

Groundwater

in the case of groundwater, the scoring is as follows:

(1)

(2)

Nine points shall be scored for groundwater if the Deparanent of Public Health has recommended that a potable water supply well that serves 59 or less people not be used due to hazardous substance contamination that is attributable to the site and a permanent alternate water supply has not been provided.

Twenty points shall be scored for groundwater if the Department of Public Health has determined that one or more groundwater supplies that collectivelv serve 60 or more people are contaminated with a hazardous substance that is attributed to the site. (emphasis added-to show the distinction between 9 points and 20 points).

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Surface Water

In the case of swface water, nine points shall be scored for swface water .if any one of the following conditions exist:

(I) A bathing beach exists within the site boundaries on a swface water body with documented hazardous substance contamination.

(2) The Department of Public Health has issued a fish advisory for a water body and the cause of such an advisory can be attributed, in pan. to the site (emphasis added).

(3) If the Department of Public Health has detennined that at least one potable swface water intake that serves 59 or less people is contaminated with a hazardous substance attributable to the site and a permanent alternate water supply has not been provided.

In the case of surface water, twenty points shall be scored for swface water if ~ of the following conditions exists:

(I) The Department of Public Health has detennined that at least one potable swface water intake that serves 60 or more people is contaminated with a hazanious substance that is attributable to the site.

(2) The Department of Public Health has issued a fish advisory for a water body and the cause of such an advisory can be attributed whollv to the site. ( emphasis added).

Air

Nine points shall be scored for air if analytical data from air sampling, surficial soil, or other environmental samples indicate that airborne hazardous substances from the site have reached or affected a receptor beyond the property boundary of the sourt:c area.

Twenty points shall be scored for air if 15 or more residences being receptors meet the requirements for analytical data specified above.

Each scoring category is specified with detail comparable to what has been documented for the environmental contamination category.

A special concern exists where cmrcnt research indicates a significant COrTClation between the presence of environmental hazards and potential exposure of people from particular socioeconomic groups. In particular, race appears to be a more important category variable than income with respect to the distribution of environmental hazards. This observation has been made both at the national level and more locally within the Detroit metropolitan area. In fifteen of twenty studies from 1972 to 1992, inequitable distribution of environmental hazards by race

75

r

were observed throughout the county. (See ''Environmental Racism: Reviewing the Evidence," Mohai, Paul and Bryant, Bunyan; January 23, 1992: School of Narural Resources, The University of Michigan).

Recovery Time

This is difficult to assess at this particular moment With over 3,000 sites whose evaluation scores range from 48 (most severe impact) to 2 (minimal impact), one should recognize that the recovery time will vary greatly. The recovery time is a function of the nature of the hazardous pollutant(s), the media impacted, and the degree of remediation specified. In ccnain cases, one . may find that a contaminated aquifer may need a period of years of treatment to correct a toxic solvent which is in the groundwater. On the other hand, a contaminated site where the hazardous pollutant is bound to soil may be remediated through excavation and subsequent incineration of the contaminated soil. This recovery time may be a period of months rather than years.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has recognized that there have been excessive time­consuming and costly delays associated with the cleanup of contaminated sites on the NPL. One response to this problem has been to create a set of five research centers located across the country. These research centers fund long-term research on the management and control of hazardous substances. This research is directed toward developing new approaches to solving the complex technical problems associated with hazardous IIiatcrials and contaminated sites. (See Synergos, Great Lakes--Mid-Atlantic Hazardous Substance Research Center, Vol. 1, No. 1., Summer, 1990) The five centers and their key functions arc as follows:

1. Nonheast Hazardous Substance Research Center (Regions 1 and 2): New Jersey Institute of Technology (lead university-seven member consortium). Research areas:

• Incineration/thermal methods, • in-situ methods (remediation), • biological/chemical/physical methods.

2 Great Lakes and Mid-Atlantic Center (Regions 3 and 5): University of Michigan, Michigan State University and Howard University constitute this center. Research areas:

• Bioremediation, • surfactants-including modeling, • chemical oxidation, and • open waters (contaminated sediment release).

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3. Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Center (Regions 7 and 8): Kansas State University lead a seven institution consortium. Research areas:

• soil and water contamination-heavy metals, • soil and water contamination-organic chemicals, • improved technologies for characterization and analysis of contaminated

soil, and • development of waste minimization and pollution prevention.

4. Western Center (Region 9 and 10): Stanford University and Oregon State University cooperate to run this center.

5.

Research areas: • groundwater cleanup and site remediation (biological approach). • The contaminants examined include chlorinated and non-chlorinated

solvents, petroleum products, pesticides, and toxic inorganic compounds including heavy metals.

South and Southwest Center (Regions 4 and 6): This center recently established in September 1991 is a consortium led by Lnuisiana State University and includes Georgia Institute of Technology and Rice University. Research areas:

• manufacturc-use-transportation-dispoal-pollution prevention efforts related to hazardous substances.

• Also, research on contaminated sediment and dredged matc:rials will be undertaken.

Research findings from each of these centers are potentially applicable to the problems of contaminated sites in Michigan.

Definition/Description of the Risk(s)

The risk assessment model developed by MDNR examines risk in six major categories. The human exposure is handled primarily in two categories: environmental contatnination and population. It appears that this present risk assessment model provides a reasonable way to undertake a fist categorization of the risks at contatninated sites in Michigan. However, it may be desirable to develop a second, more detailed risk model to be applied to those sites which are identified as having the greatest risk (i.e. scores greater than 40) by the initial model. The second model would be designed to traee exposive pathways more closely and assist the decision-maker to allocate, control and remediate resources to the most critical sites.

The concept of a two-stage model to ascertain both human and ecological risk is supported by the subcommittees of the U.S. EPA Risk Reduction Project. For example, the Ecology and Welfare Subcommittee recommended that both active and inactive hazardous waste sites be given

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a medium ecological risk ranking with water being the medium at risk. (Appendix A. Relative Risk Project. pp. 50-51). The Human Health Subcommittee states that the absence of data on the extent of actual human exposure to the chemicals in question make any numerical risk assessment of human health impact very uncertain (Appendix B, Relative ·Risk Project, p. 56).

The Strategic Options Subcommittee of the Risk Reduction Project called for means to identify quickly' contaminated waste sites posing immediate threats and bring them under control. (Appendix C, Relative Risk Project. p. 107).

Accordingly, what may be needed in Michigan is a second screening model which will more fully assess human and ecological risk associated with sites which have high scores (40 or above). on the original site classification. In the case of human risk, the second screening would concentrate upon more specification and identification of potential and actual exposure pathways. In the case of ecological risk, the second screening would need to be focused upon the nature of the hazardous waste and its threat to key ecological species, especially through the water medium.

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Addition

There are currently 3,396 sites included on the list of sites of environmental contamination which is prepared annually by the Department of Narural Resources under the Michigan Environmental Response Act (I 982 PA 307, as amended) ("Act 307"). In addition there are more than 6,600 confirmed releases from leaking underground storage tanks which are not included on the Act 307 site list. The site counts have increased approximately 30 percent per year in recent years. Contamination sites are found in every county in Michigan.

Hazardous substances present at contamination sites can pose risks to the public health and environment through a number of exposure pathways. Approximately 50 percent of Michigan's citizens use groundwater as their sources of drinking water; hazardous substances have been found in groundwater at thousands of sites. Hazardous substances in surface water and sediments can result in contamination of biota and impairment of other surface water uses. (See "Contaminated Surface Water Sediments" issue.) Some materials pose health risks primarily through inhalation; sites where these hazardous substances are uncontrolled can threaten nearby residents. An important exposure pathway for many contamination sites is direct contact with hazardous substances (i.e., dermal absorption or ingestion). This is an issue at sites where access is unrestricted and hazardous substances are present in soil, in leaking containers or in waste pits. Finally, hazardous substances sometimes pose fire and explosion hazards. This is a problem commonly associated with leaks from underground storage ianks that result in flammable vapors entering nearby basements or utility trenches. ,,,,_.,.

Some of the hazardous substances most commonly found at contamination sites are benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylenes, and polynuclear aromatics (PAHs). These contaminants are often found at leaking underground storage tank sites and other sites where petr0leum has been released. Industrial solvents such as trichloroethylene, dichloroethane, and vinyl chloride are associated with many industrial contamination sites. PCBs and heavy metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, chromium) are other categories of hazanious substances. Acute and chronic human health effects· associated with these materials span a broad Ill!lge from cancer (benzene) to impaired neurological function (childhood exposure to lead).

The Department of Narural Resources uses public funding, made available through the $425 million Environmental Protection Bond program approved by Michigan voters in 1988, to address approximately 20 percent of the known contamination sites. State-funded effons have focussed on actions which address immediate threats to human health or the environment This includes providing 455 water supply replacements and conducting "surface cleanups" at 247 sites. Surface cleanups can include removal of drums of waste or restricting access to hazardous substances. Responsible parties (e.g., site owners and opcmors) are providing for response activity at approximately 60 percent of the remaining sites. Approximately 20 percent of the total number

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of sites are not currently being addressed. Funding for cleanup of many leaking underground - storage tank sites is provided by a 7 /8 cent per gallon taX on refined petroleum products.

Estimates of the cost for remedial action at the nearly 10,000 contamination sites approach $8 billion.

Eighty-three Michigan sites are on the Nation Priorities List, making them eligible for funding under the federal Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or "Superfund"). Congress created Superfund in 1980 to deal with the most serious sites across the nation. There are currently about 1,200 sites on the National Priorities List nationwide.

In contrast to some other issues evaluated in the relative risk project, contaminated sites may pose relatively high risks to individuals or the local environment while posing a lesser risk to the population as a whole. Because of this characteristic, risk should be evaluated on a case by case basis.

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CONTAMINATEDSURFACEWATERSEDTh1ENTS

Problem

This paper addresses the issue of substances that are bound to particles in freshwater lakes, streams and rivers and may have lingering, adverse biological effectS in an ecosystem until degraded or buried by uncontaminated sediments and isolated from the biota. The discussion of sediment contamination that follows is of necessity brief and general in nature and not an exhaustive review of the extensive literature and will be related to the Great Lakes and Michigan.

Sediments have usually been thought of as contaminated when narurally occurring substances are markedly elevated above background concentrations or when synthetic substances are detected by chemical analysis. As yet, unacceptable biological effects are not the primary basis for determining contamination of sediments and remedial actions. Sediment contaminants have been placed in the following groups for discussion purposes. Metals (including heavy metals, and metalloids), nutrients, petroleum products, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and synthetic organic compounds (pesticides, po!ychlorinated biphenyl (PCB's), dioxins, furans).

Issue

Recently, sediments throughout the world have become enriched or contaminated with many ~ natural and synthetic substances as a result of increasing human populations and activities. Even in ancient times however, sediments were contaminated from mining and waste disposal. The degree of sediment contamination is greatest in depositional zones of lakes and streams near sources that include human population centers and their associated industrial and agricultural activities. Some of these contaminants are cycled through the world ecosystem via air, water, soils and biota.

In North America, a significant portion of the human population and associated industrial, agricultural and mining activities, exiSts in the Great Lakes drainage basin and the discharge of wastes to these lakes and tributary streams has occurred for more than 200 years. An even larger portion of this continents population and associated activities have contributed contaminants to the sediments of surface waters in the basin via atmospheric transpon and deposition. Atmospheric transpon and deposition is probably the most imponant loading source for many sediment contaminants of concern in the Great Lakes basin at this time. Many sediment contaminants have increased matkedly in lake sediment core profiles over the past 75 years in the region.

Recently, some sediment contaminants have begun to decrease, most notably in areas where point source discharges have been controlled or uses of certain products have been cunailed or eliminated.

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Michigan, with more than 9 million people and a diverse industrial and agriculrural economy, has almost 25 percent of the Great Lakes drainage basin population and almost 4 percent of the United States population. Almost all surface and groundwater discharges from Michigan reach the Great Lakes and a significant amount of water is drawn from those water bodies for industrial, and municipal uses. In the past, Michigan's population has used about 3 percent of the annu;i.l United States energy budget. Assuming that energy consumption and environmental contamination are quite closely related, it is apparent that Michigan has been responsible for a significant portion of the overall sediment contaminant load in the basin. Some Michigan harbors-, connecting channels, boundary waters and several inland lakes and rivers have high concentrations of contaminants in sediments due to past discharges.

Concerns over the impacts of contaminated sediments is not a new issue in the Great Lakes. Beginning in the mid 1960's, concerns over open lake disposal of dredged sediments resulted in a contaminated sediment control program unique to the Great Lakes. In 1970, an amendment to the U.S. Rivers and Harbors Act, Section 123 of PL 91-611 created a program for the construction of confined disposal facilities (CDF) with capacity for ten years' of polluted dredge material to be removed from Great Lakes federal navigation projeets. The program had an estimated cost of $350 million. Twenty-seven CDFs have now been constructed in the Great Lakes basin, and another is being planned.

Sediment disposal options were determined on the basis of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chemical sediment criteria (unpolluted, moderately polluted, or heavily polluted).

~. Heavily polluted sediments were confined and unpolluted sediments could be discharged in the open lake at approved locations or placed upland for beneficial -uses. Disposal options for moderately polluted sediments were determined on a case by case basis depending on the contaminants and disposal area. New sediment criteria will soon stan to be promula.zed by EPA. About a million cubic meters of material are dredged in Michigan's. Great Lakes connecting channels and harbors annually. About half this material has been placed in CDF's. Lower water levels in the Great Lakes would increase the need for dredging. Fortunately, pollution control programs over the past two decades have resulted in significant decreases in sediment contaminant concentrations in navigation channels near discharges. Iii some harbors, sediment contaminants are now low enough to consider disposal options other than placement in CDF's, such as beach nourishment, upland unconfined disposal or utilization for construction purposes.

Under Section 123, 14 CDF's will ultimately be constructed in Michigan at a cost of more than $ 120 million with a capacity for more than 35 million cubic meters of sediment. These costs do not include dredging, placement, sediment sampling, operation and maintenance or closing costs for the CDF' s. This program is nearing completion and federal funds for future CDF construction, operation and maintenance are doubtful. Future required sediment confinement costs, and maintenance costs of closed CDF' s, may have to be borne by local or state government sponsors.

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Source of the Problem

Sediments are a highly complex and dynamic media in lakes and streams,. composed of organic and inorganic substances and a representative biotic community. In stable depositional areas of lakes, the history of both natural and human activities in the drainage basin are recorded, and thus can give perspective to sediment contamination. While sediment contaminants are an issue at this time, the loads of uncontaminated sediment generated by land use activities and channel erosion, continue to exert a subtle but significant impact on the quality of most Michigan streams and some lakes and impoundments due to the physical modification of habitat The addition of a complex array of contaminants to sediment particles can further degrade aquatic plant and animal habitat

As indicated above, human activities have now enriched or contaminated sediments throughout the world. Mining and smelting, agriculture, manufacturing processes, combustion products, municipal waste discharges, waste incineration, oil refining and chemical synthesis, are some of the major sources that contribute contaminants to sediments via the air or by direct discharge to surface waters.

Almost all the relatively water insoluble substances reaching surface waters accumulate in fine sediments which serve as the ultimate sink. Usually, sediment contaminants concentrations are at least 10,000 times greater than concentrations in the overlying water. Prior to isolation from the water column and biota by natural deposition of an adequate layer of clean sediments, a small portion of the sediment contaminant load may become biolc;,gically available and have unacceptable biological effects. The biological effects and fate of many sediment contaminants remain largely unknown although considerable progress has been made in understanding some substances found in sediments.

An array of physical, chemical and biological conditions influence the faIC of sediment contaminants in lakes and strcamS.

Water turbulence and sediment particle size dctcnnine the rate and location of sediment deposition. Fine organic and inorganic sediments are generally deposited in quiescent areas and usually have the highest levels of contamination. With the exception of radionuclides and substances that coat or abrade the surfaces of organisms, most contaminants will not cxen a deleterious impact unless they are in a dissolved state that allows passage into living cells. Oxygen concentrations, pH, dissolved substances, redox potential, sediment organic content, nutrients, temperature, contaminant type, speciation, and concentration and other contaminants, interact to retain or enhance the release of sediment comaminants. Where organisms can burrow, feed and circulaIC water thru sediments, the release of some rnnraminanl$ are enhanced.

Sediment biota play a major role in transferring sediment contaminants, as well as nutrients and energy, to higher trophic levels such as fish, birds and possibly humans. The concentration of contaminants in the sediment biota is dependent on the type of contaminant and its concentration

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in the sediments. Fat soluble organic compounds are at higher body burdens in organisms with a higher fat content.

Sediment contaminants can also be released directly to the overlying water as a result of changing conditions at the sediment water interface. Once released into the water, the contaminants may be taken up through exterior surlaces of the biota, metabolized, bound or stored in' tissues, excreted, transferred to other locations by biota or currents or be resedimented. Once bioaccumulated, some substances may be biomagnified in higher trophic levels in aquatic ecosystems and cause a wide range of detrimental effects. The substances that are biomagnified are of primary concern in regard to the sediment contaminant issue.

Metals and metalloids:

Metals and metalloids are naturally occurring elements and most are found at low concentrations in sediments. A number of these elements are required micronutrients in some plants and animals, such as, manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) selenium (Se), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), magnesium (Mg) and others. These elements are bioaccumulated from food and water and are at higher concentrations in living cells than in the surrounding waters but have little potential for biomagnification in food webs to levels that may be harmful. Most organisms apparently have the ability to regulate micronutrient levels, except under extreme conditions. Other elements of concern in this group include tin (Sn), mercmy (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and lead

(Pb) which are not required by biota but have high biomagnification potential and toxicity. While some of these elements are required micronutrients in most cases, and might be deficient and growth limiting in some situations, increased concentrations or availability may result in toxicity. Some forms of Sn, Cu, Zn, Se, Ni, Cr, Hg, Pb, Cr and arsenic (As) are toxic. Mercury (as methyl mercury) is of primary concern in aquatic ecosystemS because it is highly toxic, readily bioaccummulates and is biomagnified in food webs. In terrestrial environments Hg, Pb, Cd and As are also of concern.

Metals and metalloids play very important roles in modem society and will continue to be used and accumulate to some degree in sediments. Most metals and metalloids in sediments are relatively immobile and none are degradable. Once sediments are contaminated with metals and metalloids remediation is difficult, because they "don't go away". Some metals and metalloids are mobilized from sediments to sediment pore water and the overlying water column. Under anaerobic conditions, Fe, Mn, and As are mobilized while other clements may become more insoluble. Generally, metals and metalloids are less mobile when aerobic conditions exist in sediments and the water column. Zinc is mobilized under moderately acidic conditions in lake sediments and possibly Cd and Ni. Mercury can be methylated to some degree in both aerobic and anaerobic sediments or water.

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Nurrients:

Nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon and sulfur can occur in sediments at high concentrations under natural conditions. Nutrients play a fundamental role in the cycling and availability of sediment contaminants. When sediments become highly enriched with these elements, sediments and water can become anaerobic, as decay occurs and the bottom dwelling animal community may be eliminated. Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide can also be generated when organic material decays and these substances are also highly toxic, in addition to some sediment contaminants. Nitrogen, carbon and sulfur can leave sediments as gases under appropriate conditions and enhance plant growth in the water column. Phosphorus is also released from anaerobic sediments along with Fe, Mn and As and may be resedimented from the water column in aerobic conditions. In shallow waters, sediments may serve as nutrient sources and maintain nuisance plant growths for extended periods after nutrient control measures have been implemented. Organic carbon in sediments reduces the bioavailability of other contaminants, most notably the poly-cyclic organic substances discussed below.

Petroleum Products:

Crude oil and its refined products are a complex mixture containing metals, polycyclic organic compounds (PAHs) and nutrients. Past, industrial and municipal discharges, spills, leaking oil wells and urban and highway runoff are the major sources of petroleum products. In sediments, many petroleum products undergo marked changes with weathered products deteriorating faster than non weathered products. The more volatile components and Jess complex compounds are

(

degraded first in sediments. Oils and grease in sediments reduce the abundance and diversity of ~ bottom dwelling organisms by coating their outer surfaces. Petroleum products also have the ability to dissolve and retain synthetic organic compounds that have a wide range of detrimental biological effects. In addition, petroleum products can contribute to off-flavor of fish flesh in terms of palatability for human consumption. Refined petroleum products, such as fuels and ~ubricants are not bioaccumulatcd.

Polvnuclear aromatic hydrocarbons {PAHs):

P AH' s are a group of naturally occurring, complex cyclic compounds found in crude oil or that result from the incomplete combustion of organic substances such as coal and wood. Those P AH' s from petroleum sources are more soluble than the fire-derived forms. Sunlight readily degrades P AH' s but degradation is limited in sediments and water. Sediment dwelling invenebratc animals readily bioaccumulate P AH' s and they are biomagnificd further by other invcnebrates but not by vcnebrates. Growth anomalies have been found in bottom dwelling animals living in sediments contaminated with PAH's. PAH's are also directly available to bottom dwelling fish that come into contaet with sediments. PAH's are not bioaccumulated in fish but are metabolized in the fishes liver and excreted. Some of these excreted metabolites are known tumor inducers. Liver and external tumors are frequently found in older fish inhabiting areas heavily contaminated with PAH's.

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Synthetic organic compounds:

Included in this group are the persistent synthetic bioaccumulative compounds that include some pesticides, dioxins, furans and PCB' s, in addition to a host of other industrial chemicals. The availability of these compounds from sediments to the biota is controlled primarily by the amount of organic carbon, petroleum products, volatile solids and sediment particle size. Many of these compounds are highly toxic, biomagnify significantly in aquatic ecosystems and have a range of adverse biological effects. Compounds in this group, especially the chlorinated polycyclic forms, are the sediment contaminants of primary concern at this time in the Great Lakes and some

inland waters.

Impacts

The primary impact of sediment contaminants is on the biotic community living in or on the sediments. Under highly contaminated conditions, sediment dwelling animals and plants cannot exist and the biota is composed of microorganisms at best Acute toxicity or direct physical impacts on the biota, such as coating body surfaces with petroleum products may occur. Where sediment contamination is less extreme, the biotic community can become dominated by a few tolerant organisms, such as aquatic worms, and reach densities of many thousands per square meter. Loss of species diversity exemplifies an unstable and unhealthy ecosystem. Some sediment contaminants, both natural and synthetic, can also induce growth anomalies, reduce growth and cause reproductive problems in sediment dwelling animals.

Imponant secondary effects of contaminants released from sediments occur at higher trophic levels in food webs. In ·addition to acute or chronic toxic effects to both micro and macroinvenebrate biota, some sediment contaminants have been found to cause thyroid dysfunction, decreased fertility, decreased hatching success, gross binh deformities, metabolic abnormalities, behavioral abnonnalitics, changes in sex ratios, compromised immune systems, tumor induction, kidney and liver failure and growth anomalies in vertebrates. Humans would be expected to exhibit similar effects if exposure via food was sufficient, especially in the embryonic or fetal stages of development

Risks from Sediment Contaminants

The greatest risks from sediment contaminants exist where sediment concentrations are high and biologically available. Dredging and disposal of sediments has occurred over many years in some of our most highly contaminated areas. Some sediment bound contaminants are released to the water column during dredging and disposal operations but readily settle near the dredging site or in the disposal facility. Where dredging exposes highly contaminated sediments 10 the water column releases of contaminants may occur for an extended period of time following dredging. Since almost all of the contaminant load remains bound to sediments, risks associated with dredging and proper disposal would be much less than risks from leaving highly contaminated sediments in areas where shipping or high flow events and strong CUITCnts could

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rcdisttibute and expose contaminants to the water column. In areas where contaminated sediments would remain undisturbed, leaving them in place for final burial would pose the least risk.

Humans may be exposurcd to sediment contaminants by incidental ingestion or extended direct body contact during recreational activities such as fishing, or camping. Such exposure is unlikely, and poses a very small risk. On the other hand, the greatest risks to humans and other animals at higher trophic levels occurs through consumption of organisms that have biomagnified chlorinated organic compounds (some PCB 's, furans, pesticides and dioxins), other persistent organic compounds and mercury. Other metals, except for organic forms of lead, have not been found to be biomagnificd,' even in areas of highly contaminated sediments.

Risks from the modest enrichment of surficial sediments with contaminants over large areas from diffuse sources, are difficult to estimate, due to our lack of understanding about food web effects from contaminated sediments. These moderately enriched sediments probably contain more contaminants in total than isolated, highly contaminated areas and may serve as a source for some time after loadings are controlled in large water bodies or rivers. Natural sedimentation processes will eventually cover these contaminants and make them biologically unavailable.

Reduction in risks from sediment contaminants by n:mcdial actions is generally only practical for small an:as of high contamination, such as an:as near discharges. Remediation has been primarily by dn:dging and confinement of contaminated sediments, although covering sediments with clean materials has been shown to be effective in some circumstances. Dredging and confinement with pollution control of point sources has been successful in reducing the level of sediment contamination in shipping channels and harbors but sediments along channels remain (""" contaminated in some locations from past discharges. To avoid environmental and human risks from contaminated sediments in the future, further control of loadings of contaminants, especially from diffuse sources to surface waters is needed.

Due to pollution control programs contaminant levels have decreased in sediments over the past decade, although in some areas not to acceptable levels. Decreases in sediment COJl!amimmts and fish contamination occurs within a few years after loadings cease and in most cases a decade or two of natural deposition would bury or dilute most contaminated sediments. While some risk is involved in doing nothing other than reducing contaminant loads, hiStory suggestS this is a reasonable way to proceed. Natural processes of transpon and deposition, degradation, binding and burial deeper in sediments may be the only thing that can be done at this time for moderately contaminated but widely distributed sediments. A better understanding of how aquatic systems work and the biological effects and fate of contaminants in the n:aI world, is needed to effectively address the contaminated sediment issue. This is especially true for those contaminants that are transported via the air to sensitive ecosystems and readily accumulate in the biota to levels where acute or chronic effects might be observed.

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References

Baudo R., J. Giesy and H. Muntau, (eds.) 1990. Sediments: Chemistry and Toxicity of In Place Pollutants. Lewis Publishers Inc. Chelsea, Michigan. 405 p.

International Joint Commission. 1990. Proceedings of the Technology Transfer Symposium for the Remediation of Contaminated Sediments in the Great Lakes basin. Great Lakes Water

• Quality Board. Sediment Subcommittee Rpt 170 p.

International Joint Commission. 1986. A Forum to Review Confined Disposal Facilities for . Dredged Materials in the Great Lakes. Great Lakes Water Quality Board. Rpt 97 p.

International Joint Commission 1982. Guidelines and Register for Evaluation of Great Lakes Dredging Projects. Report to the Great Lakes Water Quality Board 363 p.

International Joint Commission. 1980. Pollution in the Great Lakes Basin from Land Use Activities. Rpt 141 p.

Long E.R. and L.G. Morgan 1990. The Potential for Biological Effects of Sediment-sorbed Contaminants Tested in the National Status and Trends Program. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 52. 175 p. plus appendices.

Olsen, L.A. 1984. Effects of Contaminated Sediments on F!Sh and Wildlife: Review and Annotated Bibliography. U.S. Fish Wildlife Serv. FWS/OBS-82/66.

Schmidtke, N.W. (ed.) 1988. Toxic contamination in Large Lakes. World Conference on Large Lakes 1986. (Four Volumes) Lewis Publishers Chelsea, Michigan.

Thomas, R., R. Evans, A. Hamilton, M. Munawar, T. Reynoldson and H. Sadar (eds.) 1987. Ecological effects of In Situ Sediment Contaminants. Hydrobiologia 149. 272 p.

U.S. EPA. 1992. Contaminated Sediments News. EPA-823-N92-001.

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CRITERIA AND RELATED AIR POLLUTANTS IN MICHIGAN (SO2, SO,, NO,, CO, PM11, acid aerosols and visibility)

In the early 1970's EPA established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for "criteria" pollutants (so named because EPA is required to periodically summarize published information on each pollutant-these summaries are called Criteria Documents). These were the first air pollutants to attract the attention of zcgulators because they wezc ubiquitous, thezc was evidence linking them to health effects at high concentrations, and some of them were known phytotoxicants. The criteria pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO:), nitrogen dioxide (NOJ, carbon monoxide (CO), PM10 (particulate matter with a diameter less than or equal to 10 um), ozone (03) and lead (Pb). Because of the known risks presented by these pollutants at high concentrations and because of the extensive resources committed to controlling and measuring these pollutants in Michigan, the Relative Risk Analysis Project recognizes this issue as one of 24 outstanding environmental issues in Michigan. This paper will focus on the criteria pollutants except for 0, and lead. Those two pollutants will be covered separately in the papers on photochemical smog and metals, respectively. In addition, this paper will include discussions on pollutant issues related to the criteria pollutants-acid aerosols and visual air quality. A third related issue, acid deposition, is the subject of a separate paper.

1. The Criteria Air Pollutants in Michigan

A. S02• At high concentrations, SO, has been associated with the aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascalar disease and increased mortality, especially in the presence of elevated concentrations of particulate matter. The primary NAAQS for SO, are an annual arithmetic mean of 80 ug.tm3 and a maximum 24-hour concentration of 365 ug/m3, and the secondary NAAQS is a maximum 3-hour concentration of 1300 ug./m3

• It should be noted that NAAQS are established to protect public health and welfare (including plant life) with an adequate margin of safety. A primary NAAQS is designed to protect public health while a secondary NAAQS is designed to protect welfare.

in Michigan, SO2 although concentrations are well below both NAAQS. In 1990, annual geometric mean concentrations at the 20 monitoring sites in the state ranged from 9 to 48 ug.tm3,

modeling analyses indicate that certain a:eas are sufficiently close to the NAAQS so that new sources must be modeled to insure future violations do not occur (MDNR, 1991). Monitoring sites are chosen to determine maximum population exposures so even lower SO, concentrations can be expected to be found in other parts of the state where the are no SO, monitors. Trends in SO2 concentrations are either downward or flat, and because of additional SO, emission reductions mandated by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments to reduce acid rain, future concentrations can be expected to be even lower.

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r:

,•

B. NO2• In high concentrations, N02 has been Jinked to impaired respiratory defense

mechanisms and increased susceptibility to infection. The primary and secondary NAAQS for NO

2 is an annual arithmetic mean of 100 ug/m3

• In 1990, annual arithmetic means ranged from to 45 ug/m3 at the 9 monitoring sites in Michigan (MDNR, 1991). These concentrations can be expected to be further reduced in the future as NO, emissions from vehicles and stationary sources are reduced.

C. CO. The concern with CO is its ability to combine with the hemoglobin in the blood stream. At high concentrations, it can interfere with mental judgement, cause fatigue and headaches and aggravate symptoms in individuals with hean or circulatory disorders. The NAAQS for CO are an 8-hour concentration of 9 ppm (parts-per-million by volume) and a I-hour concentration of.

35 ppm.

The largest source of CO is motor vehicles. However, since the 1960 's, CO emission rates from passenger cars have been reduced by 96%, and this had dramatically reduced concentrations of CO in the ambient air despite an increase in the vehicle miles traveled. In 1978, 7 out of the 11 CO monitoring sites in Michigan had one or more violations of the CO NAAQS. The last violation to occur in the state was in Warren in 1986. Since that time, all of the areas of Michigan have been in compliance with the NAAQS (MDNR, 1991). In addition, downward CO tends should continue at least until the end of the decade as the older vehicle fleet is replaced with new, low emitting vehicles.

-~ D. PM,0• Epidemiologic studies have associated high concentrations of particulate matter with aggravation of asthma and chronic lung disease, chest discomfon and even increased monality. In 1987, EPA changed the NAAQS from total suspended particulates (TSP) to PM,0 because particles must be IO mm or less to enter the respiratory syStem. The primary and secondary standards for PM10 are the same: an annual geometric mean of 50 ug/m3 and a maximum 24-hour concentration of 150 ug/m3

• During 1990, 36 PM10 sampling sites were operating in Michigan, and all of them were in compliance with the NAAQS. Because the PM10 samplers have only been operational since 1987 or later, there is insufficient data to determine trends. However, the MD NR still continue to operate some of their TSP sites, and these indicate downward or flat trends at all sites (MDNR, 1991). Future trends are expected to be similar.

2. Related Air Pollution Issues

A. Acid aerosols. There is some information that suggests that some of the adverse effects attributed to exposure to high concentrations of ambient PM10 or TSP might be due to the acid aerosol component of the particulates (EPA, 1989). Because of this information, there are a number of scientists who think acid aerosols should be listed as a separate criteria pollutant (CASAC, 1988). EPA's Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC) reviewed the issue, and while they concluded that insufficient evidence existed at the time to warrant listing acid aerosols as a separate criteria pollutant, they directed EPA to initiate the proper programs so that a rigorous evaluation of the issue could be made in the near future (CASAC, 1988).

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The predominant contributors to aerosol acidity are sulfates formed from the oxidation of SO, { in the atmosphere. The oxidation product is sulfuric acid (H2SO,). In the presence of sufficient ammonia (NH,), the H2SO4 is either partially or completely neutralized. to NH,HSO, or {NH,,)2SO4 • H2SO4 and the partially neutralized NH,HSO4 are the acidic components.

Ambient measurements of acid aerosols in Michigan are extremely limited as shown in Table 1. Although the data sets differ considerably in space and time, they are remarkably similar. The means at each site are the same order of magnitude and the maxima are the same order of magnitude.

In controlled human experiments, the lowest concentrations which resulted in a significant decrement in the pulmonary function test performance of adolescent asthmatics (the total exposure was 40 minutes, which includes 10 minutes of moderate exercise) was 68 ug/m' (Koenig, et al., 1988). Although this concentration is far higher than anything observed by Cadle (1985) or Keeler (1992) in Michigan, there are some epidemiologic studies which suggest that effects might be occurring at much lower levels. Speizer (1989) showed that bronchitis in 10-12 year old children in four U.S. cities varied from about 3-11% from standardized questionnaire responses in direct relation to annual average concentration of aerosol acidity, with the highest prevalence in the community with the highest annual acidity concentration which was only 1.8 ug/m3

• Similar responses were seen for some other respiratory symptom responses in the same population. Although this study has been criticized for a number of reasons, it was the primary reason why CASAC recommended that the issue be revisited after additional swdy.

Because of the nonlinear chemical mechanisms that lead to the fonnation of the acid sulfates, A source-receptor relationships needed to develop control Strategies do not exist. Reductions in SO2

emissions mandated by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments should reduce the concentrations of acid sulfates, but the degree of the reduction cannot be quantified. Unforwnately, the ambient data base is so meager that we know little about the spatial and temporal variability of the acid sulfates. Consequently, even if the ambient concentrations do respond to SOz emission reductions, we may not even be able to document it.

B. Visibility. In the absence of precipitation and fog, the visual range in Michigan's atmosphere is determined largely by the ambient concentrations of sulfate aerosol (H2SO,, NH,HSO,, and {NH.),SO,) and the relative humidity. Although all particulates in the 0.1 to 1.0 mm diameter range play a role in reducing visibility, sulfates account for 70% of the reduction in visual range in Southeastern Michigan (from background) on the average, and this percentage increases on the haziest days (Wolff et al., 1982). Other species contributing to the reduction in visibility in Southeastern Michigan include: carbonaceous particles (22%), other fine particles (4%), and gaseous NO2 (4%).

The sulfate haze that frequents Southeastern Michigan is part of a larger, homogeneous regional haze that is formed primarily from the oxidation of SOz emissions in the high emissions areas in the lower Midwest (Wolff et al., 1985a). The haze is driven into Michigan by humid southerly winds, and, at times can cover the entire state. However, it is more frequent in the southern part

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,.

of the state simply because it is closer to the source area of the haze. At high relative humidities, the sulfate panicles sorb water and became more efficient light-scatterers. Because sulfates are formed primarily by photochemically-initiated reactions in the atmosphere, summertime visibilities are typically the lowest in Michigan and the hottest, humid summer days usually have the worst visibilities. Although summer has, by far, the highest frequency of haze events, such events can and do occur at any rime of the year. The is no evidence that Michigan's emissions conaibute significantly to the haze (Wolff et al., 1985b).

Summer visibilities showed dramatic decreases over the Midwest berween the 1950's and 1970's associated with increases in regional SO2 emissions, and appear to have stabilized somewhat since then. (Husar et al., 1979; Trijonis and Yaun, 1978; NAPAP, 1991). Mean summenime visibilities are Jess than JO miles in southern Michigan, down from about 15 in the 1950s (Husar et al., 1979). In the presence of just natural haze, the visibility would be expected to be on the order of 25 to 40 miles (Ferman et al., 1981). In mountainous areas; such a decline in visual air quality would be very obvious to the residents, but in Michigan, where the terrain is relatively flat, it has not attracted public attention. Nevertheless, it is clear that the visual air quality in Michigan has deteriorated significantly in recent decades.

Because sulfate is the most imponant species responsible for the visibility-reducing haze, some reduction in sulfate and a corresponding improvement in visibility is likely as the SO2 emission reductions required by the 1990 Amendments are implemented. As with acid aerosols however, source- receptor relationships are so poorly understood, that any attempt to quantify the anticipated improvement would be speculative.

One last comment regarding the haze is that there may be some beneficial aspects to it. Recently, different groups (NAS, 1991; Charlson ct al., 1991) concluded that the haze is masking the greenhouse effect by producing a cooling in the lower atmosphere. Preliminary calculations show that the climate forcing from the sulfate haze in the northern hemisphere is approximately equal to, but opposite in sign to the forcing due to the greenhouse gases (Charlson ct al., 1991). In addition, there is speculation (NAS, 1991) that the sulfates, which are excellent cloud condensation nuclei, are responsible for the observed 10% increase in northern hemisphere cloud cover since 1900 (Henderson-Sellers, 1989). If this is the case, then its is likely that the negative forcing from the combined effects of sulfates exceeds the positive forcing from the greenhouse gases. In any event, any reduction of the sulfate haze, could conceivably result in accelerated wanning in the northern hemisphere.

3. Summary

It appears that the criteria pollutants presently present little risk to the health and ecosystems in Michigan because of present control programs. The situation for acid aerosols is not as clear, however, and the magnitude of any potential risk cannot be detemiined based on our knowledge today. Consequently, this issue need to be revisited when the results of additional health effect studies become available. The is strong evidence that the visual air quality in Michigan has declined significantly over the past several decades.

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Location Warren Ann Arbor Ann Arbor South Haven

Table 1 - Acid aerosol measurements in Michigan. (all units arc ug/m' as H,SO,)

Sampling Period Dates Mean Maximum 24h 6/81 - 6/82 0.6 10.0 .. 8/90 - 9/90 1.9 11.2 .. 6/91 - 8/91 1.1 6.7 12h 7/91 - 8/91 Hl.2 12.0

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Reference Cadle ( 1985) Keeler ( 1992) Keeler (1992) Keeler ( 1992)

'

References

Cadle, S.H. (1985) Seasonal variations in nitric acid. nitrate, strong aerosol acidity, and ammonia in an urban area. Atmos. Environ., 19: 181-188.

CASAC (1988) Acid Aerosol Health Effects, EPA-SAB/CASAC-89-009, Office of the Science .Advisory Board, Washington, DC.

Charlson, RJ., Langner, J. and Rodhe, H. (1990) Sulphate aerosol and climate. Nature 348: 22.

EPA (1989) An Acid Aerosols Issue Paper, EPN600/8/88/005F, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. Washington, DC.

Ferman, MA., Wolff, G.T. and Kelly, N.A. (1981) The nature and sources of haze in the Shenandoah Valley/Blue Ridge Mountains area. J. Air Pollul Control Assoc. 31: 1074-1082.

Husar, R.B.. Patterson, D.E. and Holloway, J.M. (1979) Trends of eastern U.S. haziness since 1948. Preprints 4th Symposium on Atmospheric Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Pollution, American Meteorological Society, Washington, DC.

-~ - Keeler, G.J., University of Michigan School of Public Health, Personal Communication, February 27, 1992.

Koenig, J. Q., Covert. D.S., and Pierson, W .E. (1988) The effects of inhaled nitric acid compounds on pulmonary function in adolescent asthmatics. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 137: 169.

MDNR (1991) Air Quality Repon 1990, Air Quality Division, Lansing, ML

NAPAP (1991) 1990 Integrated Assessment Report National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, Washington, DC. '

NAS (1991) Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming-Repon of the Mitigation Panel. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Speizer, F .E. (1989) Studies of acid aerosols in six cities in a new multi-city investigation: design issues. Environ. Health Perspect, 79: 61-67.

Trijonis, J. and Yuan, K. (1978) Visibility in the Nonheast-Long-Term Visibility Trends and Visibility/Pollutant Relationships. EPA-600/3-78-075, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC.

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Wolff, G.T., Ferman, M.A., Kelly, N.A., Stroup, D.P., and Ruthkosky, M.A. (1982) The (· relationships between the chemical composition of fine particles and visibility in the . ., Detroit Metropolitan area. J. Air PolluL Control Assoc. 32: 1216-1220.

Wolff, G.T., Korsog, P.E., Kelly, N.K. and Ferman, M.A. (1985a) Relationships between fine particulate species, gaseous pollutants, and meteorological parameters in Detroit Atmos. Environ. 19: 1341-1349.

Wolff,-G.T., Korsog, P.E., Stroup, D.P., Ruthkosky, M.A. and Morrissey M.L. (1985b) The influence of local and regional sources on the concentration of inhalable particulate matter in Southeastern Michigan. Atmos. Environ. 19:305-313.

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Note:

DEGRADATION OF URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

/vf any of you are aware the original author of the white paper on Degradation of Urban Errvironmenrs suddenly decided that he would be unable to participate in the Michigan Relative Risk Analysis Project (RRAP). We have thus been left in

-a difficult situation as regards to this white paper. The following white paper on Degradation of Urban Environmenrs is therefore incomplete. It is an attempt to integrate pieces of the issue written by several different people.

Further discussion on the topic of Degradation of Urban Errvironmenrs did occur during the Relative Risk Analysis Project meeting on March 9, 1992.

The concentration in urban areas of society's members, economic activity and various waste streams has resulted in increased risk to human health, degraded environmental, and excessive cost burdens. The threats to human health and the environment result from the intensity of inflow of materials, discharges of processed materials and energy uses for transportation and for industrial and residential pUIJ>OSCS. Urban problems include:

1) Degraded air quality: This is easily demonstrated for many characteristics of urban ambient air quality. One major concern is that we do not know the extent of unknown toxic emissions in Michigan's urban environments. [A recent study concluded that the Los Angeles area could save 1,600 lives and 10 billion dollars a year in health benefits by meeting federal air quality standards (Science, vol. 255, February 14, 1992).]

2) Degraded water quality: Readily demonstrated in Michigan by MDNR data, the UC's Great Lakes Areas of Concern, etc. This results in loss or substantial reduction in water uses for domestic pUIJ>Oses, recreation, and fisheries.

3) Land degradation: a) Sprawl :replaces open land with pavements and structures and various

emissions to the environment, :resulting partly from uncoordinated land use planning

b) Land contamination from various sow-ccs [sec MDNR's Act 307 reports and EPA' s national priority lists for evidence of increased contamination site densities in urbanized areas.]

4) Toxic :releases: Toxic inventories per SARA Title m :reports and pcrmined discharges to air and water media; plus industrial accidents such as fires and explosions.

96

5) Deteriorated and abandoned sttuctures: These contribute to health risks when occupied, provide opportunities for criminal activity, present fire hazards, and discourage reinvestment and community .improvemenL Also, occupants of residential structures adjacent to abandoned industrial priorities are exposed to unknown health risks.

6) Lead Poisoning: Pre-school aged children in urban environments are at substantially greater risk of lead poisoning from lead based paint, dusts containing lead, and form the effects of corrosive drinking waters on piping systems. [Some 100,000 michigan children, primarily in urban areas, could have elevated blood lead levels if national data is applied to the Michigan situation.]

The State of Michigan

The State of Michigan can be considered one of the most diverse states in the country. It's 58,527 square miles consist of major urban centers, attractive suburban communities, numerous rural areas, agricultural and farming acreage, Siate and National forests, more inland lakes than any other state, and is surrounded by the fresh water Great Lakes. With all these assets however the Stale is considered a "no growth" State.

This is illustrated by an examination of the population growth of the Slate since 1960: 1960 7,823,194 1970 8,875,083 1980 9,262,078 1990 . 9,295,297

Although an 18.8 percent increase of population since 1960 the decade of the 1980's resulted in only a 0.36 percent increase. A recent projection for the Slate to the year 2000 is 9,250,000, a 0.5 percent decrease in the next 10 years.

Urban Sprawl

Although the State has not experienced an increase in population growth it has experienced new developments throughout the State which has already begun to change the basic fabric of our cities and is beginning to impact the rural and environmentally sensitive areas of the State. An example of this is the southeast Michigan region around the City of DetroiL The Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG) has made projections into the year 2010 using a "business as usual" scenario. With relatively small population growth of 6 percent projected by the year 2010 and the development of the land continuing at its c:um:nt pace the resulting spra w 1 will consume about 40 percent more land. This reflects a continued shifting of people, jobs, and environmental disruption outward from the . central city and extending the need for infrastructure and services to the outlying areas. This brief example is characteristic of other urban areas of the State as well. The resulting urban sprawl leaves in its path a well developed physical and social infrastructure that has taken decades to develop with little chance of recovery.

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The SEMCOG Regional Development Initiative, prepared in 1991, has attempted to address the issues, and risks of urban sprawl on the Southeast Michigan region. This is extremely important to the State of Michigan since the Southeast Michigan region represents 7 counties with a total 49.4 percent of the population (4,590,468 residents) in 7.45 percent of the total land area (4,360 square miles). This Regional Development Initiative recognizes that the environment and ecologic;tl features are not the only elements in risk in urban sprawl and has included in its analysis the economy, public finance, management and governance, and social factors.

The impacts of sprawl on the environment will be felt in the rural and fringe areas as well as in the urban areas.

The impacts on the urban areas include: • reduced ability to repair, maintain, and operate existing stormwater and sanitary

infrastructure due to loss of tax base and user fees •

•

•

• •

increased stress on existing sewer systems,including treatment plants, as extension of these systems would be required to serve new developments increased stress on urban wetlands as older communities compete for new economic development in developing suburbs or rural areas reduced ability to improve the "urban environment", i.e. removal of blight, development and maintenance of open space, pollution clean-up, etc. due to reduced tax base the elimination of urban jobs in urban areas due to the lack of tranSportation abandoned and deteriorating buildings and infraslI'llcturc resulting in public health problems

The impacts on the rural and fringe areas will include: • consumption of agricultural land • loss of wildlife habitat • impacts on surface water including non-point source pollution • increased air pollution • construction of sanitary and stormwater sewer lines and treatment facilities • construction of wells, septic fields, water treatment plants and supply lines • elimination of some wetlands, woodlands, and the introduction of strcSS on others • loss of open space • the paving and widening of rural roads

Sprawl: Compounding Current Urban Environmental Problems

New construction of homes. businesses, and industry-along with the infras!I'llcturc that will be necessary to support this new development-will inevitably cause an increase in soil erosion and sedimentation, increased use of pesticides and fertilizers which will contribute nutrients and toxic pollutant storm water runoff, and damage to feeder streams through frequent road crossings, widening and enclosure of streams and drainage courses to accommodate development. New connector and trunk sewer lines will create the need for additional capacity in the existing sewers

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and trunk lines into which the new lines empty or may require the construction of new sewage treatment facilities in suburban areas, resulting in a negative effect of the smface waters in the rural areas. On-site septic systems have an effect on the. groundwater quality and on nearby lakes. As properties are developed more land becomes hard smfaced creating impervious areas and increasing run-off from streets, parking lots, and buildings into lakes and streams and compounding the pollution of these narural resources. This is compounded by the safety requirement to salt roads in the winter to accommodate the traffic leading to the destruction of plant life as well as introducing pollutants into the water systems.

Contaminated Sites

Another contributing problem to the issue of the urban environment is that of the clean-up of "contaminated" sites and the risk of future tougher clean-up requirements which are affecting business decisions about whether to redevelop or to build anew on undeveloped land usually in the outer fringes of the urban area. This has the effect of abandoning older buildings and sites which may have soine environmental problems with little or no chance of being resolved and continuing to be an environmental liability to the area. This is compounded by the relocation of the industry to pristine areas and the possibility of recreating the problem at the new location.

Urban Poverty

This economic depravation of our existing urban communities and environmental degradation reinforce one another to create a downward spiral as poverty and loss of taX base becomes increasingly more an environmental phenomenon. The poor not only suffer disproportionately ,C!l'►.. from environmental damage they become a major cause of ecological decline themselves.

Although traditionally measured in terms of income, poverty extends into all aspects of individual life. Susceptibility to disease, inaccessibility to employment services, lack of control over resources, and the insecurity in the face of changing circumstances changes poverty from a physical dimension to a psychological dimension being the erosion of human dignity and self respect.

Cities similarly experience economic dcpravation as an environmental phenomenon with the loss of taX base and consequently the ability to provide the necessary services to maintain and support the public assistance for a sager and environmentally secure community. This can be seen by evaluating rwo of Michigan's largest cities-Detroit and FlinL Detroit lost 175,000 residents berween 1980 and 1990 (14.6 percent decrease) and Flint 19,000 residents in the same period. The respective economics from a State F.qnalized Value (SEY) standpoint has remained stable during the decade of the 1980's while the SEY for the state on real property increased by 29 percenL In effect what this means is that by staying constant the cities of Detroit and Flint actually lost ground. This has seriously impacted the ability of these communities to properly provide the types of services to maintain the health, living conditions, and quality of life for the residents results in a loss of iaxes which results in a lack of environmental contra! thus the spiralling effect of urban sprawl

99

URBAN PESTICIDES

Most pesticides are inherently toxic and the potential hazards posed by these chemicals are magnified by improper use, storage, and disposal. They are used to control termites, cockroaches, fleas, rodents, ants, moths, caterpillars, dandelions, other weeds, fungi, bacteria, and molds. Pesticides include: insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticidc, disinfectants or antimitrobial agents, and plant growth regulators.

In 1985, agricultural uses of pesticides accounted for 77 percent of the total usage. Of the nonagricu)tural uses of pesticides, 28.7 percent were used in homes and gardens. A nationwide survey conducted by EPA during 1976 and 1977 of household pesticide use found that about 91 percent of households used pesticides (U.S.EPA, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991). Households use pesticides indoors (i.e., bug sprays and ant and roach poisons) and outdoors on lawns and gardens and to preserve wood. The average home owner applies about five times more pesticides per unit of land than do farmers (Miller, 1990). The same EPA survey found that less than 50 percent of people who participated in the survey read pesticide labels for application procedun:s. About 85 percent of the people used pesticide products without reservation, and only 9 percent used these products with caution (U.S.EPA, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991). The use of pesticides in and around the home and workplace, especially in the concentrated urban setting, therefore was identified as a subissue for the Michigan Relative Risk Analysis ProjccL

Pesticide Ingredients

Pesticide products contain both active and inert ingredients. The adverse effects of these active ingredients will be discussed later. Typically, a pesticide formulation is mostly inert ingredients, most of which have not been tested for long term effects and there is insufficient information to classify the toxicity of about two-thirds of these chemicals. It is also possible for a chemical that has been banned as an active ingredient in pesticides to be used as an inert ingredient further compounding the potential effects of pesticide use (U.S.EPA, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991).

Exposure

Pesticide exposure can occur through direct conmct during the application process. In addition to direct exposures as a result of improper use, secondary exposun: can also occur when people are unknowingly exposed as a result of other activities such as outdoor spraying that can drift into nearby buildings exposing people and animals. Approximately 36 pesticides were found in indoor air as a result of the Non-occupational Pesticides Exposun: study conducted by EPA (U.S. EPA, 1990) including diazinon, aldrin, dieldrin, 2,4-D, chlordane, DDT, and malathione (See Table 1 ). Cancer risk estimates by EPA have been developed for some of these contaminants (U.S. EPA, 1989) and are also shown in Table 1. If homes are reentered too soon after application, pesticide concentration is still high, and exposun: in increased. Another widely used product of concern is the pest strip, which contain DDVP as the main ingredicnL DDVP is a

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concern because it is classified as a possible human carcinogen, and it also causes liver and nerve damage in animals. Pesticides from these strips vaporize into the surrounding air (U .S.EP A, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991).

During 1987, 57,430 cases of pesticide exposure were reponed to poison control centers and 98 percent, were accidental. Between 1980 and 1985, at least 46.5 percent of the accidental pesticide-related deaths in the U.S. occurred in homes. About 70 percent of these cases involved children under 6 years old. Pesticide poisonings are the second most common source of childhood poisonings (U.S.EPA, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991).

Lawn Applicarion of Pesticides

Eleven percent of single family homes use commercial applicators for lawn care (U.S.EPA, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991). The most common pesticides used for lawn care are Diazinon and 2,4-D. The later is an ingredient in more than 1,500 pesticide products and is a weed killer used extensively by farmers and home gardeners for over 40 years.

The GAO (1990) concluded that professional pesticide applicators are making claims that could lead consumers to believe that the pesticides applied around their homes are safe or nontoxic. Furthermore, such claims may persuade consumers to purchase a service they otherwise might not use or discourage the use of reasonable precautions to minimize exposure, such as avoiding recently treated areas.

Authority over pesticide !able claims rests both with the EPA and with the Federal Trade J"'!"",-Commission (FTC). The EPA, under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), has authority over pesticide manufacturers and disnibutors. The FTC has authority over professional pesticide applicators (i.e., lawn care companies) as well as manufactureS. As of February 1990, there was no formal agreement between the EPA and the FTC for contr0lling unacceptable safety claims by professional pesticide applicators and virtually no regulation has occurred (GAO, 1990}. .

EPA is at a preliminary stage in reassessing the risks of the 34 most widely used lawn care pesticides; 32 of these older pesticides are subject to reregistration. The GAO (1990) also concluded that until the EPA completes its reassessment as part of the reregistration process, the public may be at risk from exposures to potentially hazardous lawn care pesticides.

Health Effects

There are significant gaps and uncenainties in the health effects data base. For example, the lowest dose that results in acute effects is not known with certainty for most pesticides (U .S.EP A, U.S.PHS, and NEHA, 1991). The most commonly used home pesticides are listed below along with their chronic health effects and environmental concerns.

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Selected Indoor Air Co~centrallon• (ug/ni3) or Pesticides in Jacksonville and SprlngReld/Chlcopee and EPA Cancer Risk Assessment (ug/m3>

CANCF.R RISK

PESTICIDE SUMMER SPRING WINTF.R SUMMER SPRING WINTER (for luglm')

,lacksonvllle Sl!rlngReld/Chkol!ee

Oamm■-BIIC me■o 20.2 13.4 6.0 - 0.5 9.5 3.BxlO_.

mu 245.0 1530.0 7S.0 - 5.0 118.0

Heptachlor me■n 163.4 153.9 72.2 - 31.3 3.6 I.hi ff'

mu 1600.0 2370.0 684.0 - 253.0 152.0

... I 6.8 6.9 0.0 0.3 4.9xlff' 0 Aldrin me■o 31.J -"' 1840.0 320.0 106.0 0.0 3.9 mu -

Dlcldrln mean 14.7 8.3 7.2 - 1.0 4.2 4.9 ,10-'

mu 177.0 61.0 57.0 - 8.8 40.0

Chlordane mean 324.0 245.6 220.3 - 199.4 34.8 3.7xl0_.

mu 3020.0 4380.0 2050.0 - 1700.0 735.0

Table 2

PESTICIDE CHRONIC HEALTH EFFECTS & ENVffiONMENTAL CONCERNS

2,:1-D (used for weed Carcinogenicity conuol)

DDVP (used in pest Carcinogenicity strips) Oncogenicity

Maneb (EBDC) Oncogenicity T cratogenicity

Benomyl Mutagenicity Tcratogenicity

Reproductive Effects Wildlife Hazard

Pronamide Oncogenicity

Diazinon ( used for Avian Hazard weed conuol) Aquatic Hazard

(GAO, 1990)

Carcinogeniciry: capacity to produce or incite cancer

Murageniciry: capacity to induce mutations

Oncogeniciry: capacity to induce or form tumors

Terarogeniciry: capacity to cause developmental malformations

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References

G. Tyler Miller, Jr. (1990) Resource Conservation and Management. Wadswonh Publishing c,ompany, California.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1991) Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers. December. EPN400/l-91/033. DHHS(NIOSH) Pub. No. 91-114.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Public Health Service, and National Environmental Health Association. (1991) Introduction to Indoor Air Quality: A Reference Manual. EP N400!3-91/003. Pesticides, Section 4.2: 66-85.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Atmospheric Reserach and Exposure Assessment Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, N.C. (1990) Non-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study. EPN600!3-90!003

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1989) Report to the Congress on Indoor Air Quality, Volume II; Assessemnt and Control of Indoor Air Air Pollution. EPN400/l-89 OOlC

U.S. General Accounting Office. (1990) Lawn Care Pesticides: Risks Remain Uncenain While Prohibited Safety Claims Continue. Report to the Chainnan, Subcommittee on Toxic Substances, Environmental Oversight, Research and Development, Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate. March. GAO/RCED-90-134.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS

The first epidemiological repon by Wenheimer and Leeper about the possible increased risk of leukemia in children Jiving near high voltage power Jines appeared in 1979. The authors concluded that the increased incidence resulted from exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) produced as elecaicity surged through the wires. Since that time more than three dozen epidemiologic reports concerning EMFs have been published. Biological studies, however, have yet to prove a cause-and-effect relationship.

The Wenheimer and Leeper repon launched an increasingly cacophonous controversy over whether elecaic power lines, electric switch boxes, elecaic blankets, microwave ovens, hair dryers, black and white television, or household appliances might be related to increased leukemia in children, high levels of breast cancer in males, brain tumors, lymphoma, or cancer in general.

An epidemiologic study in Denver, by Savitz, et al, reponed that children Jiving within 15 meters of electric power lines. carrying elecaicity from a power company substation to a neighborhood transformer, had five times the risk of all forms of cancer compared with children who lived further away. A recent study in Los Angeles observed 464 children of age IO and younger. The study found that children who lived closest to neighborhood power Jines were up to 2.5 times more likely to suffer leukemia. This is consistent with the Colorado studies.

r

However, the risk was still very low-the rate of leukemia was 2.5 cases per 20,000 children ~ among those living near power Jines, compared with the natmal rate of 1 case per 20,000. Furthermore, the investigations found no link between the children's risk of developing leukemia and the actual electrical fields measured in their bedrooms.

A major difficulty in interpreting the epidemiological data has been the absence of simple. objective, and reliable measures of exposure. Thus indirect measures have been applied such as job titles for occupational exposures, and distance of overhead wiring systems for residential exposures. As a result these studies have not been able to directly link the dosage of EMFs to their effect on the subjects.

An ad hoc working group at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recommended the use of newly available small, ponable meters that can be worn by study subjectS. These techniques may be able to reassess the possibility of carcinogenic risk from EMFs.

Researchers from ten states representing 15 percent of the U.S. population along with collaborators in Norway monitored all cases of male breast cancer, which is very rare, anyway. berween 1983 and 1987. Of 320 patients identified, 227 agreed to interviews about their job histories. It was found that 33 of the men held jobs that may have involved high exposure to EMFs. These included elecaicians, telephone repairmen, broadcast equipment operators, and

105

• .

elecoical engirieers. The result of these observations was that men whose occupations potentially involved frequent exposure to EMFs had breast cancer incidence nearly double that of men in other jobs. Men in elecoical trades such as power line installers, and power plant operators, exhibited nearly six times the usual risk. When one looks at the number of subjects observed and the small total number of tumors found, the statistics become very difficult to interpreL This is beca1,1se of the very low incidence, as well as the fact that there were no direct measurements of EMF exposure of individual subjects.

Until scientific research provides some explanation of how EMFs can affect biological systems, the epidemiologic data will be subject to challenge. One physicist at Yale University states that the EMF forces are, "thousands of millions of times smaller than the force required to . significantly change the motion of cell components and millions of times smaller than the energies required to damage molecules." Therefore, according to him, any mechanism of EMF effect on the body must come from outside the scope of conventional physics.

Furthermore, there are questions about whether research can show any biological mechanism that could produce health effects from EMF exposure. There are several hypotheses: One is that EMFs may affect the microscopic connections between cells called "gap junctions. TM These subcellular structures are known to control the exchange of small molecular materials between cells and may have a role in the development of cancer. It is felt by some that disturbances of gap junctions might permit the propagation of electro-magnetic effects, building a big enough impact to disrupt normal cellular processes and possibly induce cancer. Several research teams also are investigating the role calcium ions might play in this process.

Other investigations involve studies of gene function, production of ribonucleic acids, transcription of proteins, hormonal effects and impact on pineal gland secretion of melatonin, a hormone that directs the sleep-wake cycle.

Many of these tentative probes appear as attempts to prove a point, and therein lies a common defect in some scientific research projects. If a point of view is accepted and experiments are designed 10 prove that hypothesis the investigator is left in a less objective frame of mind. A more objective approach should be to ask a question about the system being studied and record the results, rather than trying to prove a point of a presumed resu!L

Many forces are aligned on each side of this question. In Michigan and Wisconsin over the past 25 years, there has been a running battle between citizen's groups and the U.S. Navy over the installation of project ELF. a $400 million web of antennae for communicating with submarines around the world. This extremely low frequency system is in two locations-one part in upper Michigan and the other in Wisconsin. Along the way there have been protests, attaeks on the installation, candlelight vigils, and a 148-mile march from the Michigan to the Wisconsin site. Ashes were dumped on the carpet in the Governor's office in Lansing. There were many revisions of plans and reductions of the size of the project What was originally planned as an underground grid of about 3,000 miles of cable ended up as 56 miles on telephone poles in Michigan and IO miles in Wisconsin. ELF is 75 Hz frequency modulated to 72-78 Hz. Power

106

Jines are 60 Hz. The governor of Wisconsin sued. The Governor of Michigan pref=d to r "work behind the scenes." The Navy renamed it Naval Co=unications Unit, headquanered . . outside Marquette and activated it in 1989.

The electric companies have enormous power, including authority to condemn property to gain right of way for power Jines. The struggle between the citizens of Michigan and Consumers Power over the construction of a new high voltage power line from Battle Creek to Indiana, has stimulated a very energetic response and the formation of a new group of citizens called Residents Against Giant Energy or RAGE. This group has vigorously opposed the construction of this new line. When one considers the enormous benefits that have accrued to modern civilization from the distribution of electricity and how this contributes to our standani of living, it is difficult to imagine how we could do without many of these high voltage power lines.

Marginal relationships of EMFs to certain kinds of cancer, which in most cases are statistically weak, tentative, or the subject of controversy amongst scientists are insufficient to make sweeping decisions about power lines. Many skeptics remain unswayed. On the other hand, if it is proven with subsequent research that there is a definite impact on the health of the population, especially children, measures must be taken to modify the exposure of our citizens to EMFs.

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..

References

Cooper, W.E. (1983) No Sign ELF Harmful, Lansing State Journal, June 12.

Electric Power Research Instirute. (1990) Current Srudies of Possible Health Effects of Exposure to Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields, Summary of literarure by Electric Power Research Ins ti rute.

Electromagnetic Fields: The Biological Evidence, Editorial, Science, September 21, 1990.

EPA Cancer Review Continues at Second Meeting, EMF Research Review, May, 1991.

EPA Suspects ELF Fields Can Cause Cancer, Science News, June 30, 1990.

Every day Radiation, Detroit Free Press, March 27, 1990.

Extremely Low-Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields and Risk of Human Cancer, Ad Hoc Working Group International Agency for Research on Cancer, Bioelectromagnetics 11-91-99(1990).

Is there an EMF Cancer Connection? Editorial, Science, 7, September, 1990.

Leukemia Risks Linked to Electrical Use, Lansing State Journal, February 9, 1991.

~ Navy Ready to Tum Switch on ELF, Editorial, Detroit News, May 28, 1989.

Navy's ELF Begins Operati11g With New Name, Detroit Free Press, October, 1989.

NRC Was Right on ELF, Editorial, Lansing State Journal, July 18, 1983.

Panel Takes Look at Electromagnetic Radiation, Lansing State Journal,. March 9, 1990.

Power Struggle-Utility's Planned High-Voltage Transmission Line Sparks Outcry From Residents, Editorial, Detroit Free Press, December, 17, 1990.

Power Line Static-Debates Rage over the Possible Hazards of Electromagnetic Fields, Science News, September, 1991.

Project ELF Finally Wins a Vote, Editorial, Science, August 12, 1983.

Savitz, D.A., H. Wachtel, F.A. Barnes, E.M. John and J.G. Tvrdik. Case-control study childhood cancer and exposure to 60-HZ magnetic fields.

Scientific Advisory Committee Considers Furore Research, EMF Research Review, May 1990.

Wertheimer, N. and E. Leeper. (1979) Electrical Wiring Configurations and Childhood Cancer, Am J. Epidemiol, 109:273-284.

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ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION: PRACTICES AND CONSEQUENCES

I. Introduction

The threats posed by potential global climate change, air pollution, and dependence on oil impons are intimately linked to energy use, mainly fossil fuel combustion. Burning fossil fuels ( coal, qi!, and natural gas) releases carbon dioxide, which represents 55 percent of the total greenhouse gases that many believe will lead to global climate change. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from an estimated 275 parts per million (ppm) prior to the industrial age to more than 350 ppm (Mintzer and Hansen, 1991). Fuel burning also releases pollutants that lead to acid rain and photochemical smog (urban smog) (Fulkerson ct al., 1990). The U.S. is imponing a growing portion of its oil supply-a pauem that poses long-term financial and national security risks.

Some analysts suggest that the era of "cheap oil" is coming to an end (Holdren, 1990). If so, there is an inherent risk unless substitutes arc developed for the oil that currently supplies approximately 38 percent of the world's energy (Davis, 1990). Each of the available options for addressing these problems has cenain advantages and disadvantages.

n. U.S. Energy Policy: National Energy Strategy

In July 1989, President Bush directed the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to develop a comprehensive National Energy Strategy. The strategy is needed because of a demand for energy at reasonable prices, commiancnt to a safer and healthier environment, maintenance of a sound economy, and the need to reduce dependence on foreign energy supplies.

In February 1991, the DOE issued its National Energy Strategy (NES); which contained four basic goals: (1) achieving greater energy security, (2) increasing energy and economic efficiency, (3) securing future energy supplies, and (4) enhancing environmental quality. Many opponents have argued that the policy would encourage the growth of the domestic oil industry and remove obstacles to the construction of nuclear power plants. They also contend that the strategy calls for only a modest cffon to encourage energy efficiency (Lipperman, 1991 and Schneider, 1991).

Legislation to enact a comprehensive energy strategy has been introduced. In Febnwy 1992, the U.S. Senate passed a wide-ranging energy bill that would determine national energy policy in several imponant areas. The U.S. House will be considering similar legislation in 1992. The major provisions of the Senate-approved bill include: (I) streamlined nuclear power plant licensing; (2) new energy efficiency standards for lighting and industrial motors, wider use of solar power, and new measures to encourage construction of energy efficient homes; (3) reduced regulatory barriers for construction of natural gas pipelines; (4) requirements for increased use of alternative-fuel vehicles; and (5) increased use of independent power producers of wholesale

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electricity. The Senate bill would not: (a) allow oil exploration in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; (2) allow offshore oil development until the year 2000; and (3) mandate increases in corporate average fuel economy for automobiles.·

III. Ene,rgy Resources

Energy resources can generally by divided into two categories: nonrenewable (fossil fuels and nuclear), and renewable (biomass, hydroelectric, solar, and wind). Prior 10 the industrial revolution, virtually all energy was derived from renewable resources (primarily sun, water, and wood). Beginning in 1850, the use of coal begin to increase dramatically, peaking at about 80 percent of total U.S. consumption in the early 1900s and declining thereafter. Petroleum products began to increase, peaking at about 80 percent in the 1970s. Four reasons have been suggested for the dominance of fossil fuels in the industrial age: (I) they are easily accessible; (2) they can be utilized efficiently; (3) they are suitable for transportation because they are portable and store a great deal of chemical energy; and ( 4) they may be readily convened from one fOim to another (Fulkerson, 1990).

Renewable energy sources have several advantages over fossil fuels and,nuclear power. (1) they are domestic and thus immune to foreign disruptions; (2) they are inexhaustible, since by definition they are renewable; (3) they produce little pollution relative 10 fossil fuels; and ( 4) they provide a long-term price hedge against the depletion of fossil fuels. Approximately 7.5 percent of U.S. energy is derived from renewable sources, almost entirely from hydroelectric power and wood. Relatively little progress has been made in replacing fossil fuels with other renewable resources because of the many practical problems involved and because of politics, inequitable funding/subsidies, etc. Renewable sources are expensive (without the level of subsidies given to the oil and nuclear industries), diverse, dispersed, intermittent (in many cases), and their energy is difficult to store.

For purposes of further discussion, this paper will divide energy resources into three categories: (1) electric power, (2) transportation, and (3) fixed non-electric uses. In addition, a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of specific energy resources is included in the Appendix.

A. Electric Power

In Michigan, and in the U.S. generally, electricity is primarily generated in coal-fired plants. The fuel sources of power generated in Michigan are:

Coal Nuclear Natural Gas Hydro-electric Oil

65.6% 26.4% 7.1% 0.6% 0.3%

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Until recently, the electric power industry consisted almost entirely of vertically integrated utility r_ companies that generated, transmitted, and distributed power. Changes in this system began to \ occur with the passage of the Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA). PURPA provided incentives for the production of power by non-utility generators by requiring the utility 10 purchase power from qualifying facilities at the utility's avoided cost (16 U.S.C. 824 (a)(3)].

Electrlc generation in Michigan is thus undergoing a transformation. Historically, utilities have generated their own power and coal has been the dominant fuel with a substantial contribution from.nuclear power. New and future generation will apparently be built by non-utility ventures and will be almost entirely based on natural gas. More than 90 percent of all new electric generation in Michigan in the last three years uses natural gas as a fuel. This changing structure suggests three categories that should be considered in evaluating Michigan's electric future: (1) aging generating plants, (2) reliability of new generation, and (3) role of conservation.

Aging Generaring P/anrs

Many of Michigan's existing electric generating plants were built in the 1950s and early 1960s. Approximately 28 percent of the state's generating capacity is more than 30 years old. The useful life of generating plants is gencrally 38-40 years. Although plants may be able to physically operate for a longer period, little is known about the performance Qf plants that are that old. It is expected that their efficiency may decline significantly, maintenance costs may increase, and that random outages of extended duration may occur. While plant refurbishment is possible, this option may not be economically feasible if the plant is required to meet new source performance standards for environmental protection. Thus, Michigan is faced with a #-~ situation in which a significant proportion of its generating capacity could become outmoded by the end of the century.

Reliabiliry of New Generation

As previously mentioned, new electric generation being built differs from existing generation in two significant ways: (1) it is almost entirely based on natural gas rather than coal and nuclear power; and (2) it is generated by non-utility companies rather than as part of the utility's integrated system. Each of these differences present potential difficulties.

Natural gas has three main advantages as a fuel for electric generation: (I) it is currently in excess supply, (2) the infrastructure exists to deliver the fuel in moderate quantities; and (3) natural gas plants can be built much quicker than altcmatives. While the third reason is likely to continue, the first and, to some extent, the second may only be temporary.

Historically, the supply of natural gas has been subject to volatile swings. In the 1950s and 1960s, natural gas was cheap and in abundant supply. In the 1970s, it was in very shon supply. From I 970 to 1983, the price of natural gas increased more than 1400 percent (American Gas Association, 1990). As a result of this increase in price, drilling for natural gas quadrupled

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during the early 1980s, so that by 1983, natural gas was in excess supply-the situation that continues to this day.

Given its history as a volatile source of supply, it must be recognized that there is an appreciable risk associated with devoting all new electric generation to natural gas. This risk is accentuated by the fact that natural gas is also relied upon for approximately 80 percent of home heating in Michigan.

In addition to changing fuel, new generation is also being switched from utility to non-utility sources. In the past, electric utilities had control over each generation, transmission, and disttibution component, and operated their system as .an integrated whole. As new generation is dispersed among non-utility generators, the utility loses some degree of control over that aspect of the system. Another source of potential risk associated with the use of non-utility generation is that power supply contracts may not be honored. Natural gas is being used as a fuel source because it is currently inexpensive and profitable for the project developers. However, if a shonage of natural gas develops, the price will increase and the generation projects may no longer be profitable.

Role of Conservarion

Although utilities have not been building new generating plants in =nt years, they have been playing a greater role in assisting customers in meeting their needs by using energy more efficiently. The most significant development in this area is the Michigan Public Service Commission's order providing Consumers Power Company with- an incentive to invest 2.5 percent of its gross operating revenues for demand side management programs, which improve the efficiency of customers' tise of electticity (Michigan Public Service Commission, I 991 ). This represents a 20-fold increase in the resources being devoted to such programs.

There can be little doubt that improved energy efficiency is essential if we expect to compete effectively in the global economy. Whether measured in termS of consumption per capita or per dollar of gross domestic product, the U.S. consumes almost twice the electticity as Japan or most European countries (Ficken et al., 1990). Improved energy efficiency reduces costs, improves the quality of the environment, and combats global warming by reducing carbon dioxide emissions (Ruckelshaus, 1989).

It has been suggested that energy "[e]fficient teebnologics are often under utilized because of the lack of customer demand (market pull) or the lack of a sufficient distribution channel (marlcet push), or both (Ficken et al., 1990).; Under this line of thinking, electric utility involvement is required to overcome the existing barriers to greater energy efficiency (Ficken et al., 1990). The demand side management program adopted by the Public Service Commission is intended to provide a cost-effective way for the utility to reduce future elccttic demand. However, it should be recognized that conservation teehnology and the organizational infrastructure to effectively deliver it are relatively new in comparison to elecuic generating technology and infrastructure.

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B. Transponation

In Michigan, approximately 25 percent of all energy consumed is used for transportation. In addition, as the major automobile manufacturing state, Michigan is acutely affected by this industry. The automobile has been almost totally powered by gasoline refined from crude oil. Approximately 63 percent of the oil consumed in the U.S. is used for transportation. Consequently, the consumption of the transportation sector are closely tied to the consequences associated with oil production. Two problems appear to stand out

First, there is a significant risk inherent in the fact that the world's oil production is largely controlled by the Middle East countries who dominate the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC). The U.S. is heavily dependent upon these sources since imports comprise approximately 45 percent of our oil consumption (U.S.DOE. 1991). In 1973, and again in 1979, oil was used as a political weapon and oil exports from these countries were cunailcd. The 1991 Gulf War was at least partially caused by issues relating to oil.

Although the U.S. is the world's second largest oil extractor, it has imported oil since 1950 to help meet the demand. Most oil deposits in the Middle East are large and cheap to extract; most in the U.S. are small and more expensive to tap. It has generally been cheaper for the U.S. to

. buy oil from other countries than to extraet it from its own deposits. Miler (1990) argues that including the U.S. military costs of iniervention in the Persian Gulf from 1985 to 1989, (before the Persian Gulf War) the cost of U.S. oil imports is $495 a bmeL

Second, there are environmental impactS associated with transportation. Motor vehicles produce /A three major air pollutants: carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and unburned hydrocarbons. In addition, transportation sector emissions comprise approximately 24 percent of the carbon dioxide produced in the U.S.(Bleviss and Walzer, 1990). Some actions have already been taken to reduce the pollution caused by motor vehicles, most notably the increase in automotive fuel efficiency.

It is clear that there is a significant risk associated with automobiles being totally dependent upon oil as a fuel. Several actions are being taken to diversify available fuel sources. California has mandated that 10 percent of cars sold in the stare in 2003 must be emission-free. Although electric cars emit no pollutants directly, they must be charged with electricity from power plants that do. Consequently, use of electric vehicles may simply be trading one pollutant for another. In addition, electric batteries may prove hazardous in a crash, and it is not clear that an adequate infrastructure will exist to provide efficient charging of vehicles. Gasoline vehicles are supported by a system of sCIVice stations that make use of the automobile convenient Any alternative fuel vehicle will rcquiic development of a similar system to be a practical option.

Progress is being made toward developing an infmsll'UctUie to support natural gas fuclcd vehicles. There are at least four public refueling stations for nan:aaI gas vehicles in Michigan and other stations are being developed throughout the country. Natural gas vehicles have significant advantages over gasoline powered cars in that they produce approximately 40 percent less carbon

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dioxide, 23 percent less nitrogen oxide, and vinually no sulfur dioxide or carbon monoxide (Hay, 1985).

Eventually, the U.S. must develop vehicles that do not bum fossil fuels. Currently, there are no substitutes for oil in transportation, although there is some research on the problem. The two most promising candidates are electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles. Introducing such inherently clean vehicles-with the hydrogen or electricity derived from non-fossil energy sources-would cut urban air pollution, acid deposition, climate change, and foreign oil dependency (MacKenzie, 1989).

C. Fixed Non-Electric Uses

In Michigan, petroleum supplies approximately 35 percent of the state's energy needs, natural gas 28 percent, and coal 30 percenL The remaining 7 percent is supplied by nuclear, hydroelectric, and wood. Approximately 57 percent of petroleum supplies are used for motor gasoline, with the remainder going for heating and used as a petroehemical feedstock. Natural gas is primarily used for space hearing-over 80 percent of Michigan homes heat with natural gas. Approximately 85 percent of coal consumed in Michigan is used for electric generation, with .the remainder used for the production of coke used in making steel.

Michigan is primarily an energy consuming state, but does have limited energy production. Michigan impons approximately 89 percent of its petroleum supplies, 80 percent of its natural gas, and 100 percent of its coal needs. Consequently, the state's interests are closely aligned with those of energy consumers. Michigan's reliance on durable goods manufacturing, tourism, and agriculture all place Michigan in a relatively vulnerable position with respect to the economic effects of sharp increases in the cost of energy.

Many of the issues discussed under electricity and aansportation are equally applicable for other energy uses. Another Arab oil embargo would seriously impact home-'owners who heat with distillate oil as well as automobile users. A carbon tax would raise prices for all uses of energy, not just electricity. However, there are two additional concerns that should be highlighted.

First, changes in the natural gas industry may be increasing the difficulties associated with this fuel. Michigan is a cold-weather State, and space heating is an essential need that is primarily met with natural gas. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has proposed regulations that could reduce the availability of natural gas upon demand (FERC, 1991). Depending upon the final rules, this change could result in an increase in the risk of a shortage of natural gas during the winter.

Second, Michigan has approximately 5,000 producing oil and natural gas wells. These wells represent an ongoing risk to the environmenL Toe Michigan Deparnnent of Natural Resources listed over 350 sites of documented environmental contamination resulting from oil and gas production (UMBS-GEM, 1990).

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IV. Summary

As long as electricity use continues to increase in the U.S. and Michigan; as long as electricity is generated mainly from fossil fuel, and as long as oil consumption for transportation grows in the absence of practical alternatives to the oil-based internal combustion engine, electric power production and transportation will remain the most important U.S. sources of environmental degradation ( carbon dioxide emissions, other air pollutants, and groundwater and land pollution through resource extraction). Without dramatic changes in U.S. energy policy and use these emissions will only grow:

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APPENDIX

SPECIFIC ENERGY RESOURCES

This Appendix provides a brief summary of types of energy resources and their advantages and disadvantages. They are divided into two categories: nonrenewable and renewable energy resources. Finally energy efficiency is discussed.

I. NonRenewable Energy Resources

Coal is a solid formed millions of years ago as the remains of plants were exposed to intense heat and pressure. It consists mostly of carbon with varying amounts of water and small amounts of nitrogen and sulfur.

About 70 percent of the coal extracted in the U.S. is burned in boilers to produce steam to generate electric power. Coal is burned to supply 56 percent of the electricity generated in the U.S. and 65 percent in Michigan.

Identified coal reserves in the U.S. should last about 300 years at current consumption rates. Unidentified U.S. resources could extend these supplies at the CIIITCnt rate for perhaps an additional I 00 years, but at a much higher cost (Miller, 1990).

The primary advantage of coal is its abundance. It also has a high useful energy yield for high­temperature industrial processes and for generating dectricity.

Coal also has significant disadvantages. Coal mining is dangerous, with more than 100,000 deaths and I million disabled in the U.S. since 1900. At least 250,000 retired U.S. miners suffer from black lung disease, a form of emphysema caused by prolonged breathing of coal dust and other particulate matter (Miller, 1990).

Coal mining and coal use pollute and degrade the environment in several ways. Acid mine drainage from abandoned coal mines can kill fish and many other aquatic life. In the U.S., acid mine drainage has degraded over 7 ,000 miles of strcams-90 percent of them in Appalachia. Underground coal mining can also cause subsidence when a mine shaft partially collapses. In the U.S., over 2 million acres of land, much of it in Appalachia, has subsided (Miller, 1990).

Without effective air pollution control devices, burning coal causes more air pollution than other fossil fuels. About 70 percent of sulfur dioxide and one-fourth of nitrous oxide emissions in the U.S. are produced by burning coal. These emissions cause much of the acid deposition that damages forests and aquatic ecosystems in the eastern U.S. and Canada (Miller, 1990).

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One of the most serious problems with coal is that it releases more carbon dioxide per BTU than (. .• other fossil fuels. This means that burning more coal to meet energy needs can accelerate potential global climate change. Presently there is no effective and affordable method for preventing carbon dioxide released by burning from reaching the atmosphere (Rader, 1989).

B. Narural Gas

In its underground gaseous state, natural gas is a mixture of 50 percent to 90 percent methane gas and smaller amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane and butane. Conventional natural gas lies above deposits of crude oil Unconventional natural gas is found by itself in other underground deposits.

Natural gas is by far the largest source of heat for residential and commercial buildings in the U.S. About 5 percent of the natural gas used in the U.S. is imported, mostly by pipeline from Canada (Miller, I 990).

The world's identified reserves of natural gas arc projected to last until 2045 at the CUITent usage rate and until 2022 if consumption rises 2 percent a year. Estimated unidentified supplies available at higher prices would last about 200 years at the cum:nt rate and 80 years if usage rose 2 percent a year.

As the price of natural gas from conventional sources rises, it may become economical to drill deeper and obtain natural gas from unconventional sources. Such sources include deep underground deposits of tight sands and geopressurized zones that contain natural gas dissolved ,A in hot water. Some natural gas is also found in coal seams and deposits of Devonian shale rock.

The advantages of natural gas arc that it bums honer and produces less air pollution than any fossil fuel. Its burning, however, produces carbon dioxide although the amount per unit of energy produced is lower than that of other fossil fuels.

Due to the similarity in extraction practices between oil and gas, some of the same extraetion difficulties resu!L One of the most significant difficulty with natural gas extraetion the the potential for ~ release.

C. Nuclear Power

Originally nuclear power was envisioned as a clean, safe, and cheap source of energy. In the U.S., 111 reactors produce 19 percent of the country's clccllicity. Since 1975, no new nuclear power plants have been ordered in the U.S. and 108 previous orders have been canceled (Miller, 1990). During the 1990s, U.S. nuclear capacity is expected to decline as aging plants arc retired.

In the reactor, heat is produced when nuclei of aroms of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 arc split through nuclear fission. The heat energy is used ro raise steam which powers turbines to generate electricity.

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Using nuclear fission to produce electricity has many advantages. Nuclear plants do not release carbon dioxide, paniculate matter, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Multiple safety systems greatly reduce the likelihood of a catastrophic .accident releasing radioactive material into the environment. But the Chernobyl accident showed that the inability to control human error can lead to nuclear accidents.

Nuclear'power also has many disadvantages. Construction and operating costs for nuclear power plants are high. There are potential problems with mechanical failure and human errors in operatipg plants. In addition, there are problems associated with mining, shipping, storage, decommissioning, sabotage, and storage and disposal of high- and low-level radioactive wastes (Chiras, 1985).

Radioactive materials carried by wind and water can spread quickly through the environment and only the natural decay process diminishes the radioactivity of nuclear waste. The most voluminous though least concentrated waste comes from uranium mines and mills. Mining removes most uranium from the ore, but leaves about 85 percent of the radioactivity in the leftover tailings (Brown, 1992). '

D. Oil/Petroleum ·

Some crude oil is produced in Michigan, equivalent to 11 percent of the state's consumption.

Once it is removed from a well, most crude oil is sent by pipeline to a refinery-there it is heated and distilled to produce gasoline, heating oil, diesel oil, asphalt, and other materials. Oil is one of the world's most unevenly distributed resources, with 95 percent of the proven reserves found in only 20 countries. The U.S. has less than 3 percent of the world's oil resources but uses nearly 30 percent of the oil extraeted each year (Miller, 1990).

Experts disagree over how long the world's identified and unidentified crude oil resources will last At present consumption rates, known world crude oil reserves will be economically depicted in 33 years and U.S. reserves in 28 years (Miller, 1990}.

Economic forces outside of Michigan have . profound effects on Michigan• s oil and gas development. For example, if the price of oil rises, a number of snipper wells and secondary recovery programs not currently in use might become profitable. Conversely, if the price of oil falls, marginal wells are not profitable (Miller, 1990).

Oil has several important advantages that explain why it is so widely used. It is fairly cheap and it can easily be transponed within and between countries. It is also a versatile fuel that can be burned to propel vehicles, heat buildings and water, and supply high-temperature heat for industrial processes and electricity production.

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A disadvantage is that oil burning releases carbon dioxide gas, which could alter global climate, and other air pollutants such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, that can damage people, crops, trees, fish, and other species. Oil spills and drilling muds cause water pollution.

In the process of extraction, in addition to oil, saline waste water, brine, is produced. Environmental concerns with brine revolve around high concentrations of chloride, hannful organics' such as benzene, toluene, and ethyl benzene, in addition to heavy metals found in brine. Brine losses occur in the field, and in transpon and storage prior to disposal (UMBS-GEM, 1990). _ Contaminants may move through a well into the groundwater. In addition, wells may allow contaminants to move between aquifers, thus allowing a shallow, contaminated aquifer to pollute a purer, deep one.

The Michigan DNR has issued over 40,000 permits for oil and gas production since the permitting process was instituted. Of those, about 5,000 are producing today, leaving over 35,000 abandoned wells (UMBS-GEM, 1990).

One of the disadvantages of oil is that affordable supplies will be depleted within 40 to 80 years and its true costs are not presently accounted for. As countries are forced to drill for deeper, more remote deposits, the net useful energy yield of oil will drop and its price will rise sharply. The DNR, Geological Survey Division listed over 350 sites of documented environmental contamination resulting from oil and gas production (UMBS-GEM, 1990) ..

Act 307 sites are dominated by petrolium-related contamination (Proposed Act 307 list for 1992). There are approximately 1,420 contaminated sites where pollution can be directly amibuted" to the storage, refinement, spill, or transmission of petroleum. There are an additional 120 sites that have been contaminated by· petroleum during oil and gas exploration. Another contaminant associated with oil and gas exploration is brine (chlorides), which are found at 57 sites.

II. Renewable Energy Resources A. Biomass

Wood, wood wastes, and agricultural wastes used in direct combustion· are the predominant forms of biomass energy in use today. Other forms of biomass energy include ethanol derived from grain and other plant matter, and biomass produced from municipal wastewater treatment plants, landfills, animal manure, and other sources. Municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived fuel ( the separated combustible fraction of MSW) are also biofuels. Future uses of biomass will involve new energy crops with improved qualities, and will utilize new production teehnologies to produce liquid and gaseous fuels (Rader, 1989, 1990).

Wood is one renewable energy resource that is quite abundant in Michigan. Several industries currently use wood or wood waste to produce steam or generate electricity (ICF, 1987).

• This number docs noc i:ncludc suspeacd pamlcmn c:auaminalioa fcmnd in raidcruia1 wells or landfills.

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The main advantages of biomass for energy production are that it is a renewable resource and domestically available.

A potential disadvantage is that over-development of biomass could lead to. forest clearing. Any successful and sustainable biomass energy plan must include careful forest and agricultural management practices. Emissions from biomass facilities include sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide.

B. Geothermal

Geothermal energy is heat contained below the earth's surface. A geothermal power plant taps this energy, bringing it up to the surface and releasing it to drive a turbine generator. Little · carbon dioxide is emitted in the process. The geothermal resource is enormous--at least 100 times the amount of energy currently used annually in the U.S. (Miller, 1990).

The advantages of geothermal energy include a 100- to 200- year supply in areas near deposits, moderate net useful energy yields, and no emissions of carbon dioxide. A major limitation is the scarcity of easily accessible deposits. The potential for geothermal resource extraction in Michigan is limited to a very small portion of southern Michigan. Without pollution control, geothermal energy causes moderate to high air pollution from hydrogen sulfi.de. ammonia, and ra.dioactive materials. It also causes moderate to high water pollution from dissolved solids (salinity) and runoff of several toxic compounds. Noise, odor, and local climate changes can also be problems. Most experts consider the environmental effects to be less or no greater than fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.

C. Hydroelectric

H ydroelecttic systems convert the kinetic energy of flowing water into electrical energy by means of a turbine-generator. The water is commonly stored behind a dam and released through penstocks to turn a turbine and generate electricity. Hydroelectric plants are considered to be clean sources of electricity in the sense that they produce no harmful air pollutants. In Michigan, there arc two types of hydroelectric plants in use: (1) conventional small-scale and large-scale hydroelectric plants, and (2) pumped storage plants. There are 113 conventional plants (MDNR, 1989) and one pumped storage facility in the state.

Conventional hydroelectric plants convert the kinetic energy of naturally flowing water from rivers or streams into electricity. Existing conventional hydroelectric plants are considered to be the most efficient and lowest-cost sources of electricity available. This is due, in large part, to the absence of fuel costs associated with other electricity production.

While hydropowcr is generally considered a reliable power source. the summer drought of 1988, during which hydropower production was reduced by more than 25 percent, demonstrated that shortages can occur.

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The primary environmental advantages to hydroelectric plants are that they produce no harmful ( air emissions and are relatively inexpensive. In addition, it can be argued that recreational . opporrunities are created by the holding ponds created above the dams.

Conventional hydroelectric systems pose many environmental problems. · l:.arge land areas are flooded when a new plant comes on line. This causes loss of habitat for both indigenous fish and wildlife. Conversely, where a plant has been in operation for a period of time, a new habitat is created that would be destroyed if the dam is removed. The dams, even with most conventional fishways, can prevent the upward or downward migration of fish. Other fish may be killed in the turbines of plants. Also, changes in water levels in the upstream reservoir and varying water flows can affect water quality and thus adversely impact fish, other aquatic organisms, and wildlife (Ploskey, 1986; Cushman, 1985).

Pumped storage hydroelectric facilities provide a means by which electricity can, in effect, be • stored for later use. Low-value off-peak power, usually surplus energy from baseload steam

electric plants, is used to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir where it is stored as potential energy. The water is released when needed to produce power during high­value peak periods.

The net power generation of pumped storage is negative due to efficiency and friction losses during pumping. However, it is justified economically because pumping with lower-value off­peak power provides the availability of the higher-value peak-load power. In addition, using the off-peak "surplus" power to pump the water allows the baseload plants to run at a higher efficiency level. ~

The advantages to pump storage hydroelectric plants are similar to those of conventional hydropower outlined above in that they emit no harmful gases. In addition, pumped storage may also be used in emergency situations where there is a sudden surge in electricity demand, or during unscheduled outages of thermal plants.

The environmental problem most closely associated with pumped storage hydroelectric systems relates to the mortality of fish. Estimates of salminoid fish mortalities at the pumped storage facility at Ludington, MI from 1975-1978 concluded that over 100 percent of the salminoid fish stocked in the Ludington area were being killed by the facility (Liston, 1979). In addition, millions of other larval, juvenile, and adult fish have been killed by the facilitics's turbines (Liston, ct al., 1981 ). Noise pollution and large land requirements are other disadvantages of pumped storage.

D. Landfill Gas Recovery

This energy technology recovers methane from waste already placed in a landfill. As the waste decomposes, methane is created. It has the advantage that energy is recovered from a resource that has been disposed. In addition, it avoids the smell associated with decomposing waste and the potential danger for accidental explosions and extraction is often inexpensive (ICF, 1987).

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E .. Municipal Waste Incineration

The greatest potential for waste to energy development in Michigan comes from solid waste. In 1987, Michigan produced about 26,500 tons of waste per day with 80 . to 85 percent being disposed in landfills. In many instances these wastes could be convened into useful energy by burning the material to produce steam or generate electricity (ICF, 1987). The two largest electric 'utilities in Michigan are required to enter into contracts for 120 megawatts of electric capacity from resource recovery facilities (MCLA 460.6o(2)).

The main advantage of this approach is that existing landfills are reaching capacity and new ·landfills are difficult to site. The main disadvantage is the emissions produced by a municipal solid waste incinerator: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, suspended particulates, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, as well as the potential for heavy metals including mercury (ICF, 1987).

Solar energy can be divided into two types: photovoltaics and thermal. A photovoltaic cell is a thin layer of semiconductor material, usually silicon, which converts sunlight directly into electricity. It has the advantages that no carbon dioxide is emined, fuel costs arc zero and maintenance costs are low. CU1TCntly, a typical system is accompanied with a warranty that lasts for 10 to 15 years, the system will last 15 to 20 yem, and future systems are expected to last 30 years or longer (Rader, 1989, 1990).

It has the disadvantage that power is only available intermittently. Some estimate that 97 percent of the environmental risk of photovoltaics (PY) stems from the production of the energy system itself because vinually no pollutants are emitted during the life of PY cells, which is 15 to 30 years. While the risks are concentrated in the production process (the same health and safety regulations in effect for the semi-conductor industry also apply to the production of PYs), they vary depending on the type of materials used. The risk in disposal of equipment also varies with the composition of the PY system (Rader, 1989).

Solar thermal power plants convert radiant energy from the sun into heat energy, a portion of which is transformed into electricity. There are a variety of solar thermal designs, most of which focus sunlight to heat a fluid to be used to produce steam to run a conventional turbine. No gas emissions or waste are created by electricity generated by solar thermal plants. The primary problems of solar thermal plants is the large land areas required. Although Rader (1989) states that while the land area requirements are large, they are no greater than the total land requirements for conventional fuels, including coal and nuclear, where primary fuel extraction (i.e. coal and uranium mining) and other uses of the land are considered (Rader, 1989).

G.~

Wind turbines use the kinetic energy in wind to rotate a shaft linked to a generator to create elecoicity. Traditional windmills use mechanical energy directly to pump water. Wind turbines

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may installed alone, or in groups called wind farms. In Michigan, wind resources can be found r on the western lakeside areas of the lower peninsula and the northwest section of the upper \ .. peninsula (Rader, 1989).

The main advantage is that wind is a renewable resource that produces no carbon dioxide. The main disadvantage is that wind farms require large land areas, between 15 and 45 acres per megawatt of capacity. Since turbines arc spaced apan, the turbines themselves only occupy a fraction of the land. Therefore, in many cases the use of the land for agricultural and livestock grazing purposes is compatible with wind generation (Rader, 1989).

Wind farms pose hazards for birds and many disrupt native bird habitats. Wind turbines may create audible, low-frequency noise, although noise problems can be reduced or eliminated by proper machine design and siting. Wind turbines may also degrade visual aesthetics, although this problem may be mitigated to some degree by proper equipment design, painting, sifting, and maintenance (Rader, 1989).

No analysis has been made to date of the toxicity of material used in the manufacture of wind equipment, or of environmental problems which might result from equipment disposal, but they arc likely to be far less severe than those of conventional energy systems.

Ill. Energy Efficiency

Some analysts claim that as much as 84 percent of all energy used .in the U.S. is wasted (Miller, -1990). The easiest and cheapest way to make more energy available with the least environmental impact is to reduce or eliminate unnecessary energy use and waste. There are three general ways to do this:

• reduce energy consumption by changing energy-wasting habits. • use less energy to do more worlc by developing devices that waste less energy

than existing ones, such as cogencralion. • impose energy efficiency by using less energy to do the same amount of work.

Improving energy efficiency has the highest new useful energy yield of all energy alternatives. It reduces the environmental effects of using energy because less of each energy resource is used. It adds no carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and is the best, cheapest, and quickest way to slow down potential global climate change. If worldwide energy efficiency improved 2 percent a year, major changes in climate from potential global climate change would probably be delayed until at least 2075 (Miller, 1990).

Reducing the amount of energy we use and waste makes domestic and world supplies of nonrenewable fossil fuels last longer, buys time for phasing in perpetual and renewable energy resources, and reduces dependence on imported oil. Furthermore, it usually provides more jobs

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and promotes more economic growth per unit of energy than other energy alternatives (Miller, 1990).

In the U.S., industrial processes consume more energy than transportation, residences, and commercial buildings. Today U.S. industry uses 70 percent less energy to produce the same amount of goods as it did in 1973. But American industry still wastes enormous amounts of energy. , Japan has the highest overall industrial energy efficiency in the world. Japanese products have a 5 percent average price advantage over American goods simply because of the higher_ average energy cost of U.S. goods (Miller, 1990).

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References

American Gas Association. 1990. 1990 Gas Facts.

Bleviss, Deborah L, and Peter Walzer. 1990. Energy for Motor Vehicles. Scientific American, September, 263:103.

Brown, Lester R. 1992. State of the World 1992-A Worldwatch Instirute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society. W.W Nonon & Company, New York.

Chiras, Daniel D. 1985. Environmental Science: A Framework for Decision Making. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Massachusetts.

Cushman, Roben M. 1985. Review of Ecological Effects of Rapidly Varying Rows Downstream from Hydroelectric Facilities. Nonh American Journal of Fisheries Management 5:330-339.

Davis, Jed R. 1990. Energy for Planet Earth. Scientific American. September, 263:55.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 1991. Notice of Proposed Rulemaking RM 91-11.

Ploskey, Gene R. 1986. Effects of Water Level Changes on Reservoir Ecosystems, with Implications for Fisheries ManagemenL Reservoir Fisheries. Management: Sttategies for the 80's.

Ficken, Arnold P., □ark W. Gellings, and Amory Lovins. 1990. Efficient Use of Electricity. Scientific American. September, 263:65.

Fulkerson, William, Roddie R. Judkins, and Manoj K. Sanghvi. 1990. Energy from Fossil Fuels. Scientific American, September, 263:128.

Hay, Nelson E. 1985. Guide to New Natural Gas Utilization Technologies.

Holdren, John P. 1990. Energy in Transition. Scientific American, September, 263: 156.

!CF Incorporated. 1987. Final Rcpon: The Potential for Biomass, Waste to Energy, and Hydroelectric Power in Michigan. Presented to The Michigan Electricity Options Study. January.

Lippman, Thomas W. 1991. Energy Plan Emphasizes Production: Bush Adrninisi:ration Deletes Incentives for Conservation. Washington Post, 2/9/91.

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Liston, Charles R. 1979. Estimates of Saiminoid Fish Monaiities Occurring at the Ludington Pumped Storage Power Facility During 1975-1978. Departtnent of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State Univen.ity.

Liston, Charles R., Dan Brazo, Rich O'Neal, Joe Bohr, Greg Peterson, and Rick Ligmans. 1981. Assessment of Larval, Juvenile, and Adult Fish Losses at the Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant on Lake Michigan. Michigan State University.

Mackenzie. 1989. The Future of Energy. Scientific American, September, 261.

Michigan Department of Commerce. 1987. Michigan Electricity Options Study. Work Group #3 Repon: Non-Utility Supply and Displacement Options. September.

Michigan Department of Commerce. 1987. Executive Summary, Michigan Electricity Options Study. Electricity Options for the State of Michigan: ResultS from the MEOS ProjecL September.

Michigan Energy and Resource Research Association (MERRA). District Heating: reducing fuel needs, improving air quality, and paying for itSelf. ·

Michigan Deparnnent of Commerce and Michigan Department of Natural Resources. 1986. Michigan Wood Energy Development Plan: An Addendum to Michigan's Forest Resources, A Statewide Forest Resource Plan. March.

Michigan Council on Environmental Quality. 1991. Energy and Environment Project: Findings and Recommendations. Submined to the Michigan Public Service Commission. March.

Michigan Public Service Commission (MPSC) and Department of Commerce. 1991. Michigan Energy Overview: A summary of state energy use and expendinm:s. Prepared for the Michigan House of Representatives, Economic Development and Energy Comminees. March 26.

Michigan Public Service Commission. 1991. Case No. U-9346, May 7.

Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1990. Resource Conservation and Management. Wadsworth Publishing Company, California.

Mintzer, Irving and James Hansen. 1991. The Greenhouse Effect is Real. Global Resources.

Pillon, Jeffrey R., Michigan Public Service Commission (MPSC). 1991. Presentation to the House Economic Development and Energy Comminee. April 16. ·

Rader, Nancy. 1990. The Power of the States: A Fifty-State Survey of Renewable Energy. Public Citizen, Critical Mass Energy ProjecL Washing, D.C. June.

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Rader, Nancy. 1989. Power Surge: The Status and Ncar-Tcmi Potential of Renewable Energy Technologies. Public Citizen, Critical Mass Energy ProjecL Washing, D.C. May ..

Ruckelshaus, William D. 1989. Toward a Sustainable World Scientific American, September, 261:166.

Schneider, Keith. 1991. Bush's Energy Plan Emphasizes Gains in Output Over Efficiency: Fewer Limits on Opening Nuclear Plants Urged. New York Tunes, 2/9/91.

UMBS-GEM Paper. Preyaretl by Regional Groundwater Center, University of Michigan Biological Station. 1990. EffCCts of Oil and Gas Activities on Groundwater and Surface Water in Northern Michigan, Discussion Paper. September.

United States Department of Energy. 1991/1992. National Energy Strategy: Powerful Ideas for America, first edition. February.

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LACK OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS (ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY)

The Eanh does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth. A_Jl things are connected, like blood that unites one family. Mankind did not weave the web of life. We are but one strand within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves. All things are bound together.

Native American Chief Seattle, 1844

Problem

Ever since humans inhabited the earth, we have been changing the environment in which we live through settlement, hunting, gathering, fanning, and more recently through a host of activities associated with modem life. In the last 150 years we have seen the combination of rapid population growth and the industrial revolution caused significant environmental changes which affect the well-being of humans in both positive and negative ways. These changes also affect the viability of thousands of species of plants and animals. No pan of the planet remains unaffected by human actions.

Survival of the planet depends on whether present and future generations can be educated in ecological literacy-an awareness of the interconnectedness of all life. People are increasingly ecologically illiterate, alienated from natural systems; fewer and fewer have the opporrunity for regular experience with nature. Without a broad understanding of the links between human welfare and the environment, environmental protection initiatives must face a host of challenges. With popular suppon, however, these challenges would not exist or could be more easily overcome. Few ecological -institutions have related the challenges of building a sustainable society to the learning process. Such an education requires fundamental changes in many of our present assumptions about schooling; the model of humans and nature needs to be replaced by the alternative model of humans in nature.

To transform toward ecological sustainability, we must reevaluate many of the assumptions and values which underlie such areas as science, technology, economics, politics, and education. Education, however, has a fundamental role for long-rerm transformation, for it is primarily through education that changes occur in the other realms. Educational institutions produce the leaders and citizens of the world, influencing greatly whether or not our population consists of ecologically responsible citizens.

The power of education to shape culture can be both positive and negative. Education throughout history has been generating and perpetuating the values and assumptions which have led to our present ecological crisis. In some sense, all education and research is environmental by virtue of what it de-emphasizes or neglects altogether. We have largely excluded environmental concerns from our education, and thus from our cultures. Now we must reintroduce environmental thinking into society by reintegrating it into our education.

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Public Perception of Environmental Problems

Public concern about environmental problems is high and rising. In 1990 the Roper Organization, Inc. conducted a survey about public attitudes and individual behavior as it relates to the environment (Roper, 1990). In this and other surveys, over 90 percent of Americans described themselves as environmentalists. Nevertheless, public involvement remains relatively low. There is a clear gap between what American people are saying and doing. This gap stems from the belief that an individual has a very limited impact on environmental problems.

-The need to educate the public is best illustrated by the following findings of the Roper poll:

• Nearly half of the people polled believe that they do not have the knowledge to understand environmental problems.

• The most serious environmental problems recognized by over two-thirds of those polled were water pollution from manufacturing plants, oil spills, chemical waste, industrial air pollution, stratospheric ozone depletion, contaminated drinking water, and nuclear waste.

• Global climate change and indoor air pollution were perceived as serious environmental problems by less than half of those polled.

• Most people believe that they can not do much to improve the environmental quality of life. The public feels that the most serious environmental problems are largely beyond their personal control. For 7 out of JO environmental problems, individuals believe that they can do little or nothing about them.

Environmental Education in Michigan

Disclaimer: The intent of this section is to give the reader a general idea of the environmental education endeavors in Michigan and therefore this is only a partial listing of what is happening in Michigan.

Discussions with the following people were incorporated into this section:

• Cora Boucher, DNR Forestry Management Division, Project Learning Tree • Kevin Frailey, MUCC, Environmental Education Director, Member, Environmental

Education Citizens Advisory Committee • Linda Humperies, DNR, YES • Dr. Gregory Keoleian, University of Michigan. Manager, National Pollution

Prevention Center • Joe Leach, president Michigan Alliance for Environmental and Outdoor Education

and Hartly Outdoor Education Center

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• Dr. Roben Long, Science Education Center, Grand Rapids Community College, Coordinator of Project WILD Michigan

• Norris McDowell, Communications Director, Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)

• Barbara Nicholas, DNR, Wetland Education Dr. R. Ben Peyton, Professor, Fisheries and Wildlife Depamnent, MSU, Chairperson, Environmental Education Citizens Advisory Committee

• Ray Rustem, DNR Wildlife Division, Youth Programs Specialist, Member, Environmental Education Citizens Advisory Committee

"Environmental education" can mean many things. In some educator's eyes environmental education is science education, i.e., chemistry, biology, ornithology. For others, it is expeditions, backpacking, rafting, rock climbing, etc. For a few, and a very few, environmental education addresses true ecological issues. As a result, it is imponant to understand what one means when they say "environmental education."

K-12 Education

In the public school setting, environmental education (education that focuses on ecology) at the elementary level is usually in the form of a one-day experience at a nature center. Sometimes, current events involving environmental issues arc covered, but usually not from a science perspective. At the middle school level, there is often much class schedule flexibility and the greatest opponunity for environmental education, which is most often incwporated in science classes. Generally, the extent of environmental education will be taught only as a result of an individual teacher's interests:

At the high school level, environmental education, if it exists, is usually incorporated into science classes (general science or biology). In a few, but growing number of cases, environmental ·education is taught through ecology classes-classes dedicated to environmental issues.

There is widespread criticism that science teachers arc ill-trained for the task of providing environmental education. In many cases, elementary teachers have a very limited knowledge of basic science concepts. Special programs offered through nature centers and other locations arc sporadic and often do not educate in a systematic way. Also, teachers who teach science frequently focus on the same topics, i.e. leaf collecting in the fall, aquatic studies in the spring, and recycling.

Several years ago environmental education cotnmonly meant the teaching of backpacking, canoeing, etc. These courses were often taught through physical education programs and included only experiential types of education. In combination with science classes, they offered an integration opportunity that, for the most pan, was never TCalized

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..

The first difficulty with environmental education in Michigan is that it is fragmented. There is r· no state leadership in environmental education and there are many endeavors. The difficulty arises in trying to ascertain exactly what is happening in the state. Often the environmental education efforts of one group are not known to others. There is no easy way to get infonnation about environmental education opportunities statewide, no coordinating agency, no umbrella organization, no central clearinghouse, no phone number to cal,l. Here are substantial materials and programs that small groups, large groups, and individuals have put together, but there is little or no connection between such groups. There are many commined and interested people, but they have a difficult time finding out all the environmental education opportunities in michigan. Also, there is no long-term state commitment to funding.

Some specific environmental educational endeavors

• Michigan's Youth Environmental-Service (YES}, 1990, Michigan DNR, Office of Water Resources Toe Youth Environmental Service was a pilot grant program initiated during the 1990-91 fiscal year. It was developed by the Department of Natural Resources for the purpose of providing and improving environmental education in Michigan. YES was the only state funded grant program which provided elementary through college level students hands-on environmental education. They provided grant money for activities that increase awareness and understanding among Michigan's youth through direct experiences with their environmenL Special emphasis was placed on urban and minority youth. In 1990-91, the DNR received more than 500 grant applications which represented more than $3.8 million in requests. Ultimately, over $360,000 was awarded to 55 projects serving nearly 16,000 students. Grarits ranged from $ 180 to $20,000. Although YES was considered a tremendous success, the project was not funded by the Michigan legislarure for fiscal year 1991-1992.

• Michigan United Conservation Clubs (MUCCJ has one of the most successful environmental education programs in the state. Their mono is "Conservation through education" and their ultimate mission is ID create an environmentally literate citizenry. Their programs are popular, reaching more than 250,000 citizens a year. MUCC's Tracks publication reaches as many as a quaner-million children in more than 30 stateS. The wildlife programs (Wildlife Discovery and Wildlife Encounters) are unique, including participatory ecological lessons. Twice a year adults weekend courses are offered that focus on Michigan's environmental issues and natural resources.

• Projecr WlLD is one of the most successful environmental education training for state teachers. Project wn..D is a supplememary, interdisciplinary instructional program for teachers of K-12. Project WILD is an environmental and conservation education program of instructional workshops and supplementary curriculum materials for teaehers to help them incorporate concepts related to

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people, wildlife, and a healthy environment into all major school subjects and skill areas, which prepares students to be responsible decision makers. Project WILD Michigan has been in progress for 19 months, has conducted 55, six-hour workshops, and trained over 1500 educators.

• There are approximately 75 Namre Centers and Ouuioor Education Facilities in Michigan.

• There are approximately 12 Traveling Namralisr!Science Ourreach Presenrarion programs in Michigan.

• There arc over 20 Curricula Uniis and Supplemenrs in Michigan. They include Project Leaming Tree and Project WILD, and others, as well as educational materials developed by Michigan indusaies.

In many state departments education is considered a service function. When there arc tough economic times, programs that arc considered service related, i.e., environmental education arc cuL For example, the DNR Information Service Center which housed the majority of publications, maps, films, videos, was recently eliminated. To request information educators and interested citizens now must go to each department that deals with a particular topic, which can mean as many as four or five departments.

Each time the subject of environmental education arises, so docs a debate over whether the curriculum should be mandatory. Those in favor of mandatory environmental education cite the success of Wisconsin. Wisconsin mandates both the tcaehing of environmental education in K-12 and the requirement that all certified teachers take two environmental classes. The difficulty in Michigan stems from the Headley amendment which states that any mandate of the Department of Education must be backed with siatc funding.

Historically MDNR and Dcpamncnt of Education have not played major role in environmental education. In 1988, the Non-game Wildlife Citizens Advisory Committee, concerned about the lack of an encompassing program, called for a panel to develop joint environmental education programs for the DNR and Department of Education. After discussions with the nongame commince, DNR Director David Hales and siatc School Superintendent Donald Bemis developed and signed a Memorandum of Understanding. This document identified several clements of cooperation between the two departments including the esiablishment of an Intcragency Task Force (MDE-MDNR), a Citizens Advisory Committee and the development of a swc environmental education policy.

A draft of the Environmental Education Citizens' Advisory Commince, (EECAC), siatcs their goal for Environmental Education:

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Michigan's environmental education goal is to develop an environmentally responsible { .. citizenry. Environmental responsibility must begin by empowering people, individually and collectively to address environmental issues, whether they live in urban, suburban, or rural communities. Environmenral education will enable individuals to undersrand the connection between themselves, air, land, water, and other living things as well as how these systems relate to the global environmenL At the same time environmental education Will make it possible for individuals to protect, foster and conserve their environment and use its resources in a Wisc and prudent fashion.

The EECAC draft repon as well as the people interviewed all agreed that Michigan has several critical needs in order to achieve comprehensive implementation of environmental education and environmental literacy in Michigan:

•

•

•

•

•

Coordination of effons and resources a. Educators need access to reliable and timely communication network to

encourage comprehensive rather than redundant environmental education programming.

b. A coordinated approach to providing teacher training opponunities is needed to allow more efficient infusion of environmental education.

c. An effective means of disseminating and obtaining new and existing curriculum is necessary to facilitate the implementation of the diverse multidisciplinary materials required in environmental education.

d. Effons of private organizations and groups need to be coordinated to avoid duplication of effon and to channel limited resolD'Ccs in the state to accomplish the desired environmental education mission.

Develop and implement comprehensive K-12 environmental education programming Provi!ie sources of adequate and Stable funding a. Some means of funding support is needed for cooniination. cwriculum

development and dissemination, evaluation, and communication. b. State agency budgets reflect the need to suppon and provide leadership for

environmental education in the state. Instirutionalizc environmental education as an important mission in Michigan which requires support by State and private organizations Monitor and evaluate Michigan's implementation of environmental education

Higher Education

Environmental education and literacy is also sporadic at the university lcveL Generally there is no attempt to integrate environmental education and risk into general curricula, even for education majors. As previously mentioned, in Wisconsin two environmental courses arc required for education graduates. Also, many curricula for those professionals who will have

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severe environmental impacts do not teach basic environmental principals. Highlighted below are two Michigan unique attempts to educate at the university and professional levels.

•

• The National Pollution Prevention Center (NPPC) was established by the EPA at the University of Michigan in October 1991 to help students in a wide range of disciplines benefit from an increased understanding of pollution prevention concepts. The Center's mission is to develop materials which incorporate pollution prevention into higher education cumcula.

With contributions from faculty at other universities and the suppon of government, business, industry, and foundations, the center plans to establish a permanent, nationwide program for higher education cumculum development serving universities in the United States and other countries.

Consortium for International Eanh Science Information Network (CIESIN, pronounced "season") is a private, non-profit organization that receives funds directly from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Deparanent of Defense, U.S. Deparanent of Agriculture, and NASA. CIESIN is headquanered on the campus of Saginaw Valley State University. The purpose of the organization is to create a computer network so that data gathered over decades can be disseminated 10 universities around the world. Also, the system will enable universities to share their own databases with others.

The primary focus of CIESIN is global change. They are especially interested in obtaining and disseminating information about or could lead 10 global changes. In addition, they are committed to addressing the human dimension of global change, such as the effect of changes on various populations. Economic information will also be an important pan of CIESIN services.

Currently, CIESIN has several major universities "signed on", including Michigan State University, University of Michigan, Saginaw Valley State University, University of California at Santa Barbara, as well as the Scripps Oceanic Institute and other significant educational institutions.

Environmental Education and Risk Communication to the General Public

By far the greatest influence on awareness and attirude towards the environment is the media. Children also play a role in the education of their parents. As children learn about and understand their environment, this new attirude and knowledge will be conveyed to parents.

For those who are looking for environmental information there are several avenues located in the State:

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The most visible statewide leadership in environmental education comes from Michigan United Conservation Cubs (MUCC) and the Michigan Alliance of Environmental and Outdoor Education (MAEOE). MUCC employs four positions whose primary responsibilities lie in the area of environmental education. MAEOE is a volunteer professional organiz:ation who has been responsible for a number of major environmental education achievements, including the sponsorship of Project WII.D.

•

•

Summary

Prominent Nonprofit Environmenral and Conservation Organizations (all have newsletters with circulation to members)

Michigan United Conservation Qubs Michigan Alliance for Environmental and Outdoor Education The Nature Conservancy, Michigan Chapter The Sierra Qub, Michigan Chapter Michigan Audubon Society Detroit Audubon Society The Michigan Environmental Council West Michigan Environmental Action Council East Michigan Environmental Action Council

There are approximately 12 substantial Environmental Education Workshops, Conferences and Festivals in Michigan.

Understanding how we live in a would that is linked economically and ecologically as well as politically is essential to meeting human needs in the 21st century and beyond. Preserving the ability of future generations to meet their needs will require a citizemy with an awareness and ethic for environmental protection. A sustainable future depends on a healthy environmenL To protect the environment we must change the mindset of individuals, institutions, communities, and industry with respect to their surroundings.

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References

Roper Organization, Inc. 1990. The Environment: Public Attitudes and Individual Behavior. Commissioned by S.C. Johnson & Son, Inc. ·

Orr, David W. 1989. "Ecological Literacy: Education for the Twenty-First Century" Holistic Education Review. Fall: 48-53.

Orr, David W. 1990. "Liberal Arts, the Campus, and the Biosphere" Harvard Education Review. May.

Allen, Lisa J. 1991. Education: Some of the Pieces are missing in Michigan's attempts to teach our children about the environment. Tuebor Terra. September/October.

Carruth, Sean R. 1989. Environmental and Lansing, Michigan.

The Conservation Catalog: A Resource Guide for Michigan Conservation Educaum. Michigan United Conservation Cubs,

Repon of the Environmental Education Citizens• Advisory Commincc to the Michigan Board of Education and the Michigan Natural Rcsoun:cs Commission. Draft Repon. 1-23-92.

Western Regional Environmental Education Council. 1988. An Introduction to Project Wll.D: From Awareness to Responsible Actions. W eStCITI Regional Environmental Education Council, Boulder, Colorado.

Michigan Alliance for Environmental and Outdoor Education. Project WILD Michigan.

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GENERATION AND DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS AND LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Hazardous wastes and low-level radioactive wastes generate highly emotional responses from almost everyone, especially when there is a chance that one of these wastes may occur in our own neighborhood. The perception for both of these categories of wastes is that they represent unacceptable risks, and that strong political and legal actions can make them go away. Both categories of waste arc generated abundantly in Michigan (and in every other state as well). However, they arc generated as pan of processes that usually have significant value for the personal and economic well-being of all citizens of the state. Many types of hazardous waste arc actually residuals from waste treaanent operations.

Under completely uncontrolled conditions these wastes do have the potential for producing adverse effects in humans and the environment, and therefore, they need to be properly managed in order to limit potential risks. The general management procedures arc well understood and driven by both economics and regulatory pressures. They range from process control leading to waste avoidance or waste reduction, to reuse and recycling, to waste trcaanent or destruction and to the containment of residual waste. It should be clear that these processes apply to vacying degrees to hazardous waste and low-level radioactive waste. Wastes that have been generated in the past and arc still present in the environment pose significant challenges to currently available management options.

There is an extensive legal, administrative and enforcement framework that governs the generation, transpon, storage, treatment, and disposal of presently produced hazardous wastes. There also is a framework for dealing with emergencies arising from spilled hazardous wastes, and for managing hazardous wastes that had been generated and disposed of improperly or before our present requirements for waste storage were developed. The control of low-level radioactive waste is covered under separate regulations in most cases (mixed hazardous and radioactive waste is regulated under RCRA).

Hazardous Wastes

In most states the management of hazardous wastes falls under the control of the U.S. EPA. Four states, including Michigan, have been authorized by the EPA to substitute their own programs which must incorporate the major features of the national program, and can be no less stringent than the national program.

The management of hazardous wastes that are presently being produced are primarily controlled through the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).

W asteS are defined to be hazardous in several different ways:

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1. If a waste is found 10 fail specific tests with respect to Ignitability, Corrosivity, Reactivity, or (TCLP) Toxicity Characteristic (extractability of metals, pesticides and other specific organic chemicals under acidic conditions).

2. The waste contains materials appearing on one of four· lists of compounds considered to be hazardous by EPA.

3. Mixtures containing any of the specified wastes (fraction or concentration of constituents is irrelevant).

The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 clarified issues related to the protection of groundwater, specified the engineering requirements for land disposal, extended regulation to include some small quantity generators, regulated underground storage tanks, and banned certain chemicals completely from land disposal.

Certain wastes are specifically excluded from consideration, sometimes because they are already regulated under other authority. Examples of excluded wastes are: waste water discharges, nuclear wastes, ordinary household waste, coal combustion waste, fertilizers, drilling fluids and brines, mining wastes ( overburden), agricultural waste used as fertilizer. Under RCRA, waste generators must:

identify hazardous wastes, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

obtain EPA identification numbers comply with a manifest system if waste is sent off site label and mark wastes and use good housekeeping practices, keep complete records and file biennial reports with EPA.

Transporters of wastes must:

1. obtain EPA identification numbers, 2. deliver waste to an authorized facility selected by the generator, 3. clean up spills immediately, 4. keep complete records.

Treattnent, storage and disposal facilities must:

1. obtain EPA identification numbers, 2. use good housekeeping practices, 3. keep records, 4. prepare and follow closure and post-closure plans, 5. comply with technical standards of design and operation, 6. have adequate funds to close facility if necessary, 7. provide insurance for care of land disposal facilities, 8. be prepared for emergency responses.

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The management of acwal and potential releases of hazardous substances into the environment r is covered by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act \ : (CERCLA-also known as "Superfund") of 1980, as well as the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986. Some states also have similar laws like Ml Act 307. These acts provide for the cleanup of contaminated sites, liability, compensation, emergency response, and establish a trust fund for closure of hazardous waste operations.

The Supetfund Remedial Process follows a complex sequence:

1. Site discovery and inventory, 2. Preliminary assessment, 3. Site inspection, 4. Application of the Hazard Ranking System/National Priority List, 5. Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study, 6. Remedial Design/Remedial Action.

Prior to any remedial actions there may be a "removal action" which is a shon term clean up of major surface contamination. The remedial action seeks to find a permanent remedy, including removal of wastes to another site, entombment of wastes, groundwater treatment, etc. Both removal and remedial actions must follow the requirements set by RCRA.

The most critical point on the clean-up of contaminated sites is the issue of "how clean is clean." Michigan Act 307 Rules specify the acceptable levels or procedures under three scenarios.

Type A criteria arc based upon background concentrations of contaminants or upon achieving concentrations below the method detection limit for all contaminants. These criteria obviously have no relationship to risk.

Type B criteria are based upon the risks posed by consuming water in an affected aquifer, upon the potential that contaminated soils may contaminate an aquifer, upon the potential for soil ingestion and absorption from contaminated soils through dermal contaet, and the potential of exposures through food chains. In the case of potential carcinogens the exposure limits arc based upon upper plausible limits of risk of one in a million over a life time, in the case of non­carcinogens they arc based upon U.S. EPA reference doses. These criteria arc applied to the site, to the aquifer beneath the site, and assume a continuing exposure over a human life span. Under type B criteria the exposure scenarios tend towards worst case conditions.

Type C criteria require site specific risk assessments which include direct and indirect effectS on human health and on the ecosystem, ranging from effectS on phytoplankton through loss of wildlife habitat

It should be noted that "Hazardous Waste" has a legal definition. This definition does not incorporate either toxicological data or a risk assessmenL Similarly, the Hazard Ranking System is a synthetic scoring system that does not include a quantitative risk assessment as a prominent

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pan of the·scoring system. Consequently, it is essentially impossible to incorporate the hazardous waste management system into a relative risk analysis.

The process for managing hazardous wastes is extremely complex. It· is characterized by extensive paper work and a very high price tag. The real risks associated with hazardous waste are poorly defined, because the process of waste management is not driven by risk analysis, but rather by synthetic administrative procedures. Clean-ups under Supcrfund are driven by the aspiration to remove every vestige of real or potential risk, which has resulted in a continuing controYersy of "how clean is clean." Because of the extensive use of worst case exposure analyses the risk assessments associated with Superfund sites exaggerate the real risks.

It is no surprise that the U.S. EPA (1987a) has estimated that the current risks associated with hazardous wastes are lower than those associated with many other environmental problems. A work group of EPA administrators and scientists judged that criteria air pollutants, non-point discharges to surface waters, P01W discharges to surface waters, discharges to marine waters, CO

2 and global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, other air pollutants, and point-source

discharges to surface waters--all merited a higher level of concern than any of the hazardous waste issues. This same work group scored indoor Radon pollution as the highest concern for radiation issues, but still scored it below most hazardous -waste issues. Radiation-other than indoor Radon-was lumped into an unranked grouping of potentially minor effects.

Low-Level Radioactive Wastes

The disposal of low-level radioactive waste is governed by the Low-level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (1980) and the Low-level Radioactive Wastes Policy Amendment Act (1986), which require the states or state compacts to establish their waste disposal capacity for commercially generated low-level radioactive waste that has been produced within their boundaries. The methods for managing low-level radioactive wastes are proscribed in procedures and rules that have been developed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. EPA, and reviews by the National Academy of Science and the Science Advisory Board of the U.S. EPA.

Iri contrast to the procedures for some types of hazardous wastes, low-level radioactive wastes cannot be destr0yed, and therefore the major management options are storage and containmenL The supporting sciences in dealing with containment designs incorporate hydrogeological models, environmental transpon and fate models, and risk assessments. In the case of radioactive materials the measurement of the radiation is exceedingly simple, when compared with the difficulties involved in measuring a large suite of organic and inorganic chemicals found in the usual type of hazardous waste site. Most of the information used for the risk assessments for radioactivity are based upon information derived from human exposures. The migration patterns of radioactive materials have been studied on hand of actual experience at sites such as Oak Ridge, TN and Hanford, WA. Consequently, the foundations for modeling environmental the transpon of radioactive materials, the potential doses, and the potential effects in humans are

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better established for radioactive materials than for any other contaminanL The dose and risk projections approximate worst case conditions and are thought by some to be highly conservative. The projected risks are dependent upon the siting and the engineering features incorporated into the site. · Funhermore, the physical, chemical, biological and engineering issues related to maintaining the risks well within the limits that are accepted for other agents, are better underst?Od for radioactive waste than for any other class of waste.

The State of Michigan is not participating in any multi-state compact for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste. There are no concrete plans to develop a disposal site in the State. Low-level radioactive wastes continue to accumulate in cellars and sheds in hospitals, universities, and other institutions. What is the comparative risk of present storage practices?

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References

Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40: Environ. Protection; Hazardous waste materials mainly jn 40 CFR 260-281.

Dowd, R. (1989). Superfund Impasse. Env. Sci. Tech. 22:877.

Fomma, R.C. and D.J. Lennett (1986). Hazardous Waste Regulation-The New Era. McGraw­Hill Book Co., New York. ix + 393.

Great Lakes Chapter of the Health Physics Society; Low-Level Radioactive Waste Risk Assessment Committee (1989). Estimated radiation risk 10 the public from a low-level radioactive waste site in Michigan. 12pp.

Michigan DNR. (1990). Environmental Contamination Response Activity-Administrative Rules for 1982 PA 307, as Amended.

Morse, D. (1989). What's wrong with Superfund. ASCE Civil Eng. Apr., 40-43.

U.S. EPA (1987a). Unfinished Business: A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems. U.S. EPNOPPE; Feb. 1987.

U.S. EPA (1987b). Low-level and NARM Radioactive Wastes. Draft Environmental Impact StatemenL Vol. 1: Background Information DocumenL U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs. EPA 520/1-87-012.

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GENERATION AND DISPOSAL OF HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE

I. S tatcmenr of the Issue

High-level radioactive waste is cunently being stored at four nuclear power plant locations in Michigan. While this storage has been adequate to date, the existing facilities are reaching their capacity and new storage will be needed in the near future. The federal government is scheduled to conSttUct a temporary national storage facility by 1998 and complete a pennanent facility by 2010. However, these schedules have repeatedly slipped in the pasL Since high-level nuclear waste presents health and environmental risks, there are significant questions regarding the advisability of long-term storage of these wastes at facilities that were intended for only shon­term use. All 34 states utilizing nuclear power face this problem along with Michigan.

II. Background of the Problem

The United States currently has 110 operating nuclear power plants which generate approximately 20% of the nation• s electricity. 1 In Michigan, approximately 26% of electricity is generated by plants at four locations:

(a) Big Rock Point (Consumers Power Co.) near Owievoix; (b) Palisades (Consumers Power Co.) near South Haven; (c) Fermi 2 {Detroit Edison Co.) near Monroe; and (d) Cook Units 1 & 2 (Indiana Michigan Power Co.} near Bridgeman.

These plants represent a capital investment of $7 billion and generate electricity with an annual value of Sl.4 billion. The estimated future output is equivalent to total state-wide usage, at current demand, for 4.6 years.

In producing electric power, nuclear plants also generate radioactive waste. Because they require different care and disposal, this waste is generally classified as high-level (spent nuclear reactor fuel) and low-level (all other).

Due to the characteristics of nuclear decay, high-level waste presents unique environmental, political and technological challenges. High-level nuclear waste consists of a mixture of shon­and long-lived radioisotopes that could create serious hazaids to human health if released into the biosphere. The thermal output of spent fuel declines npidly to less than one percent of its initial value during the first year after its removal from the reactor.2 However, some long-lived isotopes, and additional isotopes which are decay products created by the initial spent fuel, remain radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. It has been estimated that it will require between 1000 and 10,000 years for the ndioactive biological effects of spent nuclear fuel to decline to that of the uranium ore from which it was made. 3

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Nearly all spent nuclear fuel is stored at the reactor site in water pools. Pool storage has been used for two reasons: (1) it provides a cooling medium for removing the high radioactive heat output in the initial period after the fuel is removed from the reactor; and (2) it provides a convenient temporary storage medium if the fuel is to be reprocessed, as w;is originally intended by the nuclear power industry. It is estimated that the amount of spent nuclear fuel in Storage in the United States at year-end 1991 is more than 23,000 metric tons.• Approximately 980 metric tons is stored in Michigan.5 If the plants run to their currently licensed end of life, the inventory of spent fuel would rise to 3,000 metric tons. If, under procedures now being develqped, plants could operate with a license extension for an additional 20 years, the inventory would rise by 50 percenL ·

Although on-site pool storage has been used successfully for more than 30 years, the amount of available unused pool storage at these plants is becoming insufficient for continued operation. It has been estimated that by 1998, 27 pools in the United States will be filled and will require additional out-of-pool storage, and by 2010, a total of 62 pools will be filled.• Four of these pools are located in Michigan.'

When pool storage is filled, additional spent fuel is expected to be stored in above-ground dry casks located at the reactor site. In order to use this storage method, the plant operator must have approval of a modification to its operating license from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Consumers Power Company has requeSted authority to use dry storage at Palisades and anticipates receiving approval by this summer. Toe NRC has authorized use of dry

..-_ storage for several plants, but has limited the tetm of the license to 20 years, subject to renewal '~ or extension. 1

Toe nation's policy with respect to the disposal of high-level nuclear waste is contained in the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 and the Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1987.9 The 1982 Act provided for the development of two underground repository siteS for the permanent disposal of high-level radioactive waste. Toe U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) was to nominate to the President three sites for geological characterization as candidates for the first repository by January 1, 1985, and nominate additional siteS for the second repository by 1989.'° Following site characterization, the President was to send to Congress bis recommendation for the first repository by March 31, 1987, and for the second repository by 1990.11 DOE's mission plan to implement the Act "included a schedule showing that the first repository would stan operations in 1998 and a second repository, if authorized by Congress, would begin operations in 2003."12 In 1987, DOE revised its in-service date for the first repository to 2003. 13

The 1982 Act also provided that by June 1, 1985, DOE was to submit a detailed study of the need for and feasibility of, as well as a proposal for, the construction of one or more monitored retrievable storage (MRS) facilities that would temporarily store and prepare spent fuel for emplacement in a repository.14 In March 1987, DOE proposed to construct an MRS facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 15

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The 1987 Amendments eliminated the provision for a second repository and limited site r: characterization for the first repository to one already under consideration, Yucca Mountain, \ Nevada.16 Due in pan to opposition from the State of Nevada, DOE has made little progress in the characterization of the Yucca Mountain site and has delayed the proji:cted in-service date to 20 JO. The 1987 Amendments also nullified DOE• s proposal to site an MRS facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and limited DOE to the construction of a single MRS facility. 17 DOE proposes to have the MRS facility ready to accept waste in 1998.11 Neither date can be confidently relied upon. ·

m. Description of Risks

From the above discussion, it is clear that the risks to Michigan associated with high-level nuclear waste are directly tied to the risks associated with the development of national storage facilities. This is not to say that there are no risks in the generation of nuclear power or in the traditional shon-term handling and storage of nuclear wastes-there _are. However, since nuclear plant operators have been dealing with these risks for over 30 years, the difficulties and impacts are reasonably well-understood and there are procedures in place to assure careful handling. Any failures threaten the utility• s license to operate the planL ·

There are also risks associated with the continued operation of nuclear power plants. but these risks appear to be small though difficult to evaluate. In the United States, there has only been one significant accident at a nuclear plant-Three Mile Island in 1979. As a result of its investigation into that accident, significant changes were made in the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's oversight procedures. Outside of the United States, by far the most significant accident occurred at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union in 1986. Toe Chernobyl plant was of a design that could not have been licensed in the United States for several reasons, the most significant being that it lacked a containment stn1cture. 19 Due to the absence of accidents at nuclear plants operating under existing regulations, the authors of this paper were unable to develop a quantitative assessment of the potential risks associated with nuclear generation.

The risks to Michigan associated with a failure or continued degradation of the federal waste repository program are clear and may be significanL These risks may be classified into five general areas: (1) delays associated with teehnological or political limitations; (2) elimination of permanent national Waste storage; (3) siting nuclear waste Storage in Michigan; (4) economic costs; and (5) restrictions in future energy supply options.

A. Technological/Political Delays

The history of the development of a national high-level nuclear waste repository provides scant assurance of timely completion. Spent fuel disposal has been the focus of federal effon since the 1950s. In the nine years since the initial adoption of the latest program, the scheduled completion date of the repository has slipped 12 years from 1998 to 2010. As have citizens at other candidate facilities, Nevada residents have been strongly opposed to the designated Yucca

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Mountain she. DOE has made little progress in the characterization of the site to determine if it is geologically suitable as a pennanent repository. Even if the Yucca Mountain site survives this process, the DOE must still obtain an operating license from the NRC, which is not assured.

The potential for delays associated with this site arc magnified by the failure to pursue alternatives. The process of designating the Yucca Mountain site has resulted in at least temporary elimination of all other sites and options before they were evaluated. While the 1982 Act provided for the consideration of at least 15 sites for possible characrcrization as candidates, the 1987 Amendments reduced these alternatives to only the Yucca Mountain site.

The 1982 Act also limited the possible options to a single class (pcnnanent underground storage in geological structures) from a variety of other alternatives. Additional approaches that have been suggested to deal in pan or in total with high-level nuclear waste include: reprocessing, fractionation, transmutation, disposal in space, ice-sheet disposal, and seabed disposal.20 Other countries, notably Sweden, France, and Switzerland, arc pursuing geologic disposal using essentially the same technology as the U.S. program. Even if geological disposal is the preferred option, there have been suggestions that an international disposal cffon may be more promising than a national approach.21

The limitations placed on these options need not have significant consequences if the Yucca Mountain site proves satisfactory. However, if there arc insurmountable political or teehnological problems associated with that site, then the prior elimination of these alternatives will likely resuh in considerable delay as decision-makers initiate a new process to evaluate and implement the discarded or new sites or options.

Although the Yucca Mountam site is the only permanent repository CUITCntly under consideration, the U.S. Office of the Nuclear Waste Negotiator is actively soliciting states and Indian tribes to accept an MRS facility. Already, eight locales have published their interesL Of course it is possible that, should the Yucca Mountain site be delayed or prove unworkable, the MRS could provide an interim approach to allow time for the development of a viable permanent solution. However, the availability of volunteers to host the MRS may be directly related to the likelihood of a permanent repository being builL If it appears likely that the MRS will be truly an interim facility, then host localities may volunteer provided that adequate financial incentives arc available. However, if the MRS begins to look like a de-facto permanent repository because of a lack of progress toward a permanent site, then it is reasonable to expect the: same type of citizen opposition to the proposed MRS facility as is now occuning in Nevada.

Risks to Michigan due to delays in the development of a permanent repository or the MRS result from the continued storage of high-level waste at operating nuclear plants. Existing on-site storage is intended to be of shon-term duration. For example, finding it a safe alternative for such periods of time, the NRC is licensing the above-ground dry cask storage for 20 year.;, subject to renewal or extension. This does not mean that this storage cannot be utilized for longer duration, but the longer these wastes arc kept at multiple dispersed sitcS throughout the

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state (and the nation), the grearer the potential for an unanticipated release due to human error, sabotage, or technical failure.

The potential risks may be altered if the delay in developing permanent storage extends beyond the decommissioning period for the plants. While the plants arc operating, waste is first stored in pools and only transferred to above-ground casks after pool storage is filled. Upon decommissioning, waste will be transferred and maintained in the casks. In addition, personnel at the site will be reduced to those needed for surveillance. It is not clear whether these changes will increase or decrease the risks associated with longer-term waste storage on site. Toe reduction in operations and personnel should reduce the possibility of human error. However, the task of maintaining surveillance over "dead" waste for long periods of time cannot be very appealing and the human incentive to do a good job may decline after the plant is closed.

The above risk assesstnent should not be read as suggesting that high-level wastes cannot be stored safely at plant sites. To date, operating plants have had a uniformly good record of maintaining on-site storage. However, it is not clear that providing longer-term storage at a decommissioned facility presents identical risks to short-term storage at an operating planL It appears reasonable to expect that these currently small risks will increase in proportion to the amount of time that high-level waste must be stored on-site, although releases from such an accident would likely not be significant due to the secure form of the spent fuel. Almost all the radioactive materials arc in solid form by the time (about five years) the assemblies arc moved to cask or other dry storage. In addition, temperatures arc low because of the in-pool cooling or because of the decay period. So the temperature and pressure (annosphere) regime of storage is far below that of reactor operation. ~

B. Elimination of Permanent National Storage

The above discussion considers the risks associated with maintaining on-site waste storage capacity in the event of a delay in developing a permanent national repositozy. Toe risks considered were those that might exist if some unanticipated mishap · occum:d at the on-site storage. However, there is also risk even if the on-site storage is maintained for the intermediate term without any problems developing.

The impetus that led to the passage of the 1982 and 1987 Acts was the .fact that some nuclear plants were reaching the end of their operating life and the pcn:cption by decision-makers, in part in response to public pressures, that some solution was needed to the problem of long-term storage of high-level waste. If delays occur in developing a permanent national repositozy but no accidents occur at the on-site storage facilities in the interim, then there may be a decline in the perceived need for a permanent facility-an important ingredient in the development of a solution. Such changes in perception would inevitably undermine the political will required for the development of a permanent facility. Under this scenario, on-site storage could evolve from a temporary solution until the plant is decommissioned, to an intermediate solution while a long­tenn solution is developed.

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The merits of on-site storage as a shon-term remedy to the nuclear waste problem arc demonstrated, but these facilities cannot be relied upon to serve adequately for the 10,000 year period required for high-level wastes to become hannless. No one suggests using on-site pool or cask storage as permanent repositories for this waste. Yet it is possible that this unacceptable "solution" may be the one ultimately derived by default rather than by any conscious national decision.

Permanent on-site storage would have none of the safeguards built into the process for siting the permanent national repository. The risks associated with this scenario arc clearly greater than with the first option, but are difficult to quantify due to the unknowable safety threats related to maintaining hazardous waste in shon-term storage indefinitely. It would appear that some significant mobilizing event would be necessary, since once the impetus to find a permanent repository is lost, it would require a major adverse development to galvanize public opinion to develop an alternative.

C. Waste Disposal in Michigan

The above discussion considers the risks to Michigan associated with delays in the siting of a permanent repository or the MRS facility in another state. · It must be recognized that there is a small chance that Michigan could be selected as a storage site. During the 1970s, Michigan was one of three states considered for test drilling in salt beds. After the passage of the 1982 Act, Michigan was one of seventeen states initially considered for the second permanent repository, but was eliminated when DOE narrowed the list to seven stateS in January 1986.22

For Michigan to be selected as the permanent repository, at least three preconditions must occur: ( 1} the Yucca Mountain site must prove impracticable; (2) all other candidate stateS that were ranked higher than Michigan by DOE must be eliminated from consideration; and (3) a Michigan site must be found technically suitable. The likelihood of all of these technical considerations occurring is very small. Even if all occur, political factors would likely mitigate against siting the repository in Michigan. Based on the adverse public reaction to placing the regional low­level waste site in Michigan, it can be readily concluded that siting a high-level national repository in the state would face major political hurdles.

With respect to the MRS facility, DOE has issued technical criteria for selection of candidate sites. 23 If a site meets these technical criteria, then negotiations may begin between the Office of the Nuclear Waste Negotiator and the state, Indian tribe, or local government unit to locate the MRS facility. 24 If a negotiated agreement cannot be reached, then DOE is authorized to survey and evaluate potentially suitable sites. It seems unlikely that Michigan would volunteer to host the facility. Thus the risk to Michigan would appear to depend upon three conditions: (1) that the state meets the technical criteria; (2) that no other site reaches an agreement; and (3) that Michigan volunteers or is selected by DOE. Since the technical criteria wen: just recently issued and the Nuclear Waste Negotiator is just beginning to search for a host, it is too early to estimate the likelihood of the first two conditions being met. However, as discussed under the

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permanent depository, the likely public opposition to siting any waste facility in Michigan would raise considerable obstacles and reduce the risk that the state would be viewed as a suitable host.

D. Economic Risks

Although the most evident risks are those associated with health and human safety issues, disposal of nuclear waste also presents substantial economic risks. Michigan ratepayers are currently paying significant amounts to finance nuclear waste disposal. For example, rates for Michigan utilities currently include approximately $50 million annually to pay for decommissioning of existing nuclear plants. In addition, the 1982 Act assesses a fee of 1 mil per kilowan-hour on all electricity produced from nuclear plants.25 Costs to Michigan ratepayers are more than $20 million annually and total $184 million to date.

The economic risks are primarily related to the potential for these costs to increase. The plant decommissioning cost estimates have been based on the assumption that a permanent repository will be available. If additional above-ground dry-cask storage is required for decommissioning due to delays in the repository, it is anticipated that these costs (as well as anendant monitoring and surveillance costs) would be requested to be paid by Michigan ratepayers.

A potentially more significant risk is the fee for developing the permanent repository. Of the more than $8 billion collected nationally for this pmpose, approximately $3 billion has been spent for research and development (over $1 billion on the Yucca Mountain site). This expenditure record does not bode well for the program in view of the fact that there has been little progress for this money. The problem appears especially acute in light of the fact that this non- ,..,. construction/non-drilling portion of the program should be the least expensive. If and when development of a repository begins in earnest, it is expected that the costs will increase dramatically. The total proceeds from the current fee were judged adequate to fund one repository at $26 billion provided there were no substantial delays in the program. 26

The economic risks to Michigan from this expenditure are two-fold. First, there is the possibility that fees assessed on nuclear plant outputs may increase. The budget for the nuclear waste program has been increasing apprnxirnately 10% per year, and the prospects are that this will accelerate if the program becomes operational. If so, the expenditures could easily exceed the available fund balance, resulting in increased fees.

Second, the money may simply go to waste (no pun intended). There is considerable doubt regarding the ability of the DOE to complete the development of any repository. If DOE is unable to do so, the states will find that they have provided literally tens of billions of dollars only to find that the problem has been returned to them unsolved. This scenario is likely unless both the internal problems with the DOE waste managemem program and the external opposition by local stakeholders to any facility are resolved.

The key to DOE success is a demonstrated competence that generates considerable public confidence in the federal government's ability to handle such a controversial endeavor. The

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recent admissions by DOE of decades of environmental mistakes and mismanagement at defense nuclear weapons production sites may impact this confidence.

E. Restrictions on Future Options

The failure to develop a viable permanent national repository may foreclose available options for meeting' future energy supply needs. It seems clear that future nuclear power plants will not be built unless a solution is found to the long-term waste storage problem. Existing nuclear plants are aging-Big Rock is due to be decommissioned in 2000, Palisades in 2007, the Cook units in 2014 and 2017 respectively, and Fermi in 2025. As these plants are decommissioned, greater reliance will be placed on alternatives including plants using fossil fuel. This foreclosing of the nuclear option could have significant consequences for both energy cost and security, as well as environmental protection.

Although new nuclear plants in the United States have not been otdcrcd in more than a decade, nuclear power continues to be a viable option in other countries (pursued vigorously in France and Japan). In these countries, nuclear power has expanded in pan due to the use of standardized reactor designs that reduce cost as well as design and construction time, and thus reduce uncenainties regarding licensing of the facilities. Given the uncenainty of the continued availability of fossil fuels, as well as national concerns over air pollution and global warming,. there is at least a potential need for nuclear power in the future. Should this need materialize, the standardized approach used elsewhere could prove a model for revival of the nuclear industry in this country as proposed in the National Energy Strategy, but only if a solution to the waste storage problem is developed.

Since the early 1970s, nuclear power has been viewed by some as being environmentally detrimental, but the growing concern with the potential for global wanning is causing a re­evaluation of this view. Combustion of fossil fuels inevitably produces carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas believed to be responsible for global warning. Some fossil fuels release less carbon dioxide than others, but the fuel that releases the least (natural gas) is also the fuel that has been historically the most volatile in supply and price. In addition, switching among fossil fuels can only reduce but not eliminate the problem since the maximum reduction in carbon dioxide due to fossil fuel switching is about 40%. Nuclear power produces no carbon dioxide. Consequently, it may prove to be one of the few options (along with conservation) in a strategy to reduce the threat of global warming. Furthermore, nuclear power does not contribute to the acid rain problem. These factors suggest that there may be a significant environmental risk associated with a failure to develop Jong-term nuclear waste storage.

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IV. Summary

No energy supply option is without its risks to public order, convenience, health and safety. The long-term risks associated with high-level nuclear waste are not within the control of the State of Michigan alone; rather they are risks that are influenced primarily by actions occurring at the federal •level. Assessment of these risks requires the integration of political, technological, and cultural factorS. While the teehnical aspects can generally be quantified, the human factors cannoL Consequently, this white paper has focused primarily on identifying and cJassjfying the relevant risks and discussing (but in general not quantifying) the potential impacts of such risks. The paper identifies four categories of risks associated with nuclear waste.

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References

1. Wol~ Hafele, "Energy from Nuclear Power", Scientific American, September 1990, 263:3.

2. Ronnie B. Lipschultz, Radioactive Waste: Politics. Technology and Risk. (Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company), 1980.

3. Merril Eisenbud, Environmental Radioactivitv From Natural, Industrial, and Military Sources. (San Diego: Academic Press), 1987.

4. U.S. Department of Energy, Spent Fuel Storage Requirements 1990-2040. DOE/RW-90-44.

5. Ibid.

6. Testimony of John W. Banlen, Director, Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. Depanment of Energy, before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, United States Senate, October 2, 1990.

7. Ibid.

8. Testimony of Robert Bemero, Director, Office of Nuclear Materials Safety and Safeguanis, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, before the Subcommittee on .Nuclear Regulation of the Committee on Environment and Public Works, United States Senate, October 2, 1990.

9. USCA 42, 10101 et seq.

10. USCA 42, 10132(b)(l)(B) and (C).

11. USCA 42, 10134(a)(2)(A).

12. U.S. Department of Energy, Draft Mission Plan Amendment, DOE/RW-0316P, September 1991.

13. Ibid

14. USCA 42, 1016l(b)(l).

15. U.S. Depanment of Energy, Monitored Retrievable Storage Submission to Congress, DOE/RW-0035, March 1987.

16. USCA 42, 10133.

17. USCA 42, 10162.

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GENERATION AND DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE

It is believed that options for safe and efficient waste management are vanishing. It is also believed that landfill space will soon run out and that disposal options such as new landfills and incineration are not safe alternatives.

According to an Office of Technology Assessment repon, Americans produce more than 170 million tons of municipal solid waste a year. About 70% is currently being landfilled, 17% incinerated and 13% recycled. In Michigan, approximately 12 million tons of solid waste is produced each year and about 50% originates from households. The majority of the solid waste generated in Michigan is landfilled, It is important to recognize that·residential and municipal waste streams conrain some hazardous constituents.

The concerns about solid waste management are the lack of physical space for new landfills, the actual composition of these wastes, and the risks associated with current disposal options such as air emissions, leachates, soil/groundwater contamination, and residues from treatment processes.

The regulatory framework currently in place in the U.S. and in Michigan is sufficient to minimize the risks from solid waste managemenL Specifically, air emissions are addressed by the new Federal and Michigan Clean Air Act, and solid waste treaanent, storage and disposal is regulated .~ by the Federal Resource Conservation and RecovCI)' Act and Michigan Acts 641 and 64.

Even the assurance that facilities are operating within their allowed limits has been addressed as part of the facilities regulatory compliance programs which may include continuous emissions monitoring, trial burns, monitoring of ambient air, soil and groundwater monitoring.

Although there are many small demonstration programs ongoing, the one opportunity for solid waste management in Michigan and the nation is a comprehensive program for waste reduction.

Waste Management Options

The remaining available space in Michigan landfills should last about six years, at the current rate of waste generation and plans to close out-of-compliance landfills.1 Anticipated reductions in this rate through aggressive recycling and composting programs may postpone the crisis, but will not provide the needed long-term solutions. According to James Cleary, MDNR's Deputy Director of Environmental Protection, we need a comprehensive blueprint for the whole state based on regional (multi-county) master planning. '

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Some states have addressed the solid waste problem by aggressively building waste-to-energy facilities. Where MichiJrnn curnmtly manages only about 4% of its after-recycling waste stream by incineration, Connecn:ut currently uses the incineration option to manage 67% of their solid waste streams and expects to manage 75% by 1994.7

On December 7, 1991, MDNR described a Solid Waste Management Planning Program which calls fot a comprehensive, statewide plan based on regional (multi-county) rather than county-by­county plans.• This could lead to improved strategies, sitting and sizing of new facilities. Regio!ial resource recovery, waste-to-energy, and landfill facilities could be located away from high population densities.

Residual Risk from Current Practices

As an allowed source of pollution, the magnitude of the incremental residual risk from thermal destruction, incineration or waste to energy facilities with state-of-the-an emission controls is known to be negligible compared to background levels of the critical environmental pollutants. Ambient air monitoring data from areas around incincrarors and landfills find very little, if any, contribution from these facilities.:w The reason for the negligible contribution is that current procedures for reviewing and approving permits for these facilities preclude emission rates that exceed 1 o-6 to 10·5 upper bound on calculated risk. This amount of residual risk represents a 1 to l 0% incremental increase over background concentrations of pollutants for the nearest residence. According to EPA studies", background levels represent 10◄ and 1()"3 upper bound on risk.

The permitting procedure, which precludes more than negligible risk, is based on a principle of maximum allowed potential emission rate. Actual emission rates contribute much less incremental residual risk, perhaps ranging from 0.1 to 10% of background, even if multipathway exposures are taken into accounL This may help explain why ambient monitoring fails to detect incremental increases in pollution when the unit is from incinerators operating.

The residual risk from the inevitable land and water pollution resultant from landfilling or landfarming operations is more difficult to evaluate since there · are potential multi-media contaminant exposures which must be "-<tim•ted on a case-by-case basis. It is known that currently operating landfills and landfarms bave groundwater monitoring systems which can detect the release of leachates. However, once contaminant migration from the unit is detected, the contamination of the environment (ie., both land and water) poses significant challenges to control technologies. In many cases, the efficiency of cum:nt control technologies (ie. soil incineration, groundwater treatment, contaminant plume control) is suspect because of the persistence of these sources and the fact that the full impact, extent, and nature of the contamination may not be revealed for years to decades.

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Emerging control technologies may lend themselves to the ,njnimization of residual risk in some instances. However, their use will undoubtedly involve multiple controls employed in an integrated, Jong-term node because of the complexity of contaminant prµperties in mixtures. Clearly, the costs associated with placing solid wastes in the ground will be far exceeded by the costs of long-term monitoring, maintenance of the unit, and operation of pollution control teehnologies.

Pollution Control Equipment: Current Practice, State-of-the-Art

Considerable controversy can be generated over the definition of state-of-the-an control technology and the subject is being addressed with extreme caution to keep the process as innovative and objective as possible.

To encourage innovation, a definition of maximum allowed stack emission rate should be based on: 1) pounds per hour; 2) emission factoIS per unit of waste treated; and 3) the costs per ton of pollutant removed. Definitions based on approved technologies, such as bag houses over electrostatic precipitators stifle innovative approaches and can lead to forced retrofitting of comparable but different control equipment with negligible, if any, benefit to the environmenL Since the □ean Air Act addresses the installation of Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACI') on all sources of air pollution, including solid waste management facilities, this is not an unmet need.

For landfills, some state-of-the-an control technologies at the unit include membrane liners; capturing, monitoring, and treating leachates; containment of leaks from membrane liners; and appropriate covering of working surfaces and closed landfills.

Serious consideration needs to be given to comprehensive management of land disposal units and the surrounding soil and water environments. Michigan depends heavily on shallow groundwater resources for domestic drinking water (e.g. -41 % of domestic supplies). In larger municipalities, the proximity of waste disposal units to residences or public water supply well fields poses immediate challenges to county or regional waste management strategies. Toe state must be prepared to lead the way to long-term risk managemenL Toe state's regional master planning process should be condueted with the goals of minimizing the further contamination of solid and water recognizing that has and will continue to occur. The utilization of appropriate, existing or past sites of land disposal for future waste management operations should be evaluated for several reasons.

156

1. Sining of new waste management units is very difficult due to citizen resistance, adequate hydrogeologic characteristics and distance from ·sites of generation.

2. Existing sites would likely have the infrastructure and monitoring {and perhaps treatment) systems in place which could serve to improve operational aspects of an added uniL

3. Zones which are already contaminated may never be recoverable for other purposes and · incremental contamination from a second, bener engineered unit may not worsen or expand the affected environmenL

In the absence of reliable, cost-effective contamination remediation technologies it may also be worthwhile to consider hydrologic conD'Ol of contaminant plumes as a reasonable shon-term option. In the event that there is no immediate need to use treated groundwater for drinking water supply, the pumped water could be returned to the upgradient region of the contaminated unit creating a "closed" treatment cycle. This option could enhance the rate and degree of stabilization of biodegradable contaminants, minimize further contamination of the environment, pennit more effective monitoring and enable efficient remedial action when technologies become available. The current practice of capping the land disposal unit coupled with pumping, treating

. and discharge of treated water to sewers or surface water bodies entails substantial cost penalties and perpetual maintenance of the unit with linle societal or ecological benefiL

Reducing Amounts Reduces Risk: New Programs

An unmet need is to reduce the amount of waste to be treated. The attached chan illustrates this policy as a hierarchy of solid waste management strategies which should result in lower contributions to background levels of pollution within any given regional wastcshed.

On October 29, 1990, a draft Waste Prevention Strategy was presented which proposed a goal of 30% reduction in overall solid waste generated by the year 2000.5 Most of that goal will be achieved through composing of yard waste and removal of recyclable materials from the waste stream. Other programs with potential to reduce the amount of solid waste include: 1) a procurement guideline for all State of Michigan purchases that could potentially "jump start" the manufacturing of reprocessed materials collected from recycle programs; 2) a statewide adoption of pay-as-you-throw accounting procedures for collection and disposal of solid waste; and 3) more publicity and incentives associated with household hazaidous waste collections.

The basis of determining whether the goal has been met is not clear, since there is neither a neither a database nor tracking system in place for any given wasteshed. Perliaps the national per capita rate of producing garbage could be used where the rate would drop 30% from 2.9 lbs. per person per day to 2.0 lbs. per person per day. The amount of solid waste acrually disposed of in all of Michigan's landfills and incinerators would not be a reliable measure of reductions, because of the amount of imponed waste, which correlates with tipping fees.

157

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Although some communities have been willing to suppon an additional $2 to $4 per week for curbside collection of recyclables, the economics of reprocessed goods do not suppon these programs. According to a recent national survey by Clemson University, the average cost to collect recyclable is $40 per ton versus $28 per ton to put the same materials in landfills.' The primary reason for recycling is to achieve more efficient use of resources, such as with reprocessed versus virgin aluminum, rather than health-risk reductions or economics.

Recent experience with community programs involving curbside collection of recyclables suggests that from 5% to 10% of the solid waste stream can be deflected from landfills. These programs collect glass, cans, plastics2

"', newspapers, and cardboard. Some economic incentives, such as "buck-a-bag" for nonrecyclables and free collection for recyclables, have potential to improve the percent of the waste stream deflected from landfills or incinerators, but not very much.

The following nationwide characterizations of the solid waste stream also suggest that community recycle programs should be expected to yield at least a 30% deflection from landfills and incinerators:

Coml!osition of Solid Waste 1986* 1988**

Paper & Paperboard 35.6% 41.0% Yard Wastes 20.1% 17.6% Metals 8.9% 9.0% Rubber, Wood, Textiles & Leather 9.0% 8.0% Plastics 7.3% 8.0% Food Waste 8.9% 7.0% Glass 8.4% 7.0% Miscellaneous Wastes 1.8% 2.4%

Based on 1986 U.S. EPA and Franklin Associates Study • ... Based on 1988 information by Franklin Associates cited by Carol Anderson "Recycling: Governing Guide." August, 1990

Even more recently, the composition of residential waste streams as charllcterized by C. Fridgen' are as follows:

159

COMPOSITION OF RESIDENTIAL POUNDS PER PERSON SOLID WASTE 1990 PER DAY

(. Paper & Paperboard 28.0%

Newspaper 0.24 Books & Magazines 0.16 Office Paper 0.02 .Commercial Printing Paper 0.04 Tissue & Towel 0.09 Nonpackaging Paper (iunkmail) 0.03

· Packaging Paper/Paperboard 0.08 *Corrugated Cardboard 0.15

Yard Wastes 28.0% **Leaves 0.41 **Yardwastes (grass and brush) 0.30

Srumps 0.08

Metals 11.0% * Aluminum Containers/Packaging 0.03 Miscellaneous Scrap Aluminum 0.02

*Ferrous Containers 0.07 Major Appliances 0.08 Miscellaneous FeITOus Scrap 0.11

Rubber, Wood, Textiles & Leather 5.2% ~ Leather/Rubber 0.06 Tires 0.04 Textiles 0.05 Woodwaste 0.02

Plastics 6.9% *Plastic Containers/Packaging 0.11 Nonpackaging Plastic 0.09

Foodwaste 6.5% 0.19

Glass 10.6% *Glass Container.; (clear) 0.15 Glass Containers (green) 0.08 Glass Containers (amber) 0.05 Miscellaneous Glass 0.03

Miscellaneous Wastes 3.8% Ceramics, Miscellaneous Inorganics 0.09 Miscellaneous Organics 0.02

160

Industrial/Commercial Solid Waste

The solid wastes generated by industrial or commercial sources include materials that arc similar to residential wastes and waste streams that arc under specific regulation. Regulated waste streams under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) arc very often the residues of either manufacturing processes or of treatment of process wastes. In selected cases, these wastes may lend themselves to recovery or recycling at the plant where it can be done quite efficiently. Due to the liability associated with the treatment or disposal of process wastes, corporations have moved to reduce their generation by process modification or substitution and thorough auditing of material and energy use.

There are real constraints on the future disposal capacity for high-volume solid wastes which may have low levels of potentially hazardous chemical constituents. Sewage treatment sludge, water softening treatment sludges, oil/water separator sludges, and clay or sand filter residues are often expensive to dewater and reduce in volume. The placement of these wastes in hazardous waste disposal units in effect squanders the limited remaining capacity for waste streams which are both very hazardous and have little potential for alternative treatmenL

The unrestricted importing of regulated wastes into and out of Michigan could potentially lead to an increased or decreased residual risk compared to the exporting states or countries. The magnitude of this change in risk is an unknown, but it is a combination of perception and actual risk. This issue is part of the "not-in-my-backyard" syndrome which suggests that it is okay to

.-~ export waste (risk), but it is not okay to irnpon it. During public debates on siting of new facilities and operating of existing facilities, this issue also involved.potential risk associated with transportation accidents.

Some of the perception problem may be based on the fact that some wastes must be exported or irnponed to specialized treatment facilities, such as the need to export mercury containing wastes because Michigan does not have an approved facility. Similarly, we may impon wastes as by­product fuel, because a few of these facilities are approved in Michigan. A publicly available database of compiled records of irnponed and exported wastes by waste type from state or federal agencies may help address this issue.

The impact on new definitions of hazardous waste on the amount of waste requiring special treatment has been part of national· policy making but has not been an irnponant part of the public debate on the need for specific new facilities. The successful effons to reduce waste have been more than offset by increases due to aggressive definitions and national regulations. Tilis trend is expected to continue for the next five to ten years. Also, as air or water pollution control equipment is working, it can produce waste for landfills or incinerators.

161

POTENTIAL RISK/IMPACT RANKING ( .

Solid Waste Residual Risk Management Concern Impact Type/Magnitude

Land Disposal of Oily or Wasted Energy Economic-High BTU-Value Wastes Soil/GW Contam. Nal Res.-Med

Ecol.-Med Social-Med Human Health-Med

Land Disposal of High Wasted Landfill Economic-Med Volume Low/No-Hazard Capacity Nal Res.-Med

Waste Sludge Soil/GW Contam. Ecol.-Med Social-Med Human Health-Med

Exhumation to Re-Landfill Perperual Care Economic-High or Capping/Pump/I'reat Little Ecol. or Nat Nal Rcs.-High Stopgap Remediation Res. Benefit Ecol.-Med Practices Soil/GW Contam. Social-Med

Human Health-Low ~-

Unplanned, Continued Expanded Zones Ecol.-High Landfill Sitting of Soil/GW NaLRes.-High

Contam./Dis- Human Health-Med Incentive for Econ.-Low WasteReduction,etc. Social-Med

162

References

1. Wolff, G. "Air Pollution" Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ~tion. (1) 711-750, 1991.

2 Seme, J. "Greater Detroit Resource Recovery Authority Ambient Air Monitoring • Program." Quarterly Repons 1 and 12 (April, 1991), Roy F. Weston, Inc., West Chester,

PA 19380.

3. Dann, T. "Interim Results of Ambient Air Monitoring at Environment Canada's Sites in Windsor and Walpole Island." Research Repon, November 5, 1991.

4. Lahre, T. F. "Analysis of Cancer Risks in 19 U.S. Cities from Air Toxics Monitoring Data and Comparison with Risks Based on Dispersion Modeling of Emissions Data." Paper 97-171.1, Air & Waste Management Association Conference June 16-21, 1991, or U.S. EPA Repon 450/1-90-004 (September, 1990).

5. Hales, D. F. "Draft Waste Prevention Strategy Michigan Department of Natural Resources." October 29, 1991.

6. Phillips, S. "Solid Waste Management Planning Program." MDNR document for Review, December 17, 1991.

7. Van Eaton, C. "Managing the Michigan Solid Waste Stream: Markets or Mandates?" A Joint Study of the Mackinac Center and Michigan State Chamber Foundation, January, 1991.

8. Fridgen, C. "W ASTEPLAN: The Michigan Solid Waste Management Planning Tool" Part of a MSU course on Solid Waste Management, 1991.

163

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Srarement of rhe Issue

An oft-quoted Mark Twain observation is, "Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it." As it turns out, however, we may indeed have been doing something about the weather without knowing it; and it may not be good. What humans have been doing increasingly over the past century or two is adding large amounts of various gases to the atmosphere. The effect of many of these gases is likely to alter the climate, by intensifying what is t=ied the "greenhouse effecL"

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon by which the atmosphere holds heaL Sunlight striking matter on the earth and in the air is converted into heat, which is temporarily retained in the atmosphere before radiating off into space. Thus the atmosphere acts as the glass on a greenhouse (Cunningham and Saigo 1992). Without this atmospheric greenhouse effeet, life on earth would not exisL But the annual additions of lrillions of tons of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has caused an enhanced greenhouse effect, increasing heat retention capabilities by 18%. Most researchers ~ct that this will result in a global warming trend-a condition likely to have serious consequences, changing the distribution of rainfall, increasing evaporation, expanding deserts, melting polar ice, and flooding coastlines. In terms of human economics, these changes could have disastrous effects on production of food and timber and on fresh water supplies (Davies 1990).

Source of the Problem

Carbon dioxide is the leading participant in the enhanced greenhouse effect, contributing about 49% of the heat retaining capacity (Figures on percentage contributions of greenhouse gases arc from Morgenstern and Titpak 1990). Carbon dioxide is produced by natural decomposition and by combustion of organic materials, particularly fossil fuels. Atmospheric CC>z is increasing by 0.5% per yeat (Anon. 1990). Industrialization in the past 200 years has been largely responsible for the increase in atmospheric CC>z from 280 to 350 parts per million (ppm). Sources of CO2

in the U.S. arc: utilities 35%, industrial combustion 26%, transportation 24%, and residential and commercial 15% (National Governors' Assoc. 1991).

Methane (CH.), which, molecule for molecule, absorbs 20-30 times as much heat as CO2,

contributes 18% to the enhanced greenhouse effeet, and is increasing by 0.9% per year (Anon. 1990). It is produced by intestinal bacteria in ruminant animals, decomposition in rice paddies, decaying waste in landfills, pipeline leaks, and coal mining.

164

CFCs absorb 20,000 times as much heat as methane and CFC 11 and 12 conoibute 14% of the greenhouse effect, and are increasing by 4% per year (Anon. 1990). They.are entirely man-made, originating in the past 30 years, and are used primarily in air conditioners, refrigerants, and aerating agents for manufacturing foamy materials. Atmospheric CFCs have a double influence on global climate. They not only conoibute to the greenhouse effect, but also play a major role in the destruction of stratospheric ozone. This ozone, in the upper atmosphere, normally absorbs ultraViolet radiation, preventing 99% of it from reaching the surface of the earth. Without this ozone shield, organisms on earth are subject to radiation bums, skin cancer, and genetic damage. Since the late 1960s each September and October a "hole" (50% reduction) in stratospheric ozone over Antarctica occurs. This "hole" results in chlorine atoms, derived from CFCs bombarded by sunlight, reacting with oz.one (03) and converting it to molecular oxygen (0:,). Recently a new ozone "hole" has been discovered over northern North America.

Nitrous oxide (N20) in the atmosphere has increased by 5-10% in the past 200 years and is increasing by 0.25% per year. It contributes 6% of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Sources of nitrous oxide include the oceans, nitrogen based fertilizers, land clearing, and burning of fossil fuels and other organic matter.

Other Sources. The remaining 13% of the enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by a variety of other gases, including HFC (Hydrofluorocarbons) and ozone.

The United States contributes 21 % of the world's greenhouse gases. Michigan, as an indusoial and agricultural state, with 9 .3 million people and a high rate of resoW'CC use, likely conoibuteS proportionately more to the greenhouse effect than most areas of equivalent size .

. Description of rhe Impacts

There remains some uncertainty about the potential climatic effects of greenhouse gases. Climatic changes occur slowly, and there are numerous factors such as a decline in sunspot activity, increased cloud cover, absorption of CO:, by the oceans, and increased photosynthesis, that could counteract the warming trend predicted on the basis of increased atmospheric greenhouse gases. In the past, however, there have been good (but not perfect) long-term correlations between global temperatures and changes in CO:, levels. Computer models indicate that if current trends continue, CO:, concenttations will double by the year 2075, causing global temperatures to rise 1.5-4.50 C (3-90 F). The effects of other greenhouse gases could hasten and intensify that effect. There remain, however, substantial differences of opinion among scientists on some of these predictions (Albritton 1990). A hierarchy of acceptability may be useful:

165

1. The following findings arc essentially undisputed among scientists: a. The amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the aanosphere have

increased by over 25% in the past 200 years and the· sources arc primarily anthropogenic.

b. The aonosphcric concentration of CH.. has doubled in the last century. c. CFCs arc contributing to the depletion of stratospheric ozone. d. The reduction of ozone is likely to and may already be causing skin cancer

and genetic mutations.

2. M£g researchers agree on the following: Increased greenhouse gases will cause a general but not geographically uniform wanning trend over the next century.

3. A considerable amount of disagreement exists with the following: Global warming predicted by the models has already begun at this time. Some researchers feel there has been no measurable change, while a few suggest a cooling trend.

The difficulty in establishing proof of climatic change arises from difficulties in distinguishing shon-tcrm from Jong-term trends and the anifact of increased urbanization affecting temperatures at Jong-term weather data stations. The rransfer of heat to the deep oceans occurs more slowly than within the atmosphere or the upper layers of the ocean. The resulting transient period, or -~ "Jag" means that the global average surface temperature at any time is lower than the temperature that would prevail after all the redistribution has been completed. At the time of equivalent CO2 doubling, for example, the global average surface temperature may be as little as one half the ultimate equilibrium temperature associated with those concentrations (Committee on Science Engineering and Public Policy 1991).

Arguments about whether global warming is measurable now, however,-should not be confused with the much more widely accepted predictions that it .!d!! occur in the next several decades and possibly continue through several centuries unless stepS arc taken to stabilize or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.

In Michigan a likely effect would simply be hotter and possibly drier summers. Dryness and heat would render the state• s main agricultural region in the southern Lower Peninsula less productive. If the cum:nt climatic conditions were shifted nonhwaid 100-200 miles, as some researchers suggest, the nonhem Lower Peninsula and Upper Peninsula might have longer and warmer growing seasons, but the sandy and rocky soils that prevail throughout that region would be unlikely to match crop yields now obtained from the southern Lower Peninsula.

166

Definirion!Descriprion of Risks

The accumulation of most greenhouse gases is vinually irreversible. Once there they do not go away within reasonable time periods. All effects of global warming arc not totally predictable, but if nothing is done, and warming does occur, it would probably be too late to plart for changes or to re;verse the process. The result of taking no action could seriously affect resource production on earth for centuries.

Two English climatologists, Jones and Wigley (1990 p. 91), summarized the quandary between uncenainty and implemeniation of policies: the uncenainties about global warming "must not be used as excuses to delay formulating and implementing policies to reduce temperature increases caused by greenhouse gases. The longer the world waits to act, the greater will be the climate change that furure generations will have to endure. A policy of inaction would be justified only if resean:hers were sure that the greenhouse effect was negligible." Reilly (1990) recommended some measures that may be considered as pan of a "no regrets" policy. That is actions that help reduce the greenhouse effect if it does exist, and would be useful in their own right if it does not. In other words, many of the actions taken to deal with potential greenhouse warming could also improve economic well-being because they arc more efficient than prevailing practice. Examples of such are as follows:

• Phase out production of CFCs. Most industrialized countries have agreed through the "Montreal Protocol" of 1987 to reduce production of CFCs (Benedick 1990). And in 1989, 81 nations signed an agreement in Helsinki to phase out production of CFCs by the end of the century (Cunningham and Saigo 1992).

- • Reduce CO, emissions by increasing energy efficiency in homes, automobiles, factories, and offices. (An increase in average automobile efficiency from 25 to over 30 miles per gallon would save money and reduce CO, production by several metric tons over the life of the vehicle.)

• Increase use of solar, wind, and tidal power.

• Provide financial incentives to slow cutting of tropical rainforests and uneconomical forest harvests to reduce CO, levels.

• Capture methane from landfills and manure and use it as fuel.

These examples arc but a few of the many "no regrets" policy actions available. The Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy 1991 suggests that "the United States could reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by between 10 and 40 percent of the 1990 level at very low cost. Some reductions may even be at a net savings if the proper policies are implemented."

167

What Can Be Done ar rhe Srare Level ro Reduce Greenhouse Gases

In 1990 the National Governors' Association adopted a policy on curbing the _greenhouse effect. The Association found that all identified sources of greenhouse gases, including utilities, industry, homes, businesses, transportation, agriculture, and solid waste landfills are influenced by state policies. Examples include reformed utility rates to encourage conservation, promotion of energy alternatives to fossil fuel, requirements for energy efficiency standards for buildings, taxing gas­guzzling cars and improving mass transiL Some examples are as follows:

Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities requires competitive bidding for new energy some es to include a dollar-per-ton figure on eight air pollutants, including CO,, CO, CH., N2, N20, NO and NO,. Those costs, which run from $22 per ton for CO2 to $3,960 per ton for nitrogen oxides, are included in the estimated total cost of operating a power planL Thus a heavily polluting plant would have a higher bid than the same plant with pollution controls (National Governors' Association 1991 ).

In Iowa, the state pays for energy audits of all school buildings, with costs of audits paid for by energy savings within at most 6 years. In 1990, CO, emissions were reduced by an estimated 86,000 tons averaging 125 tons per building (National Governors' Association 1991 ).

In Connecticut, 9 million gallons of gasoline are saved annually by car and van pooling, reducing CO, emissions by 83,000 tons (National Governors' Association 1991). In Georgia, state­sponsored energy analyses and recommendations for energy conservation on farms has saved money and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In Wisconsin, a law .has been enacted to restrict sales of CFCs in small containers and regulate air conditioners and refrigerators, and in Missouri, a massive urban tree planting effort is expected to absorb CO,, although it takes 2 acres of trees to absorb the CO2 produced by a single average American.

Michigan has the opponunity to show leadership in the area of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Possibilities include financial incentives for fuel efficient autos, education of farmers on energy efficient farm practices, manufacture of energy-efficient machines and appliances, implementation of effective urban mass-transit systems, and encouragement of energy efficiency in buildings. We now know that instead of simply talking about the weather, we can do soinething about iL

Relationship berween Global Climatic Change and Hwnan Population

In 1991 the human population of the world increased by 93 million people (Population Reference Bureau 1991). This amounts to adding 10 times the population of the state of Michigan to seek food and goods, refrigeration, electricity and iransporralion. Greenhouse gases are produced to serve the needs of these people. Per capita reductions of CO,. methane, and other greenhouse gases will have no net benefit if the human population increases at the same rate as such reductions. Productivity of the Michigan landscape for agriculture, timber, fish, wildlife, and

168

C.

recreational values depends upon sparse human population. Population growth creates situations in which farmland is convened to residential propeny, timber production is convened into small private recreational holdings, and excessive demands are placed on fish and wildlife populations requiring· increasingly soict regulations on the public in using these resources and diminishing some species to threatened and endangered status. Crowding not only produces more waste and uses more space but may also reduce quality of life.

States have the same opponunities to limit population growth as to limit production of gaseous wastes: A concerned state government, as a beginning, can provide infonnation on the benefits of small families and how to attain them, and on the benefits of a lower human population on natural resources.

169

References

Albritton, D. L. 1990. What We Know; What We Don't Know. EPA Journal 16(2): 4-7.

Anonymous. 1990. EanhquesL NaL Center for Atmos. Res. 4: 10-11.

Benedick, R. E. 1990. Lessons from "The Ozone Hole." EPA Journal 16(2): 41-43.

-Commi11ee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. 1991. Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming. NaL Acad. Press, Washington D.C. 27 pp.

Cunningham, W. P. and B. W. Saigo. 1992. Environmental Science A Global Concern. 2nd Ed. W.C. Brown, Dubuque, IA. 622 pp.

Davies, T. 1990. An Introduction. EPA Journal 16(2): 2-3.

Jones, P. D. and T. M. L. Wigley. 1990. Global Warming Trends. Sci. Amer. 263(2): 84-91.

Morgenstern, R. D. and D. Tirpak. 1990. The Greenhouse Gases. EPA Journal 16(2): 8-10.

National Governors' Association. 1991. Curbing climate change through state initiatives. NaL Governors' Assoc. 444 N Capitol SL, Washington D.C. 39 pp.

Population Reference Bureau. 1991. Population Update. Population Today 19(12): 9.

Reilly, W. K. 1990. What We Can Do. EPA Journal 16(2): 32-34.

170

..

INDOOR POLL UT ANTS

There is no comprehensive plan or act in Michigan governing indoor air pollution although specific rules have been propagated concerning restaurants and certain public buildings. Also, individual companies and institutions have issued rules particularly addressing the problem of tobacco smoke. It is therefore most appropriate that the relative risk analysis project take up the problem as one of the major environmental issues in Michigan. In this paper a number of factors in indoor air pollution will be reviewed. Recommendations for correcting the problem arc contained at the end of each section.

The Clean Air Act and a network of federal and state regulations have strengthened air pollution controls for outside air even though there are still serious problems with sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide.

Indoor air pollution, however, has not received as much attention, and increasing energy-saving measures have resulted in limited air turnover between indoor and outdoor air. As a result, levels of several potentially harmful indoor air pollutants have risen, both in homes and in offices. Concentrations of most air toxics, eg., benzene and volatile organic solvents are higher in indoor than outdoor air.

When one considers that most people spend nearly 90 percent of their time indoors, it becomes ~ evident that we should pay careful attention to the pollutants which may affect our health during

this large amount of time spent inside the home and the work place. A bulletin published by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1988 entitled, "The Inside Story-A Guide to Indoor Air Quality" lists nine major source-specific air contaminants. These are:

1. Radon 2. Environmental Tobacco Smoke 3. Biological Contaminants

These include bacteria., fungi, viruses, animal dander, cat saliva, rat and mouse urine, miteS, cockroaches, and pollen.

4. Gases from stoves, heaters, fireplaces, and chimneys. These are mainly carbon monoxide, nitr0gen dioxide, and particulate matter. In addition there may be polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

5. Household products These include widely used organic chemicals such as cleaning fluids, paints, varnishes, wax, disinfectants, cosmetics, de-greasing and hobby products.

6. Formaldehyde 7. Pesticides 8. Asbestos 9. Lead

171

Recently, a formidable list of potential health hazards within the home has received increasing attention. It should be pointed out that in Michigan the temperate-to-cool climate in the winter results in energy-saving building practices which have a maximum ability to reduce the exchange of air from inside to outside.

Radon

While indoor sources of pollution can produce gases or particulate materials that arc a major cause of indoor air quality problems, one of the most important is radon, which comes from outside. Radon is a colorless, odorless chemically inen gas that OCCIII'S naturally and is widespread in the environment, usually at very low levels. A radioactive decay product of radium 226, radon is released from radium-containing rock or soil as a breakdown product of uranium.

Although radon itself is hannless, the first four radioactive isotopes, formed as radon decays (polonium-218, lead 214, bismuth-214, and polonium-214) often referred to as "radon daughters" can be inhaled and cause damage to the tissues of the lungs. These shon-lived isotopes arc not gases but chemically active solids which arc ·alpha and beta emitters.

Radon enters the home through din floors, cr.icks in concrete walls, floor drains, sumps, and in some areas of the country, through well water. Occasionally radon may be released from construction materials.

Repons from the US EPA state that as many as 10 percent of all American homes may have -elevated levels of radon.

Radon in the home was discovered in Pennsylvania in 1984, when an employee of a nuclear power plant caused the radiation monitors to record an elevated level when he went to work. Investigation showed that he was picking up alarming levels of radiation from his home, which was contaminated with radioactive radon gas.

Until then no one had recognized that indoor levels of radon could be so high. Suddenly, radon became a new focus of concern nationwide, since radon exposure can cause lung cancer. Some estimates suggest that radon may cause 5,000 to 10,000 annual cases out of 130,000 total lung cancer deaths. Currently, the EPA recommends an upper limit of 4 pCi/1 (picoCuries per liter) of radon in homes. Indoor concentrations as high as 2000 pCi/1 have been recorded in some buildings.

One of the complicating factorS in pathology from radon and its decay products (ie~ daughters) is that it is aggravated by being carried into the lungs on panicles. Such paniclcs may come from dust or even more likely from smoking. Smoking adds particles to indoor air, resulting in increased exposure, not just to the smoker, but to others in the same environment Some studies indicate that the risk from the combination of radon and smokmg is multiplicative rather than additive.

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Since its discovery in 1984, radon in the home has been studied extensively by the National Academy of Sciences and the EPA. As a result, radon-testing laboratories have sprung up nation­wide and are available in almost every locality, enabling home owners to have radon levels measured. These laboratories can be identified by calling the state or local health departmenL In some areas, local ordinances require that a test for radon be carried oui during the transfer or sale of, a home. As awareness of this problem becomes more widespread, there will be increasing regulation by house owners, house buyers, mongage bankers, real-estate agents, and others concerned about risk and liability.

In Michigan a collaborative survey was commenced in 1986 to assess the magnitude of the radon public health threat and to characterize the distribution of radon gas concentrations in homes across the state. During the survey 2082 randomly selected households were screened. The findings were that 88% of the homes had less than the EPA action level of 4 pC/1, 12% had levels of 4 -20 pC/1, and less than 1 % had levels greater than 20 pC/1. The findings of this survey, prepared by the Department of Environmental and Industrial Health of the University of Michigan, were published by the Michigan Department of Public Health in May 1990. Copies of the repon can be obtained from the Bureau of Environmental and Occupational Health, 3423 N. Logan, P.O. Box 3015, Lansing, Michigan.

To reduce radon levels, homeowners can use such measures as installation of barriers, scaling cracks and other openings in the basement, ventilating crawl spaces, and installing ventilation beneath the slab in the basemenL To receive an EPA booklet, "Reducing Radon Risks," citizens can call the toll-free number 1-800-SOS-RADON. In Michigan, they can obtain additional information by calling (517) 335-8190.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke (Passive Smoking)

Two recent repons have intensified arguments about the problem presented by passive smoking. The National Academy of Sciences, under contract from the Environmental Protection Agency, prepared a document entitled, "Environmental Tobacco Smoke." The second, "Health Consequences of Involuntary Smoking" was prepared by some 60 scientists for the Surgeon General's office. Both documents conclude that smoking does affect other people's health and that this problem should be addressed. Most current repons agree that inhaling environmental tobacco smoke (passive smoking) increases the risk of lung cancer. This is panicularly true for non-smokers married to smokers but also affects the health of children. Children of smokers are more likely to have respiratory infections than children in non smoking homes. Almost all studies that have compared such populations have reponed that the children of smokers show far more respiratory symptoms, including coughs, sputum production, or wheezing than children of nonsmokers. The more smokers there are in the home, the higher the prevalence of respiratory symptoms. Furthermore, the relative odds of respiratory illnesses appear to increase in children as the number of cigarettes smoked each day by the mother increases.

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Many places, including the State of Michigan, have imposed increasingly strict controls on r smoking in the workplace and in such public acco=odations as state offices, restaurants, and - · hotels.

Biologkal Contaminants

These include bacteria, fungi, viruses, animal dander, rat and mouse urine, dust mites, cockroaches, and pollen. Some biological contaminants can result in allergic reactions affecting the skin, lungs, or upper respiratory tract, which can lead to asthma. Infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, chicken pox, and tuberculosis can be tranSmined through the air. Standing water, or water-damaged materials such as carpets or other wet surfaces can serve as a breeding ground for molds, bacteria, and insects. House dust ~tcs, which arc powerful allergens, can grow in any damp, warm cnvironmcnL

Children, elderly people, and those with respiratory problems arc particularly susceptible to disease-causing biological agents in the indoor air.

Herc arc some steps that should reduce exposure to biological contaminants:

•

• • • • •

Install exhaust fans that arc vented to the outdoors, cspccially in kitchens and bathrooms. V cnt clothes dryers outdoors. V cntilatc attic and crawl spaces . Control humidity to a level of 30 to 50 pcrcenL Clean water trays of humidifiers and water air conditioners . Thoroughly clean and dzy water-damaged carpets or building materials .

Stoves, Heaters, Fireplaces and Chimneys

In addition to environmental tobacco smoke, several other sourccs of combustion by-products can be a problem. These include unventcd kerosene and gas space heaters, woodstoves, furnaces, and fireplaces. The major pollutants produced from these sources arc carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and particles.

Health effects from carbon monoxide, which is an odorless gas, arc caused by interference with the delivery of oxygen throughout the body. Carbon monoxide binds very strongly to hemoglobin, reducing its ability to carry oxygen to the body's tissues. Low levels of CO can cause fatigue and increased chest pain in heart patients. At higher levels, it results in headaches, dizziness, and disorientation. At very high concentrations, CO can cause unconsciousness, and is the cause of many deaths in tightly weatherized houses with defective heating systems. Pregnant women, infants, and elderly people with anemia or with hean or lung diseases arc especially susceptible.

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Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. and high exposures can cause shonness of breath. The people at highest risk are children, elderly persons, and those with asthma or other respiratory diseases.

Respirable particles, released into the air after incomplete combustion of fuels, can lodge in and cause iµitation of the respiratory tract Such materials as radon and cigarette smoking products that can cause lung cancer can attach to small particles, be carried to the lungs, and thus gain access to the tissues they may damage.

To reduce exposure to combustion products, take special precautions with uilvented space heatcIS, install and use exhaust fans over cooking stoves, keep wood stove emissions to a minimum.

Household Products

Many organic chemicals are contained in such household products as paints, varnishes, waxes, and cleaning and disinfecting agents. While these products are useful, they can also release potentially harmful organic compounds and should be used with caution.

Some of these hannful organics, if present in · sufficient concentration, may cause such health effects as eye and respiratory irritation, headache, dizziness, visual disorders or temporary memory impairment Many organic compounds are suspected of causing cancer.

Careful observation of instructions and warnings printed on labels and moderation in their use can help prevent harmful effects.

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde released from some building materials or as a by-product of combustion can be present. both in outdoor and indoor air, in substantial concentrations. The major source in outdoor air is from photochemical reactions in fog. In homes, the most significant sources are pressed-wood products, such as particle board, hardwood plywood paneling, and medium-density fiberboard used for drawer fronts, cabinet doors, etc. Formaldehyde is also released from cigarette smoking, some household products, and unvented fuel-burning appliances. As late as the 1970s, some homes were built containing urea-formaldehyde insulation in the walls. Because many of these homes were found to have fairly high concentrations of formaldehyde, these materials are no longer being used. Formaldehyde emissions from such materials decline with time, and it is unlikely that high levels still exist in homes that were insulated many years ago.

Formaldehyde, which is a pungent irritating gas, can cause watery eyes and some discomfon of the respiratory tract Some people may develop hypersensitivity when exposed to formaldehyde. It has been shown to cause cancer in animals and may cause cancer in humans.

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To reduce exposure to formaldehyde, ask about the formaldehyde . content of pressed-wood products, maintain moderate temperature and humidity levels, and ventilate the home adequately.

Pesticides

Pesticides are used in and around the home to control insects, termites, rodents, and fungi. They may be in the form of powders, sprays, liquids, crystals, or fogger "bombs." Most households use some aerosolized pesticides and an EPA study found that as many as a dozen can be found in some homes. Pesticides can also enter homes on contaminated soil or dust that is carried in through the air or is tracked in.

The persistent chlorinated insecticides, chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin and dieldrin, used against termites, have had restrictions placed on their use by EPA because of their potential toxicity and long period of residual activity. In addition to active ingredients, pesticides contain inen carriers that are not toxic to the targeted pest, but that may be harmful to humans.

Both the active and the "inert" ingredients in pesticides can be organic compounds and contribute to levels of airborne organics in the home. Symptoms such as headache, dizziness, muscular twitches, and weakness have been attributed to high levels of exposure to pesticides may cause damage to the liver or central nervous system, as well as increasing the risk of cancer. The EPA is concerned that long-term exposure to pesticides may cause damage to the liver or central nervous system, as well as increasing the risk of cancer. ~

To reduce exposure to pesticides in the home, read and follow instructions on the label, and use only those pesticides approved for use by the general public. Use them in well-ventilated areas and only in amounts immediately needed. Use alternative non-chemical methods of pest control where available.

Dispose of unused pesticides with great care. take advantage of special household hazardous waste collection days.

Be especially cautious in the use of moth repellents. These often contain paradichlorobcnzene, which is known to cause cancer in animals and is of uncertain impact from long-tcml use in humans.

A National Pesticide Telecommunications Network, sponsored by EPA, can be reached by calling 1-800-858 PEST, where expens are available to answer questions about pesticides.

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Asbestos

Asbestos has been mined and widely used for many years in commercial building materials, heat­insulating materials, automobile brake and clutch linings, and in fire-proofed textiles, paints, and plasters. Over the past decade, evidence has mounted that certain sizes of asbestos fibers are more likely . to be the cause of asbestosis (an inflammation of the lung), lung cancer, or mesothelioma (a malignancy of the lining of the body cavities). It is believed that relatively low exposures can trigger disease 20-45 years later. Tobacco smoke vastly multiplies the risk.

Until 1973 asbestos was widely used in buildings for insulation, fire-proofing, ceiling rile, and other applications. Many of these materials remain in buildings which were erected before that rime. If they are disturbed or flake off, they may release dangerous quantities of fibers into the air. Under the Asbestos Hazard Exposure Reduction Act of October 1986, the EPA has required inspection of flaking asbestos in schools across the nation. This has been an extremely expensive process, and recent reassessment of the problem indicates that in cases where the material is rightly confined, it is probably a greater risk to remove it than to leave it in place.

Asbestos is dangerous because of the irritating narure of the fibers which invade the tissues. The shape and size of the asbestos fibers, which consist of short stiff needle-like structures, appear to be the problem. The very thin small fibers (less than I micrometer in diameter and from 5-20 micrometers in length) may reach the alveoli. Long thin fibers are associated with mesothelioma and somehow manage to penetrate the lung, the lining of the chest, and abdominal cavities.

In the lungs, the fibers under 5 micrometers in length are engulfed by cells and cause chronic inflammation or asbestosis. This may eventually damage cells and result in scar formation. The mechanisms leading to lung cancer are less clear and may be of two or three types. Longer fibers get into tissues, where they may create a chronic persistent inflammation that may lead to cancer, or asbestos fibers may act as co-carcinogens, enhancing the effects of other carcinogenic materials, such as those contained in cigarene smoke, asphalt, tars, or other substances. Also, asbestos may act by producing an abnormal condition in the cell that changes the DNA and activates oncogenes (cancer genes) to produce cancer. Animal studies have shown that the longer-thinner fibers (8 micrometers or longer) are more apt to produce cancer than the shorter ones (less than 5 micrometers).

Although there is also asbestos in drinking water, these arc very short fibers, mostly less than 1 micrometer in length, and are probably not responsible for incn:ascs of gastrointestinal cancers.

It appears that the problem of asbestos in our environment will be with us for a long time as it is contained and remains in many buildings and water systems throughout the country. Identifying and removing it is extremely expensive as well as hazardous to the workers. If the material is tightly bound and not likely to become airborne, it is probably bener to leave it in place. If the material is in reasonable repair, the inhabitants of the building are unlikely to be at risk of exposure, but the custodians, elccnicians, and maintenance workers may be exposed to higher levels during repair or remodeling.

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Because removing asbestos can offer hazards, and because the material will eventually be available if the building deteriorates or is demolished, it is imponant to be aware of the presence of this material in the buildings. The next step is to use a practical, common sense approach to making a decision as to whether or not it should be removed immediately or whether'the problem should be postponed until demolition of the building.

Lead-

Airborne lead enters the body when someone breathes lead particles or swallows lead dust once it has settled. Lead-based paint has long been known as a hazard to children who eat lead­containing chips. Lead in paint can also be discharged into the air when the paint is removed from surfaces by sanding or open-flame burning. High concentrations of air-borne lead particles can also result from dust entering the home from outdoors.

Lead dust can be present in soil around older lead-painted buildings, in soil near major roads or in window wells. People who wear outdoor shoes into the house can track in lead dust from outdoors or from work. People who work in manufacturing of batteries or other lead-containing materials can bring dust home on clothes.

Lead is in soil from years of burning leaded gasoline-soils near main highways may contain high levels of lead. Again, dirt becomes a path of exposure.

Lead has a wide range of toxic effects on the body including serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells. Fetuses and infants an: the most susceptible.

Children are also more likely to get high exposure when they get lead dust on their hands and then put their.fingers or other lead-contaminated objects into their mouths. The long-u::rm effects of lead exposure on children include delayed physical development and impaired mental capacity.

If paint is cracked or peeling it should be covered with wallpaper or some other building material. Painted woodwork can be removed from the house and disposed of. If lead-based paint is in good condition and undismrbed it is unlikely to cause hmm. It should not be sanded or burned off. Plant grass and leaves around bases of homes to reduce lead dust; wash window wells and floors with tri-sodium phosphate. Remove outdoor shoes bef~ walking into house (keeps lead dust levels low in carpets).

Persons who may have been exposed to lead dust should have lead blood levels checked. If elevated levels arc found, follow the advice of the physician.

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Mercury

Mercury has been found in some indoor paints, and can reach toxic levels in household air. These paints are now prohibited on the market, but it is well to inquire about possible mercury content in paint to be used in the home. Michigan cases of acrodynia occurred when people used outdoor latex inside.

Mercury can get into indoor air from broken thermometers. In a recent case in Minnesota, a 15-year-old child moved into a new house. Previous owners had broken a thermometer in his bedroom. He slept over that pan of the carpet with Hg in the pile. He developed acrodynia. The rest of the family also had high Hg levels.

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References

Air Quality: What's the Inside Story?, Health and Environment Digest, March, 1989.

Asbestos: Flaws in the Fiber Filling, Health and Environment Digest, May, 1987.

Get-the-Lead-Out Guru Challenged, Science, August 23, 1991.

Michigan Department of Public Health, Bureau of Environmental and Occupational Health, Division of Radiological Health. (1990) Indoor Radon in Michigan: Residential Survey Summary, Michigan, May.

No meeting of the Minds on Asbestos, Science, November 5, 1991.

Passive Smoking-It's Getting People All Fired Up, Health and Environment Digest, March, 1987.

Radon and Its Daughters: A Naturally Occuning Family of Trouble, Health and Environment Digest, April, 1987.

The Inside Story-A guide to Indoor Air Quality, Env. Prot. Agency, September 1988.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Health and Environment Digest, March 1991.

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C

NONPOINT SOURCE DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER

Statement of the Issue

Diffuse (nonpoint) pollution is increasingly recognized as the primary source of surface water degradation. Groundwater has also been shown to be vulnerable to nonpoint source pollution (NPS). Many Michigan water bodies are unable to meet designated uses or are degraded because of NPS. This paper will first define nonpoint source pollution, examine its impact on Michigan waters, and describe the extent of the problem using several specific sites to illustrate. This is followed by a review of Michigan's Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Management Plan and a discussion of proposed corrective measures.

Defining the Tenn

There are two sources of pollution, generally referred to as point and nonpoinL Until recently, end-of-pipe pollution sources such as industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants were defined as point sources. Everything else was labelled as nonpoinL More recently, a NPS has come to be defined as a diffuse land use activity that may ultimately degrade water resources. These land use activities include urban runoff, residential or commercial septic tank systems, agricultural practices, construction activities, forestry practices, and transportation activities. The following is a list of major nonpoint source pollution categories and subcategories developed in Michigan's Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Management Plan:

Agriculture

1 Non-iirigated crop production I Irrigated crop production 1 Specialty crop production (e.g.,

truck farming and orchards) I Pasture land 2 Range land 1 Feedlot£-all types 2 Aquaculture 1 Animal holding/management areas

Silvi culture

1 Harvesting, reforestation, residue management

1 Forest management 1 Road construction/maintenance

I~ IS a major pn,blcm in Miclupn 2--l'io< n=gnixd IS a major im,lcm in Michigan

Hydrologic/Habitat Modification

1 Channelization 2 Dredging 2 Dam construction 2 Flow regulation/modification 2 Bridge construction 1 Removal of riparian vegetation 1 Streambank modification/ destabilization

1 Atmospheric deposition 1 Waste storage/storage tank leaks 1 Highway maintenance & runoff 1 Spills 1 In-place contaminants 2 Nawral

caainucd m nm. page

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Construction

I Highway/road/bridge I Land development

Urban Runoff

1 Storm sewers l Combined sewers I SUiface runoff

Resource Extraction/Exploration/Development

1 Minipg 2 Petroleum activities

Land Disposal (Runoff/Leachate From Permitted Areas)

1 Sludge 1 Wastewater 1 Landfills I Industrial land treatment 1 On-site wastewater systems (septic tanks, etc.) 1 Hazardous waste

1---Rccagnjz,d a a major pn,blem in Michipn 2-'fot rec:oaniz.cd as a major probk:rn in Micbipn

In general, nonpoint pollutants enter smfacc and groundwater as a result of precipitation events that lead to land runoff or percolation through soils. Specific contaminants include sediment, nutrients, pathogenic bacteria, and chemicals (including pesticides).

Scope and Extent of the Problem-General

In late 1987 and early 1988, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR) conducted a NPS pollution watershed survey. The intent of the survey was to gather better infonnation on NPS pollution and its effect on the water quality of Michigan's streams, lakes and groundwater. A questionnaire was sent to various groups including local health departments, county drain commissions, regional planning agencies, DNR districts, U.S. Department of Agriculture 's (USDA) Soil Conservation Service, coopcmtive extension service, Soil and Water Conservation Districts, USDA Agricultural Stabilization Service, watershed councils, Michigan Department of Agriculture's (MDA) Animal Industry Division inspccto.ts, National Parle Service, Michigan Department of Public Health (MDPH), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

The survey forms were related to a specific watershed and requested infonnation regarding the support of designated uses, maintenance of water quality standards, the presence of NPS effects, types of effects, extent of effects and the sources of pollution.

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Information was received on each of Michigan's 297 watersheds. As the responses were subjective in nature, the assessment has been used as only an indicator of problem sources, problem effects, and problem locations. Figure 1 identifies the NPS perceived as impacting Michigan watersheds. Figure 2 illustrates the effects of NPS. It was .concluded that NPS pollution had a significant impact on water resources in Michigan with 99 percent of the watersheds reporting at least one body of water though to have a NPS pollution problem.

The major rural sources most frequently cited were septic systems, streambank erosion, and agricultural practices. Major urban sources included construction site erosion and urban runoff. The effects of these sources were seen primarily as added sediment deposits, turbidity, excessive aquatic plants, nuisance algae blooms, and oxygen depletion.

The assessment dealt primarily with surface water. In 1990, DNR's Office of Water Resources developed a questionnaire on nonpoint threats to groundwater. This questionnaire was distributed to 16 county groundwater compliance staff and district supervisors from DNR's Waste Management Division. The following land use categories were considered to pose a very high threat of groundwater contamination:

1. Petroleum product manufacturing (including coal). 2. Junk yards and salvage yards. 3. Vehicle maintenance services, including public and private garages. 4. Chemical paint and allied products manufacturing. 5. Laundries and dry cleaners. 6. Electronic and other equipment, including plating and chemical coating.

More than 50 land use categories were identified as posing a medium-high risk of groundwater contamination including golf courses, unsewcrcd residential development, household hazardous waste, bulk storage of agrichemicals, agricultural practices, lawn care businesses, municipal and state garages, lumber and wood production, paper and allied produets, printing and publishing, leather and leather products, roads and airports (deicing salts and liquids) and wasteWatcr trcattnent plants.

Specific Land Uses and Their Impacts

Agriculture 1. Erosion-Erosion involves the detachment of soil materials by either wind or rain,

followed by their transpon and deposition. Sediment is a product of erosion that can consist of soil particles of various sizes or insoluble organic and inorganic compounds. Although the rate of sediment delivery to Michigan surface waters is unknown, the soil erosion rate has been reported to be 42 million tons per year. It has been estimated that 78 percent of this erosion occurs on cropland. The remainder is contributed by streambanks, lakeshores, woodlands, pasmreland and construetion sites. Several

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agricultural practices are known to contribute to soil erosion such as the use of herbicides to kill plants that stabilize the topsoil, and plowing in the fall.

A 1990 USGS study of 150 midwestcm rivers and streamS found that 55 percent had detectable levels of the herbicide amizine when sampled prior to spring application. The percent of detection rose to 90 percent following spring application with 62 percent having an atrazine level above the EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 3 parts per billion (ppb).

Interim results from an on-going USGS study (to be completed in April 1992) on herbicides in the Mississippi River basin support the earlier findings with atrazine being the most frequently detected (100 percent of samples) followed by cyanazine, metolachlor, alachlor and simazinc. These five herbicides are used mainly on com, soybeans and sorghum

In 1990, MDA collected and analyzed smface water samples from eight rivers and one lake in Michigan. These smface waters are the source of all or some of the drinking water for 12 communities. Only the Raisin River had deteetable levels of pesticides. Atrazine was detected at or below the MCL in samples collected near Deerfield, Blissfield, and Dundee. A sample from the Raisin River at Adrian contained metolachlor, linuron, alachlor, cyanazine, and atrazine. The level of atrazine detected was above the MCL.

Sedimentation has a number of impacts including fish mortality and damage to aquatic habitats; decreased feeding opportunities for waterfowl; reduced aesthetic pleasure of recreational Water spons; and increased hazards for swimming and boating. In dealing with sedimentation in water supplies, municipal and industtial users incur additional costs related to the increased use of chemical coagulants and floculants, filtration time and capacity, and sludge disposal. Sedimentation also increases the need for dredging to maintain navigational watcrWays and flood conaoL Dredging operations create the additional problem of resuspending toxic materials into the water column that had settled. .

Wind erosion of soils in the Great Lakes basin is seen as a primary factor in phosphorous loading to the Great Lakes. The available soil phosphorous levels in the Saginaw Bay area and the Michigan portion of Lake Erie have increased from 38 pounds per acre in 1972 to 93 pounds per acre today. As phosphorous levels increase, so does the phosphorous loading to surface waters. According to the National ResoUICes Inventory in 1982, approximately 6.6 to 9.0 million tons of soil eroded in the above regions of Michigan. The International Joint Commission's PollutiQn from Land Activities Group reported in 1978 that 35 to 80 percent of the total phosphorous load to the Great Lakes was associated with scdimcnL

Erosion continues to deplete a significant amount of cropland in Michigan. Agricultllilll production can not be sustained on depleted land without increased use of energy and

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2.

fertilizer. The amount of cropland being depleted by wind erosion increased from 12 million acres in 1982 to 1.4 million acres in 1987. This represents approximately 15% of the total cropland in Michigan. Although the amount of cropland being depicted by water runoff declined from 1982 to 1987, soil depletion on 12 million acres (13% of total cropland) continues today.

Soil erosion is not likely to contaminate groundwater in most areas of the state. However, in Karst regions of the state which have an irregular topography with sinkholes on the surface and caravans or conduits underground, the potential for pollution of

• groundwater is thought to exist but remains undocumented. Michigan's Karst formations, which typically consist of easily eroded limestone, are located in the southeast (Monroe and Wayne counties), Saginaw Bay area (Huron and Arenac counties) and over a wide area of the upper peninsula (Delta, Menominee, Mackinac counties).

Animal W asre-Agricultural by-products such as manure from livestock and poultry operations contain high levels of nutrients, organic matter and pathogens. Surface water pollution by animal waste material can occur as a result of inadequate waste collection systems, inappropriate land application, and excessive animal numbers in relation to the land surface area. One of the most significant · problems relative to surface water contamination by animal waste is the euirophication of inland lakes, wetlands and ponds. Waste materials provide excess nutrients that stimulate nuisance aquatic plant growths which in turn reduce the fisheries and recreational value of Jakes. This condition also exists in portions of some rivers in the state, in Saginaw Bay, and some pans of Lake Eric.

Groundwater contamination by animal wastes is usually discerned by the detection of nitrate. In manure, nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonia are converted by soil microorganisms to nitrate. The water soluble nitrate is available for utilization by plants or may leach though the soil to groundwater. In some parts of the state many private well water supplies have high levels of nitrate. For cx,amplc, Cass County has historically had high levels of nitrate reported in groundwater.

In 1991, a MSU Institute of Water Research study of 121 wells in the Vandalia area found 25 wells with nitrate concentrations above the EPA MO, of 10 parts per million (ppm). An additional 96 wells had levels of nitrate below 10 ppm. Cass County has the largest concentration of hogs but because of heavy fertilizer use and many unsewercd homes the study was unable to dct=inc the origin of the nitrate.

3. P esricides and Commercial F errilizers Pesticides are increasingly being found in surface and ground watc:rs. This is not a newly emerging problem but rather a function of recent monitoring that specifically targeted agrichcmicals. Movement of pesticides into surface water occurs primarily from the erosion of unstable soils as described above.

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Prior to the late 1970s, it was generally assumed that the soil column provided an (" · effective barrier to pesticide movement into groundwater. This thinking began to change · ' in 1979 with the detection of ethylene dibromide (a soil fumigant) and aldicarb (a ncmatocide) in California and New York groundwater supplies. This prompted monitoring efforts by other states and by 1986, 20 pesticides had been detected in the groundwater of 24 states.

In Michigan, little monitoring of groundwater for pesticides occumd until 1989 when a MDA survey of bulk pesticide and fertilizer storage sites was conducted. The analysis of groundwater at these sites found nine locations with detectable levels of one or more pesticides. Atrazine was found most frequently and, in all but one case, at concentrations below the MCL of 3 ppb. Also detected were alachlor, metolachlor, hexazinone and propazine. Additional groundwater monitoring by MDA has focused on cattle and hog operations, dairy farms, chemigation sites, golf courses, and agricultural drainage well

(dry wells) locations.

EPA conducted a national well water survey from 1988 to 1990 sampling 1,300 community water system wells and rural domestic well for 126 pesticides and pesticide breakdown products. Ten percent of community wells had pesticides. In 0.8 percent of the wells the pesticide concentration was above either the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) or the Health Advisory Level (HAL). Four percent of the rural domestic wells were found to have detectable levels of pesticides and 0.6 percent of the rural wells had pesticide concentrations above the MCL or HAL. The most commonly found pesticide was not an agricultural product but rather an herbicide used in lawn care called dimethyltetrachlorotCiphthalatc (DCPA). Atrazine was also found along with DBCP, dinoseb, hexachlorobenzene, prometon, simazine, alachlor, EDB lindane, and ethylene thiourea.

The presence of pesticides in ground or surface water raises the issue of drinking water risk. Fortunately, to date, the majority of pesticides found have been at levels below those of current health concern. Elevated pesticide concentrations have only been found in a few domestic wells and in these situations, an alternate water supply is provided under Michigan's Encironmental Response Act 307.

Determining the source of nill'Ogen (as nitrate) and phosphorous in ground and surface water is difficult as these materials can result from decomposition of organic materials, plant residues, manure or septic systems wastes and .. omme,ci..J fertilizers. Plant uptake of nill'Ogen and phosphorous from commercial fertilizers varies greatly. On the average, approximately 50 percent of the nill'Ogen and from 5 to 30 percent of the phosphorous applied is utilized by a crop. The remainder can leach into the groundwater or be transported offsitc by wind or I3in and contaminate surface water. The movement of phosphorous into surface water is a particular concern as it stimulates aquatic plant growth which in rum affects the quality and appearance of the water as well as fish productivity.

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Urban

The presence of nitrate in Michigan groundwater supplies is pervasive. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine the extent of nitrate contamination in a specific area. A survey of 1,200 domestic wells on Old Mission Peninsula by the Northwest Regional Planning Commission found 11 percent to contain nitrate above· the drinking water standard of IO ppm. In St Joseph County where com is produced on light sandy soils with irrigation, 33 percent of the 178 wells tested had nitrate concentrations above JO ppm. In Livingston County, nitrate levels above JO ppm have been reported for more than 110 domestic wells. U.S. Geological Survey studies in Van Buren County have identified fertilizers as a principal source of nitrate contamination.

Nitrate contamination of groundwater has both health and economic impacts. Nitrate is converted by the human body to nitrite which has been associated with the production of methemoglobinemia in infantS. Nitrate is reduced to nitrite in an infant's digestive tract, apparently because a newborn Jacks acidity in the stomach and upper part of the intestinal tract InfantS absorb nitrite into their bloodstream where it interactS with hemoglobin to produce methemoglobin. Because methamoglobin does not carry oxygen to body cells, the body's oxygen supply is reduced. Very high concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can be fatal to infants, particularly within the first three months of life. Reported instances of deaths from infant methemoglobinemia in the united States are rare. However, the true incidence is unknown because cases are not required to be reported. It is interesting to note that nitrate in groundwater, even at levels above the primary drinking water standard, is specifically exempted from the Environmental Response Act 307. Therefore, well owners are responsible for securing an alternate water supply.

1. Urban Runoff-Runoff from urban areas can contain a number of pollutants as a result of stormwater contact with streets, parking lots, lawns, golf courses, industrial, residential, and commercial sites, and public lands. Ditches, drains or stormsewers collect runoff and transport it to lakes, rivers and streamS. Contaminants can include sediments from construction sites or other areas with unstable soil; pesticides and fertilizers used in residential lawn care, public grounds or golf courses; and heavy metals, oils, asbestos, and various· combustion products of fuels deposited on streets and parking lots from car and truck travel and wear of brakes and tires.

These pollutants can cause a variety of problems such as algae blooms from increased nutrients, the accumulation of heavy metals, oils, and pesticides in water, sediments and aquatic life.

Many of these same pollutants which impact smface water can also contaminate the groundwater.

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Transportation ' .. •·. 1. Soil Erosion-Soil erosion can occur during the ·constr11ction of roadways. The potential \ .

ground and surface water problems an: discussed above under agricultural impacts.

2. Roadway Runoff-Large amounts of stormwater•nmoff are generated from paved surfaces and contain many contaminants that may reach surface and groundwater. Contaminants that have. been detected in nmoff include, particulate material, deicing agents, oils, heavy metals, combustion products of fuels, and asbestos.

3. Pesticides-Roadway and railroad maintenance involves the right-of~way application of pesticides. These pesticides an: primarily herbicides used for clearing woody plants that might otherwise obStnJct view or cause damage on impact.

F orestlamls Soil Erosion-Soil erosion from forestlands can occur from use of recreational vehicles, access road consuuction and silvercultural activities. All of these can contribute sediment to surface warcr or fertilizers and pesticides used in forestland management may nmoff into surface water or leach into groundwater.

Construction Site Soil Erosion-Soil erosion at construction sites occurs as a result of ban: soil being exposed to wind and precipitation. This is especially a problem when construction takes place on steep slopes, near warcrways, or occurs over a long period of time. The effects of sediment are f~ discussed above under agricultural land use.

Septic Systems Failed or improperly installed on-sire sewer systems (septic tanks, drain fields, and dry wells) contribute phosphorous, niuate, and pathogens to surface and ground waters. In 1983 it was estimated that over I million Michigan homes (30 percent of all homes in state) used septic systems for disposal of wastewater. The MDPH estimates that five percent of on-site septic will fail each year and that fifty percent of these failures an: due to improper maintenance. The risks associated with septic system contaminants arc similar to those of animal manure and arc described under agricultural land uses.

Michigan's Approach to NPS Control

Nonpoint source pollution is by its very natuIC a problem which requires an integrated approach to management. Nonpoint pollution is produced by diverse land use activities that cut across agencies and organizations as well as program areas within these groups. Prior to 1988, there was no coordinated effon to assess the scope and extent of NPS pollution much less control it. Michigan addressed nonpoint source pollution primarily through a loose network of existing conservation programs and projects.

188

Efforts to control NP-S pollution became bener defined and more comprehensive with the 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act. These amendments required states to identify watersheds impacted by nonpoint sources and develop a plan to manage these sources .. In 1988, the DNR conducted a survey of natural resources, environmental, and agricultural· agencies and groups regarding their perception of the extent of NPS pollution in Michigan. Concurrently, the DNR began work on the management plan which developed strategies to address NPS pollution. This was acc'omplished with a 23-member Nonpoint Source Advisory Committee and nine Nonpoint Source Technical Comminees. The management plan was submined to EPA in the fall of 1988 and subsequently approved. Since plan approval, several of the recommendations have been implemented including the development of Best Management Practices (BMP) for various land use activities. BMP's are methods, measures or practices to present or reduce water pollution, including strUctural and nonslrllctural controls, operations, and maintenance procedures and scheduling and distribution of activities. Currently, BMPs exist for cons1r11ction sites, golf courses and forestry. Urban and agricultural BMPs are in draft form and will soon be available for public review.

What's Needed

The continued development of BMPs and their evaluation through demonstration projects are important components of managing NPS pollution. In addition, existing state and federal laws need to be bener enforced and compliance monitoring of all watersheds expanded and the data centralized. However, none of these activities will succeed in controlling NPS pollution unless Michigan works to develop an environmentally informed citizenry •. Information and educational materials need to be directed at the general public Statewide in regard to the environmental impact of their own activities. The degradation of ground and surface water needs to be understood as a personal issue by the farmer applying agricultural chemicals, the unsewcred homeowner, the ORV operator, and the property owner whose goal is to produce the greenest grass. This will be the most difficult pan of managing NPS, as it involves making lifestyle changes in a society that tends to be crisis oriented.

189

Septic Systems

Stream Bank Erosion

Ag. Erosion

Construction

~imal Wastes

Ag. Fertilizers

· Urban Runoff

Forest Erosion

Home Fert. & Pest

Ag. pesticides

Golf Courses

Irrigation I

81%

soun:a: ONR Nor!>oin15'ute Slralegy. 1988 Mining

+-,_.;..-,-;.--,---,---,---,---,----,---,---r----i 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

PERCENT OF WATERSHEDS Figure 1. Perceived Nonpoint Sources in Michigans 297 Watersheds

Sedimentation

Impaired Fish

Oxygen Depletion

Odors

Fish Kills

Pesticide Tox.

Heavy Metal Tox. SCUQI: ONR Nonponl Scuca Sbategy. 1988

+----,----,----,.---,,---,----r----,---,---,---1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

PERCENT OF WATERSHEDS

Figure 2. Perceived Effects of Nonpoint Sources in Michigans 297 Watersheds 190

I I

References

Ellis, B.~ Water Quality Comments, 8, 1988.

Institute of Water Research, Michigan State University, Preliminary Report: Groundwater investigations in Cass County, 1988.

International Joint Commission, Non point Source Pollution Abatement in the Great Lakes Basin, August 1983.

Lucas, R. and D. Warneke, Managing Organic Soils to Reduce Nonpoint Pollution, CES Bulletin WQ03, August 1985. ·

Michigan Depamnent of Natural Resources, Michigan's Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Management Plan, Lansing, Michigan, November 1988.

Michigan Depamnent of Natural Resources, Groundwater Section of the Michigan Nonpoint Source Management Plan, Lansing, Michigan, October 1991.

Michigan Deparonent of Natural Resources, State of Michigan Phosphorous Reduction Strategy for the Michigan Portion of Lake Erie and Saginaw Bay-Program Update, August 1988.

Novotny, V., Diffuse (Nonpoint) Pollution-A Political, Instirutional and F1Scal Problem, Journal WPCF, 60, 1988.

Olsen, L. and D. Wade, Pesticides and Nitrates in Groundwater at Bulk Storage Sites, Pesticide Notes, Vol. 2, June 1989.

Robenson, L.S. and D.R. Christenson, Phosphorous: Pollutant and Essential Plant Food Element, MSU-CES Bulletin WQ05, August 1985.

Rogers, P. and A. Rosenthal, The Imperatives of Nonpoint Source Pollution Policies, Journal . WPCF, 60, 1988.

Thurman, E.M., D.A. Goolsby, M.T. Meyer, and D.W. Kolpin, Herbicides in Surface Waters of the Midwestern United States-The Affect of Spring Flush, pp. 1794-1796, October 1991.

United States Environmental Proteetion Agency, Another Look: National Survey of Pesticides in Drinking Water Wells, January 1992.

United States Depamnent of Agriculture, The Magnirude and Costs of Groundwater Contamination from Agriculwral Chemicals, No. 57 6, October 1987.

191

United States Depamnent of Agriculture-Soil Conservation Service, · Natural Resources Inventory, 1987.

United States Geological Survey, Distribution of Selected Herbicides and Nitrates in the Mississippi River and its Major Tributaries, April through June 1991, Water Resources

.Investigations Report pp. 91-4163, 1991.

192

..

PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG IN MICHIGAN

A number of counties adjacent to Lake Michigan and in Southeastern Michigan experience a few exceedances of the ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standard each year. The Relative Risk Analysis Project recognizes this problem as one of 24 outstanding environmental issues in Michigan. To reduce the concentrations of ozone, extensive resources have been committed and will continue to be committed to the emissions of ozone precursors in Michigan. The pUipOse of this paper is to present an overview of the issue and to discuss the potential health and ecological effects. In addition, areas in Michigan where the ozone problem is due to ozone imported from upwind statesand areas where Michigan's emissions contribute to Michigan's problem will beidentified.

I. The Situation in Michigan

Photochemical smog is a complex mixture of constituents formed when volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NO, = NO [nitric oxide]+ NO, [nitrogen dioxide]) are irradiated by sunlight. From an effects perspective, ozone-(O3) is the primary concern and it is the most abundant species formed in photochemical smog. Extensive studies have shown that in high concentrations 0 3 is a lung irritant and a phytotoxicant. At ambientlevels in certain areas, it is responsible for crop damage, and it is suspected of being a contributor to forest decline in Europe and in pans ofthe U.S. The adverse effects of 0 3 will be reviewed later. There are, however, a multitude of other photochemical smog species. that can have significant environmental consequences. The most important of these additional pollutant species are panicles, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), aldehydes, and nitric acid. However, there is noevidence that these species occur in high enough concentrations to be of concern in Michigan. Consequently, the focus of this paper will be on O,.

In 1977, Michigan, as well as all of the other 8ICIIS of the U.S. which experienced violations of the 0 3 National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS), was required to submit a VOC emissions reduction plan (called a State Implementation Plan or SIP) demonsirating how the state would achieve compliance with the NAAQS by the end of 1982. Although the State implemented its plan, it became obvious by 1980 that Southeastern Michigan and pans of Western Michigan would not be in compliance by the end of 1982. As a result,the state of Michigan, like all the other states with nonanainment areas, m:eived a 5-year extension and developed a second SIP with sufficient voe reductions so that the NAAQS would be achieved by the end of 1987. In 1992, Southeastern Michigan and pans of western Michigan along Lake Michigan still remain in violation of the NAAQS.

What are the reasons why Michigan's (as well as the rest of the U.S.'s) progress in reducing 0 3

has fallen far short of expectations? There are numerous contributing factors:

193

(1) The models used to calculate the required voe etn1Ss1on reductions were seriously flawed. Although a more sophisticated and advanced model was used in the 1982 SIP than in the 1977 SIP, it was still an inappropriate model;

(2) The VOC emissions inventory of man-made sources was grossly underestimated. It is now recognized that nationwide, man-made VOC emissions had been generally underestimated by a factor of 2 to 3;

• (3) The importance of biogenic VOC emissions from trees and other vegetation was not realized. On a regional basis, the amount of natural V OC emissions is approximately equal to the man-made emissions, and they react faster in the atmosphere;

(4) Control programs were assumed to be 100% effective in reducing VOC emissions, but they were not. However, we do not have a good estimate on how ineffective they were because the process lacks any type of verification program (National Research Council, 1991 );

(5) The magnitude of the atmospheric transport of 0 3 from upwind sources into certain regions was underestimated. In many places the imported 0 3 represents an appreciable fraction of the NAAQS;

(6) In certain areas with low VOC/NO, ratios, a reduction of NO, emissions will actually cause an increase in 0 3• Although stationary sources of NO, have not been the subject of a reduction program, NO, emissions from transportation sources have declined about 25% from 1980 to 1990. Since the median ambient VOC/NO, ratio in Southeastern Michigan is among the lowest (4.8) measured in the U.S., these NO, reductions could have had an advme effect on 0 3 air quality;

(7) 0 3 formation is dependent upon local and regional meteorology;

(8) The lack of a national research program on 0, has inhibited our progress in understanding the issue.

Presently, the DNR is in the process of planning for their next SIP which is due by November 1993 or 1994, depending on the methodology they use to develop tlteir SIP. However, the question remains open whether or not the next SIP will be more successful. We now use sophisticated photochemical grid models (PGM) that do quite well characterizing smog chemistry in controlled smog chamber experiments, and arc formulated to include transponed 0 3 and handle the dual role of NO,. However, the validation of these models in the real atmosphere is still inadequate. Indeed, the output will only be as good as the input parame= and assumptions. Present emission inventories, while more comprehensive, arc, at best, marginally better than the ones used earlier. The largest source of uncertainty is now recognized to be motor vehicle

194 i •.

emissions (National Research Council, 1991). EPA and the auto industry are working on improving these emission estimates, but the improved emission estimates will probably not be ready to incorporate in the SIP process before 1994. Also, the uncertainty of the biogenic emissions assessments are estimated to be in a range of at least a factor of 3 (U.S. EPA, 1991a) Furthermore, we know that the chemistry describing the reactions of- the natural VOC is inadeqµately represented in the PGMs.

Consequently, even though plans are being made to develop future SIPs using new, state-of-the­art, scientific tools, we have no guarantees that the outcome will be any different than in the past. Until progress is demonstrated by air quality measurements rather than by predictions, these

inherent uncertainties in the plan should not be dismissed. In addition, there is a possibility that level of the 0 3 NAAQS will be lowered (made more stringent) in the near future. This will be discussed later.

Photochemical smog is a summertime phenomenon in Michigan. TemperatureS are too low and sunlight is insufficient during the other seasons. Despite almost two decades of reducing VOC emissions from stationary and mobile sources and NO, emissions from mobile sources, progress in reducing 0 3 in Michigan has fallen short of expectations as two regions of the state, the western shore of Lake Michigan and southeast Michigan continue to have nonattainment status for 0,. These areas are shown in Figure 1. An area is classified nonawtinment if the 0, design value (the design value is equal to the 4th highest maximum daily 1-hr 0 3 concentration within a 3-year period) exceeds the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 0.12 ppm. The Southeast Michigan nonattainment area includes the counties of Wayne, Oakland, Macomb, St. Clair, Monroe, Washtenaw, and Livingston. Rint and Lansing are classified as transitional areas. They previously had been in a nonattainment status, but their design values have been at or below the 0.12 ppm cut-off since at least 1987.

Figure 1 shows the extent of the official nonanainment areas in Michigan but it does not present the complete picture of the 0, problem because there are many counties where 0 3 is not measured. During the 1991 intensive Lake Michigan Ozone Study (LMOS), additional O, data were collected in a number of counties where such measurements had never been made before. These data along with 1991 data from the DNR's regular 0, monitoring network are displayed in Figure 2. Note that there were 0 3 cxccedances (of the standard) recorded in every county bordering Lake Michigan that had an 0 3 monitor. This includes 2 exccedances in the Upper Peninsula's Garden Peninsula and 3 excecdances at Sleeping Bear Sand Dunes in the Lower Peninsula. Additional cxcecdances were recorded on platforms within Lake Michigan. Undoubtedly, additional counties near Lake Michigan would have recorded excccdances had measurements been made in those counties.

It should be noted that LMOS is a landmark study designed to apply the state-of-the-art measurement and atmospheric modeling tcehnology to develop a coordinated, multi-state control strategy to reduce the high 0, concentrations experienced near the shores of Lake Michigan in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan. A $13 million data collection program was conducted in the

195

summers of 1990 and 1991 and involved extensive measurements made on land, on the Lake, r· and from aircraft. Final results from the modeling analyses are due by the end of 1993. . ··

2. Sources Contributing to 0 3 in Michigan

There are a variety of sources contributing to the O, observed in Michigan, and they are illustrated in Figure 3. Fll'St, there is a significant "clean air" background 0:, concentration that varies-with season and latitude. The "clean air" background is defined as the concentrations measured at pristine areas of the globe. It consists of natural sources of O,, but it may contain some anthropogenic contribution because it may have increased since the last century (Hough and Derwent, 1990). This background 0:, comes from: intrusions of O3-rich stratospheric air, in-situ O, production from methane (CH.) oxidation, and the photoox.idation of narurally emitted VOCs from vegetation. In the suiµmertime in Michigan, the average ambient air background concentrations are about 0.04 ppm (Kelly et al., 1978) which is one-third of the NAAQS. In addition, high O:, days are characterized typically as being the honest days of the year. On these days, the biogenic emissions are greater than on the average summer day, so the background 0 3

would be expected to be higher as well

Added to this background is the 0:, formed by the photoox.idation of anthropogenic voes and NO, emitted upwind of the stare of Michigan. The sum from these soun::es as well as the upwind background represents the 0:, concentration imported into Michigan. As noted above, the highest 0 3 days are typically the honest days of the season and these days are almost exclusively associated with a southerly or southwesterly flow of air. This means that the air aniving in ~ Muskegon will have traversed through the Chicago and/or Milwaukee areas while the air entering Southeastern Michigan will have passed through Ohio. Consequently, significant 0:, levels can be imported into Michigan. In fact, the contribution of Michigan sources to the observed 0 3

concentrations along the Lake Michigan shoreline in Michigan is probably negligible. This means that the imported 0 3, by itself, is sufficient to produce 0:, concentration in excess of the NAAQS in Western Michigan. Similarly, imported 0:, probably accounts for the elevated levels of 0:, observed in the Upper Peninsula. In Southeastern Michigan, them are no good data on imported 0:,. However, it is probably in the range of 0.06 to 0.10 ppm on the high 0:, days Q(elly et. al., I 986). Although these levels are insufficient by themselves to cause a NAA QS violation, only a small contribution from Michigan soun::es is needed to exceed the NAA QS.

The highest density of VOC and NO, soun::es in Southeastern Michigan occurs in the Detroit Metropolitan area. In the presence of these emissions, the sunlight initiates a series of chemical reactions which lead to the formation of 0:,. Since these =lions continue to form O:, over a period of several hours, the location where the maximum 0:, concentrations are found is dependent upon the wind speed and direction. Typically, the maximum 0:, is observed 10-70 km downwind of the area of maximum prc=or emissions. In Southeastern Michigan, the maximum 0:, levels are generally observed in New Haven or Pon Huron. This also means that significant concentrations of 0:, may be exported from Michigan into Ontario.

1%

•

According to present emission inventories (which could have serious errors), the major man-made sources of VOCs (and their estimated percent contribution) in Michigan are: point sources (21 % ), highway vehicles (48%), and area sources (31%). It should be pointed out that the source proportions are rapidly changing. For example, between 1970 and 1990, nationwide transportation VOC emissions declined 48%, and under the direction of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, they will continue to decline. The sources of NO, in Michigan are: point sources (62%), highway vehicles (28%), and area sources (10%). Different VOC compounds react to produce O, at different rates. In general, internally-bonded olefins are the most reactive, followed in decreasing order by terminally bonded olefins, multi-alkyl aromatics, monoalkyl aromatics, C5 and greater paraffins, C2-C4 paraffins, benzene, acetylene, ethane, and methane.

3. Effects

A. Health Effects

The 1-hour Federal NAAQS for O, is 0.12 ppm that is not to be exceeded, on average, more than once per year. If an area has four days in three years with I-hour 0, concentrations greater than 0.12 ppm, it is classified to be in nonanainment status. · When the 1-hour 0, concentration exceeds 0.12 ppm, EPA describes the air as unhealthful. According to EPA's Pollutant Standards Index (PSI), at 0, concentrations between 0.12 and 0.20 ppm, "mild aggravation of symptoms in susceptible persons, with irritation symptoms in the healthy population" can occur. The cautionary statement that is issued when 0, levels arc in this range is: "Persons with

existing heart or respiratory ailments should reduce physical exertion and outdoor activity. With regard to ozone, general population should avoid vigorous outdoor activity" (U.S. EPA, 1991b). The: level of 0.12 ppm for !~hour was chosen as the NAAQS in 1978 because decrements in lung function tests were observed in heavily exercising adults at concentrations between 0.12 to 0.16 ppm (U.S. EPA, 1986). Since that time, a considerable amount of additional research has been conducted focusing on: 1) the significance of a decrement in the performance in a lung function test, 2) searching for evidence of adverse effects below 0.12 ppm, and 3) concerns over chronic effects after long-term exposure to repeated O, peaks.

Many sllldies have shown the decrements in the lung function tests are observed in exercising individuals when exposed to O, concentrations higher than the NAAQS for 1-2 hours. No decrements have been found at concentrations less than 0.50 ppm when the subjects arc at rest (U.S. EPA, 1986). In addition, numerous studies at 0, concentrations> 0.12 ppm have shown that the decn:ments in the lung function tests arc transient The subjects' test performance returns, in most cases within hours, to their pre-exposure levels without any long-term consequences. Further, cellular and biochemical signs of an inflammatoty response that occur after a prolonged exposure also disappear with no evident immediate .-.ffCCL Some feel the inflammatory response is a response of the body's natural defense mechanisms. Thus, there is a school of thought that the observed decrements in lung function tests or mild signs and symptoms of airways irritation arc not direct evidence of an adverse health effCCL

197

Additional statistically significant decrements in lung function tests have been observed in subjects who have been exercising vigorously for more than 3 hours while being exposed to 0.12 ppm and lower levels of 0 3• No effects are observed for shorter exposures (Folinsbee et al., 1988). Other studies have shown signs of inflammatory changes in the airways of exercising subjects exposed to 0 3 as low as 0.08-0.12 ppm for 6.6 hours when tested 18 hours after exposure (Koren et al., 1989). This has raised concems that observable effects may be occuning in individuals engaged in vigorous outdoor activity at 0 3 concenaations equal to or less than the current standard if these concentrations persist for several hours or more.

Several epidemiologic studies have compared the perfonnance of several lung function tests in different communities characterized by different levels of 0,. Baseline function measurements were made at the start and again 5 years later. The results suggest that the decrements are larger in the communities with higher 0 3 concentrations, but the presence of serious confounding factors make these results unclear. This would suggest that repeated exposure, rather than individual peaks or chronic exposure may be of concern (EPA, 1988). In SIIIIllllar:y, there are many uncertainties concerning the health effects of 0 3• They range from the concerns that the current NAAQS is too restrictive because it is not based on a demonstrated adverse health effect, to the claims that present standard is not protective enough against repeated or chronic exposures.

B. Ecological Effects

The ecological concerns of 0, exposure focus on decreased agricultural crop yields and damage to forests. In high concentrations, 0, is a phytotoxicant that produces visible injury to the foliage as well as growth and yield reductions. ~

The degree of injury or yield loss in agricultural crops depends on the species and on the exposure. While visible injury can occur after exposure to a short peak of high 0 3 concentration, there also is a relationship between crop yield and cumulative 03 dose. EPA is presently examining a number of exposure indices to see which one correlates best with crop yield losses. On such index that was used in the recent NAPAP i:epon (NAPAP, 1991b) was the daytime growing season 0 3 mean. This is the mean of the 0 3 concentrations from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. during April through September. According to EPA this value for Michigan averages 0.038 ppm (U.S. EPA, 1984). Using this concentration, EPA e~timated the crop yield losses for a number of crops in Michigan due to 0 3• The crops included in this analysis and their respective percent losses are: com (0.4%), soybeans (4.9%), winter wheat (1.8%), attd barley (0.1%). Other sensitive crops that were not included in the analysis are oat, onion, potato, :radish, tomato, and black cheny.

EPA' s crop loss assessment should be considered a highly conservative upper """mates because of the way the dose-response equations were developed. For many species, the field data indicated no loss in yield until the seasonal mean concentration reached 0.05 ppm. However, these data were fit to a Weibull function curve which mathematically predicted yield losses at concentrations lower than the levels at which were observed, and significantly overestimated the losses at low exposures (U.S. EPA, 1986).

198

The only place where forest damage has been definitely attributed to 0 3 is the San Bernardino Mountains in the Los Angeles Basin. O, is suspected to have conaibuted to forest die-back in Europe and at higher elevations in the Appalachian Mountains. There have been no published reports of 0 3 damage to forests in Michigan.

4. Recovery Time

The lifetime of 0 3 varies from several hours in a highly polluted environment to about 3 months in a pristine environment Consequently, the eradication of the 0 3 problem should be immediate once we determine the correct combination of precursor reductions required and implement those reductions.

5. Risk of Maintaining 0 3 at Present Levels

A. Health Effects

Hourly 0 3 data are available for 1991 from those O, monitors that are a part of the DNR 's regular ambient air monitoring network (this does not include the additional sites run for the Lake Michigan 0, Study). In Table l, the number of days and hours when the 0 3 exceeded 0.12 ppm at each of the monitors are summarized. Out of the 9 0, monitors located in the 7 nonattainmem counties in Southeastern Michigan, 5 registered violations. At these 5 monitors, the number of hours the O, exceeded the NAAQS ranged from 2 to 3. In the western part of the state, the hours with 0 3 violations ranged from 0 10 10. The exccedances typically occurred between 3 pm and 5 pm. Assuming that the present NAAQS teprcsents an adequate level of protection, the population exposed 10 ozone levels of concern will be limited 10 that fraction who are outdoors for three hours or more during the periods above 0.12 ppm (indoor concentrations are much lower). However, data on human activity pancms show that on the average, the American population spends about 10-20% of their time outdoors and only a small fraction is engaged outdoors in vigorous physical activity (U.S. EPA, 1988).

Consequently, it can be expected that only ·a very small fraction of the population in Michigan will be engaged in a prolonged vigorous outdoor activity at the time the 0, concentrations exceed 0.12 ppm, and thus, exposed 10 ozone levels that may pose a measurable health risk. This of course, could be an underestimate if the 0 3 concentrations of concern are lower or if 0 3 peaks are frequent and repeated exposures are of concern. On the other hand, if the transient decrements and inflammatory responses are not of long-term clinical significance, this could be a gross overestimate of the adverse effects and the population at risk.

199

B. Ecological Effects

Crop yield losses in Michigan appear to be in the noise level, so inaction would not have a major consequence. To complicate mauers, however, is the fact that we have no idea what the relationships are between precursor emissions and an average 7-hr. seasonal mean. Consequently, we could not design an appropriate control strategy even if we wanted to, and we cannot be cenain 'what the impact of the control strategies designed for Muskegon/Grand Rapids and the Detroit area will be on rural agricultural areas because of the dual role of NO,.

Because there has been no documented damage to forests in Michigan, and because other areas of the country where damage has been confirmed or suspected experience much higher 0 3 than Michigan, it appears this is not an issue in Michigan.

200

Table I

Monitor Location days 0 3 > 0.12 ppm hours 0 3 > 0.12 ppm

Western Michigan Grand Rapids 2 4

Ottawa County 2 7

Muskego~ity 4 JO Muskegon County 5 10 Kem Co. (outside Grand Rapids) 0 0 Cass Co. 0 0 Southeastern Michigan New Haven (Macomb Co.) 2 3 Warren 2 2 Pon Huron 2 2 SL Clair Co. 2 3

-~- Allen Park I 2 Dettoit (Linwood SL) 0 0 Saline (Washtenaw Co.) 0 0 Ann Arbor 0 0 Oak Park 0 0 Flint Area Flint 0 0 Genesse Co. (Washburn Rd.) 0 0 Lansing Area Lansing 0 0 Clinton Co. 0 0 Upper Peninsula Dickinson Co. (Champion #1) 0 0 Dickinson Co. (Champion #2) 0 0

201

u « Figure 1: Ozone Design Values

(as of 2/1/92)

Nona ttainment Areas Moderate -

crosshatch

ll

Attainment Areas ){(/>lt d-Ra J .. :r·• Clear - no viola lions ~,~

1 •

Squares -. transition /no violations since beto're 1981)

'

Federal Standard = 125 ppb

All units are ppb

Counties with no numbers have no routine DNR measurements

N 0 N

'

Figure 2: Maximum Ozone in 1991

Nona ttainment Areas Moderate -

crosshatch

by County

Numbers are the maximum

[) ~ ozone in ppb measured

__,,....__ ~ during 1991.

Numbers in () are the

~~ c . 1

, I ~ nu71i~e~t~~~~~~~~ons. -~ ~--i-~--i----i----\~ exceeded ,t the number

.. · · is greater than or =

. Q

to 125 ppb . .:l~~Hi ''.;. '. ·~· ...

. ~i!U!! A tta,nment Areas · -;~b?.,?.J✓-A• Clear - no violation Dots - > 724 in 7997

Squares - transition /no violation~ since before 1987)

f

· ,1 .. 1 .. 1 .. 1 .. i

.............

--~ ')<X

Counties with no numbers have no routine ONR measurements

"' 0 N

C: t input from stratosphere

I, sunlight

!Background 031 ,03 imported into Detroit.

"' "" I ;k' }j 03 downwind of

Detroit

metliane biogenic voes

'

upwind man-made VOel ND emissionl

""

biogenic voes

Detroit Area's YOO l NDx Emissions

Figure 3: Sources that contribute to 03 downwind of Detroit. "' 0 N

References

Folinsbee, LJ., McDonnell, W .F., and Horstman, D.H. (1988) Pulmonary function and symptom responses after 6.6-hour exposure to 0.12 ppm ozone with moderate exercise. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 38, 28-35.

Hough, A.M. and Derwent, R.G. (1990) Changes in the global concentration of tropospheric ozone due to human activities. Nature 344, 645-648. ·

Kelly, N.A., Wolff, G.T. and Ferman, M.A. (1978) Background pollutant measurements in air masses affecting the eastern half of the United States-I. Air masses axriving from the northwest. Atmos.Environ. 16, 1077-1088.

Kelly, N.A., Ferman, M.A. and Wolff, G.T. (1986) The chemical and meteorological conditions associated with high and low ozone concentrations in Southeastern Michigan and nearby areas of Ontario. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 36, 150-158.

Koren, H.S. et. al. (1989) Ozone-induced inflammation in the lower airways of human subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139, 407-415.

NAPAP (1991a) Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Repott 22, Direct Health Effects Associated with Acidic Precursor Emissions, Washington, DC.

NAPAP (1991b) 1990 Integrated Assessment Repott, Washington, DC, 520 pp.

National Research Council (1991) Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 489 pp.

U.S. EPA (1984) The Economic Effects of Ozone on Agriculture, EPA-600/3-84-090, 175 pp.

U.S. EPA (1986) Air Quality Criteria Document for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants, EPN600/8-84/020, Research Triangle Park, NC.

U.S. EPA (1988) Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Ozone-Assessment of Scientific and Technical Information, Research Triangle Park, NC.

U.S. EPA (1991a) Regional Ozone Modeling for Northeast Transpott (ROMNET), EPA-450/4-002a, Research Triangle Park, NC.

U.S- EPA (1991b) Measuring Air Quality: The New Pollutant Standards Index (Draft), Research Triangle Park, NC 18 pp.

205

POINT SOURCE DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER, (' INCLUDING THE GREAT LAKES

Issue

Passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 ( CW A), funded and set in motion a mostly successful national effort to clean the nation's waters. Discharges of unm:ated sanitary and industrial wastewaters, and stormwater from decades of rapid increasing urbanization had resulted in a substantial degradation of water resources in many of Michigan's water bodies. Beach closings, threatened drinking water supplies, increased eutrophication, and fish kills were common. After 20 years of extensive construction of wastewater m:atment facilities and regulation to meet established effluent levels and treatment requirements, some areas of the state are still experiencing pollution problems from point sources. This paper will discuss aome remaining and emerging problems, some successes, the need for public involvement and other political and social issues.

Succ:esses

In the past 20 years many successes have been realized. Reductions of conventional pollutants such as nutrients, microorganisms, chlorides, heat, oil and grease, BOD, and suspended solids in many surface waters have been documented. Eutrophication problems in many inland lakes, including Lake Erie have declined primarily because of reductions in phosphorus and organic material loads. Concentrations of phosphorus in the Grand, Saginaw, and Kalamazoo Rivers have fallen an average of 70 percent since 1970, principally due to the phosphorus detergent ban wastewater tn:atment plant upgrade and construction. The Tittabawassee and Saginaw Rivers at one time would not freeze because of the heat and dissolved solids load. Now it provides a healthy walleye population for ice fisherpersons.

Concentrations of toxic compounds found in fish tissue samples has declined in most areas. The Tittabawassee River for example, had a ban on consumption of all fish in 1985. By 1988, the ban was lifted as data indicated contaminant concentrations in walleye had decreased over 50 percent in a three year period.

Contaminant levels (total PCBs and DDT) in the Great Lakes have shown a n:markable decrease since 1970, after they were prohibited from sale or open system use in the U.S.

Visual and aesthetics problems such as odors, taste, mrbidity and color, have improved in many surface waters. Since eutrophication has declined, there are fewer reportS of foul smelling water. Lake Erie for example, is now supporting the largest walleye population of the Great Lakes. Removal of solids has improved the visual quality as well.

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Historical Problems and Law

In the 1950s and 1960s, Michigan like the rest of the country was experiencing "gross" water pollution. Urban waters, generally in the southern half of the lower peninsula, were pla,,,aued by untreated sewage, wastewatcrs and industrial chemicals. Many rivers had foul odors due to decaying organic material and oxygen depletion and supponed only the most pollution tolerant organis'ms. High concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, oils and grease, arid a variety of toxic compounds were responsible for closure of swimming areas, contaminating drinking water suppl!eS, fish kills, contamination of higher trophic levels, and aesthetics degradation. Lake Erie for example, experienced a substantial decline of game fish due to nutrient loadings and associated eutrophication problems.

Increased public awareness, concern and outcry, was instrumental in the passage of the water quality legislation in the 1960s and 1970s. The Qean Water Act of 1972, provided for substantial federal funding to state and local governments to fmance wastewater treatment facilities. The act also required these facilities to provide at a minimum, secondary treatment (biological oxidation and solids removal). In 1972, approximately 3.5 million people in Michigan were served by wastewater collection and treatment systems capable of only primary treaonent (removal of moSt floating and settleable solids by mechanical means). By 1990, 98 % of all municipalities (serving approximately 7.0 million people) had secondary treatment facilities.

The CW A also forced many industrial and commercial dischargers to provide at significant expense, pretreatment of effluent prior to discharge to municipal dewcrage systems, resulting in major reductions of pollutant loads entering the states waterS in the 1980s.

The CW A required states to establish and after approval from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), adopt water quality standards. The act also mandated that municipal, commercial, and induStrial wastewater dischargers obtain permits which regulated the wastes discharged in terms of quantity and quality. A new permit program was established, commonly known as National Pollutant Elimination Discharge System (NPDES). · Since its inception over 1500 permits have been issued in Michigan. The Water Resource Commission Act Public (Act 245 of 1929, as amended in November of 1986) established the Water Resources Commission which has been authorized to promulgate water quality standards pursuant to the CW A, and issues NPDES permits for Michigan.

Cwrcntly, in Michigan there are 1400 active NPDES permits, 1000 of which arc industrial or commercial and 400 are municipals. All surface waters in Michigan have water quality standards and designated specific uses for which these waters are to be protected. All waters are protected for body contact, navigation, industrial water supply and agriculrural uses. Some water bodies are protected for public drinking in locations where public drinking water intakes exist.

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Why Are Point Sources Still a Problem?

Although dramatic improvements in water pollution control have been documented. the goal of the CW A has not been achieved. The national goal set by the CW A was for the elimination of all discharges of pollutants into navigable waters by 1985. Some of the remaining and emerging point source pollution problems which need to be addressed are combined sewer overflows (CSO), urban stonnwater, persistent toxics both from historical and present discharges, aging municipal wastewater treatment plants (WW1Ps) and non-contaet cooling and water withdrawals from thermoelectric power generators.

Two types of sewer systems exist in many developed areas, namely, sanitary and stormwater. In older municipalities, both sanitary (including industrial wastewatesr) and stormwater are carried in the same system and are termed combined sewer systems. Discharges of both wastewater and stonnwater from combined sewer systems are referred to as combined sewer overflows (CSOs). Combined sewer systems are intended to carry both wastes to a municipal wastewater treatment facility, however, during many wet weather conditions. the capacity of the sewerage and treatment facility may not be sufficient to accept and treat the incoming quantity of water. At that point the flow is diverted and discharged directly into receiving waters to protect the facility.

Many cities in the state have releases of raw sewage (domestic and industrial) when systems f,l('•~ cannot handle increased stormwater flows. Discharges from CSOs result in intermittent releases of billions of gallons of raw· sewage into the states waters despite being illegal and a violation of the CWA. Water quality and designated use violations continually occur as a result of loadings of nutrients, toxic chemicals, suspended solids, biological oxygen demanding constituents, and hydrologic effects. Other contributing factors often playing a role are illegal connections, seepage of ground water, lack of a comprehensive water conservation policy, and failure of the sanitary system to keep pace with urban dcvelopmenL

A repon prepared by Public Seetor Consultants, Inc. entitled "Michigan Sewer Crisis, The Problem and Solution" published in 1989 discusses the significance of the current situation in much greater detail then can be done here. The repon estimated that approximately 16 to 20 billion gallons of contaminated waste water from CSO reaches the waters of the state every year. As of 1989, Michigan has approximately 70 communities with CSOs and 588 outfalls which are under permit Out of 588 CSO outfalls under permit, only 36 have adequate programs to control discharges. Also, 25 percent of the outfalls are operating under expired NPDES permits which are reissued every five years.

To illustrate the problem, the City of Grand Rapids from 1983 to 1989 discharged approximately 34 billion gallons of raw sewage into the Grand River and Silver Creek (1.3 billion gallons from one outlet alone), during 83 wet weather events. In the Rouge River basin, which also

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experiences significant impacts from CSOs, it is estimated that 8 billion gallons of untreated sewage are discharged per year. The estimated clean-up cost for the Rouge River Basin is estimated to be over 1.0 billion dollars. The MDNR indicated that secondary trcaiment of all CSO effluent would reduce emissions of phosphorus by 80 percent, oil and-grease by 95 percent, and suspended solids by 85 percent

Accordihg to the MDNR, all sewer systems in Michigan are more than 30 years old and most are more than 50 years old. Elimination and/or adequate treatment of CSO discharges in Michigan will mandate an extensive public work effon at an estimated cost of over 2.0 billion dollars. By comparison, federal grants for construction of municipal wastewater treatment facilities, since 1972, has exceeded 2.5 billion dollars.

Persistent Toxic Substances

Persistent toxic substances come from a variety of sources, including WWfP not able to remove them from wastewaters, CSOs, atmospheric deposition, urban storm water runoff, and industrial dischargers including those under permit These toxic compounds once released into the environment will serve as a contamination source to humans and other biota for extended periods of time. Once large bodies such as the Great Lakes have been contaminated, the recovery time may be from several decades to hundreds of years due to the hydraulics and chcmodynamics of the these systems. The continued input of low levels of persistent toxic chemicals into aquatic ecosystems have produced adverse effects in the biota and has altered the viability of lake trout and herring gull reproduction successes.

The majority of toxic compounds reaching the lakes are from aanosphcric deposition, however, substantial loadings of these compounds are water borne from CSOs, municipal, industrial, and urban storm water. A Canadian and US joint study entitled "Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study" (UGLCCS) which sampled point, nonpoint source and tributary inputs to the St Marys River, St Clair River, Lake St Clair, and Detroit River, concluded that municipal WWPT discharges were a major loading source of heavy metals (including mercury, nickel, zinc, cadmium, lead), phenols, polychlorinatcd -biphenyls (PCBs), and volatiles to those receiving waters. ·

Industrial discharges in the UGLCCS study area, including paper mills, chemical manufacturers, steel mills, petroleum companies, even under permit discharge measurable quantities of heavy metals, PBCs, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (P AHs), phenols, ere. The study concluded that all four water bodies sampled "suffer from contaminated sediments, .•. and bioaccumulation of certain toxic pollutants in aquatic organisms." Also, concentrations of toxic substances often exceeded water quality standards in the areas of industrial and urban discharges.

The NPDES permit program coupled with the Industrial PretreallllCllt Program for dischargers, has been fairly successful in reducing loadings of contaminants to Michigan surface waters. However, historical discharges of toxic substances has contaminated sediments which can serve as a lingering source to higher trophic levels, thus extending the period of recovery. Instances

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of sediment contamination due to persistent toxics from historical industrial discharges are fairly r· numerous. Persistent toxins such as PCBs and dioxins from paper mills, chemical companies, and automotive plants along rivers in Michigan, including the Kalamazoo, Manistique, Pine, Tittabawassee, Saginaw, Raisin and Clinton, has resulted in PCB laden bottom sediments potentially contaminating the fisheries resources. The Rouge River in Detroit is heavily contaminated with metals and other toxic substances from the once highly industrialized sections along the river.

The cqntribution of urban runoff via stormwater, has recently received increased attention as a soun:e of toxic substances. The Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP), an extensive study to sample urban stormwater runoff quality in 28 communities over a 5 year period, determined that urban runoff contributes significantly to pollution of surface waters (no CSOs or sanitary systems were sampled). Results of the study concluded that heavy metals were the most predominant priority pollutant found in urban storm water. Thineen metals and cyanide were detected in greater than IO percent of the runoff samples. Copper, lead and zinc were found in 95 percent of the samples taken, often at levels which exceeded EPA water quality criteria for acute toxicity.

Aging Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plants

As discussed above, the construction of wastewater collection and treatment facilities over the past 20 years under the federal construction grants program, has greatly improved surface water quality in Michigan. The older facilities are now approaching or have e:,,,ceeded their design life and will soon require replacement or substantial maintenance or upgrading 10 meet lower discharge limits, loadings or increased wastewater volumes. Limited inspection of municipalities has revealed that funds have not been set aside, as required by the federal grants program, for maintenance and repair of treatment facilities.

To maintain or improve water quality over the next 20 years in Michigan will require a public investment substantially larger than the $2.5 billion in federal grants expended over the past 20 years. In the past, about 80 percent of municipal wastewater treatment facilities construction costs were paid from federal and state grants with a 20 percent local match under the present state revolving fund for municipal wastewater treatment facility construction, about 35 percent of the costs are grant eligible ( operation, maintenance and replacement not included). The federal grants program has been terminated. At this time, the required match is about 65 percent, or more than three times previous local costs.

Industrial wastewater treatment facilities must also be maintained or upgraded in the future. Over the past 20 years more than $1.78 billion has been invested by industry in water pollution control and given tax exemptions. Future industrial costs for water pollution control are difficult to estimate.

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Non-contact Cooling and Water Withdrawals from Thermoelectric Power Generators

The production of theimoelectric energy requires substantial amounts of water for cooling, and in some instances, for cleaning and pollution control. In 1983, 91 Michigan .thermoelectric power plants withdrew 8.4 billion gallons of water per day, 98 percent of which was withdrawn from the Great Lakes and connecting waterways. It is estimated that about 2 percent was consumed in the process, the rest was discharged back into receiving waters.

Water ..quality impacts from thermoelectric plant effluent are in two general categories, thermal effects and chemical effects. Discharges of non-contact cooling water which is 5 to 25°F wanner than ambient waters, has been shown to effect aquatic habitats of shell fish, fish and other wildlife. Chemical constituents of thermoelectric plant effluent often contain biocides (chlorine), solvents used in corrosion protection and heavy metals associated with the corrosion.

All thermoelectric dischargers are under permit, and permit conditions regulate effluent concentrations of physical and chemical substances. Yet, by vinue of the enormous quantities of daily discharges, there may be a cause and effect relationship to the long-term health of the receiving body which has not been adequately determined. Additional utilizations of large quantities of water may warrent further study.

Urban Storm Water Runoff

Historically, the concern of urban runoff has been based on control to avoid flooding. As a result, most if not all, urban areas have developed stormwater management programs with the primary goal of collecting and transporting stormwater to the closest receiving water body. In many communities, some storm water is combined with sanitary wastes and during dry weather receives treatment. However, the majority of storm water gets no treatment at all and is discharged directly.

Several studies, including the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP), have concluded that urban storm runoff has effected water quality. These studies have shown that runoff from urban and industrial areas contains sediment, microorganisms, pesticides, heavy metals, oils and grease, inorganic salts, etc. Other problems associated with storm sewers identified in these studies are illegal connections discharging nonstorm water, and "midnight dumping" of many toxic substances, particularly used oil. Recently, EPA in a document based on biennial water quality repons submined by the states, cited that runoff from urban areas and industrial sites was the leading cause of water quality impairment in 37 states. In Michigan. the MDNR prepared an assessment (based on questionnaires only) of nonpoint source pollution impacts to the states water.;heds and concluded that all of the water bodies within urban areas were perceived to be impaired by urban runoff.

Although the point of generation of these pollUtants is diffuse in nature, the current sewer systems essentially concentrate the pollutants and discharges them at a single point. As such, the CW A has classified stormwatcr discharge as a point source. With the 1987 re-authorization of

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the CW A, Congress mandated that urban runoff be regulated under the NPDES permit system. r_: Stormwater discharge regulations arc to phased in over several years and initially targets major \ municipalities and certain industrial activities. While this law is well intended and will likely have a beneficial effect in reducing pollutants to receiving waters, the cost of implementation is to be provided solely by the regulated community. In urban areas already financially strapped, and wrestling with CSOs and WWTP improvements, the prospect of storm water quality management in the near future is doubtful

Public Education and Involvement

Public education and involvement arc essential components of any comprehensive water quality management Strategy. The public's role as a participant in any planning or decision malcing processes will help assure that the public interest and trust arc taken into account when addressing the issues and seeking solutions. A well informed public can be instrumental to the adoption of water resource policies and laws, and in effect, will broaden public acceptance of difficult, and costly solutions. The public should br made aware that the economic costS of cleaning up contaminated ecosystems is orders of magnitude greater then the costs of preventing or properly treating wastes in the first place. Therefore, education in pollution prevention, water conservation, and wastewater reuse should be encouraged and emphasized in any State and National water resources policies.

Political, Social and Economic Issues

Urban Sprawl

The extension of public sewer and water service can be, either, a contributing factor or a limiting factor in regards to urban sprawl. Random, uncoordinated service extensions lead to inefficient land use and uncontrolled growth on the urban fringe. The costs imposed on the system through the over extension of services crcateS a drain on the maintenance funds which leads to failures in the infrastrueture and contributeS to urban decay. Controls on the geographical extent of sewer and water systems arc an effective 1001 for land use planning and reduction of urban decay.

Another problem some communities have encountered is excess or unusual capacity for wastewater m:annenL In an attempt to prepare for future development, sewer and water lines were extended and trcattDent facilities were built larger than proved necessary. The communities arc then forced to pursue development in these areas to repay the original const1Uction costs, in effect. encouraging strip development and urban sprawl. This has ICSulted in increased quantities of wastewaters and stormwater, a trend which if allowed to continue will ultimately Strain the capacities of treannent facilities. To address this problem, some governmental entities have developed and implemented ''Level of Service Standards" (LOS Standards) as outlined in Planning and Zoning News. The LOS approach describes "-how to mobilize public resources, increase supply through capital improvement programming, and reduce demand through more

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effective management." (Planning & Z.oning News) The LOS approach allows the community planners to schedule growth within the constraints of the local infrastructure.

Conservation Measures

Conservation measures to reduce water use and sewage treatment costs have been useful in facilitating reductions of effluent loadings to receiving waters. A broad array of options are available for reducing water use, many at minimal cost to urban communities. Water conservation legislation at local, state and federal levels is needed. But to be effective due to the perception that Michigan has more than adequate fresh water supplies, incentives may be warranted.

Effective stormwater management strategies also reduce demand in sewer systems, particularly combined sewer systems. Reducing the amount of impervious surfaces (ie., lowering parking lot requirements), and requiring on-site detention basins would decrease the volume of runoff to be transponed through the sewer systems. Management plans could also include preservation of natural water courses and increased use of natural drainage ways.

Persistent Toxics

Releases of some persistent toxic substances cannot be adequately controlled by regulating wastewater point source discharges alone. Contamination of the environment by certain persistent toxic substances may only be achieved by eliminating the production, use and discharge of these materials. Banning the production, imponation and use of these materials will require federal regulatory action. Even though these materials by their chemical nallllC arc extremely resistant to natural degradation processes, evidence from long term sampling has shown that some persistent, toxic substances concentrations have been reduced substantially over time if removed from the cycle.

Staffing Resources

According to the MDNR, the state does not have adequate staffing to adminiSt"l" the NPDES permit system in Michigan as required by the CW A. The consequences to the c11IICI1t program include lack of, or, no inspections and compliance traeking of non-major discharges; few enforcement actions against non-major dischargers even though it is estimated the rate of noncompliance is higher as compared to major dischargers, and over 30 percent of the 1200 non­major discharge permits arc expired.

The point source control program via the CW A and the NPDES pcnnits and Water Resources Commission has been successful and the major activity of Michigan's water pollution control efforts in the past. Permits arc to be reissued every five years according to the CW A, but the activity of reissuance alone, will not have measurable environmental bnenefits in the receiving waters. A discharge permit should be issued once and as long as the materials in the discharge meet existing standards, reissuance is not necessary. If operations, processes, discharge volumes

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or effluent loadings do not change, or impacts in the receiving waters can not be measured, the r.. ·• permit should remain in effect Under this system, all dischargers would more readily receive \ updated permits and greater effon by the regulators could be directed to facility and discharge evaluations. Permit, tracking, and compliance would be vastly facilitated and water resources more efficiently protected. As the program exists, expenditurcs for permit reissuance will have no measured benefit to the environment as they have in the past. It is essential to know the environmental condition that warranted the need for lower discharge limits. The benefits from lower dischage limits showld also he known by the regulators, the regulated community, and the public_.

Summary

The control of water pollution by conventional treatment of most point source discharges of wastewater from industry and municipalities over the last 20 years has greatly improved surface waters in Michigan. Intermittent discharges of untreated wastes via combined sewer overflows (CSOs) persist in many urbanized areas of Michigan and are in violation of water quality standards. Stormsewer discharges and urban runoff degrade aquatic resources in many areas. Discharges of trace levels of persistence toxic substances exist and add to the load from nonpoint sources .

Wastewater treatment systems are aging and in need of substantial maintenance, upgrading or replacement to meet more stringent discharge limits and increased waste volumes. Treatment of CSOs will he required and stormwater discharges will be addressed under the NPDES. Industrial ~ wastewater treatment facilities must also he maintained in order to meet discharge litnits. The · " '· public expenditures over the next 20 years for the constraction of wastewater treatment facilities via grants, bonding and iax· exemptions, for saniwy and industrial wastewater, as well as CSOs and stormwater, will easily exceed the more than $4 billion expended for water pollution abatement over the past 20 years. Under the present system of funding for municipal treatment facilities, the local mateh for constraction will he 65 percent and not 20 percent, as it was in the past.

The Program to reissue NPDES pennits should be replaced by a program that issues a pennit once and only amends or reissues a pennit when discharge characteristics change or environmental conditions wamint improved treatment. Discharge surveillance, compliance and enforcement of water quality standards should be the focus of water pollution control programs and not pennit reissuance. Knowledge of the characteristics of discharges and their environmental effects is fundamental in detennining future investments in water pollution conttol. Only by assessing environmental conditions both before and after regulatory actions, can society be assured of their need, benefits and effectiveness Substantial risks to Michigan's water resources exist, if funds are not secured for maintaining or upgrading wastewater tteatment facilities and other point sources and providing the necessary personnel to effectively regulate discharges.

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References

Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study Management Committee December 1988. Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study, Volume I Executive Study

Public' Sector Consultants December 1989. Michigan Sewer Crisis: The Problem and Solution. Study prepared for Clean Water Michigan

Michigan Department of Natural Resources 1990. Water Quality and Pollution Control in Michigan. Repon prepared according to the reporting requirements of Section 305(b) of the federal Water Pollution Control Act

Hallet, DJ. and D.C. MCNaught 1988. Chronic Effects of Toxic Contaminants in Large Lakes Proceedings of the World Conference on Large Lakes; Mackinac '86, Vol. 1

Planning & Zoning News Vol. 10, No. 4, February 1992, pgs. 5-9

Pollman, C.D. and LJ. Danak 1988. Conaibutions of Urban Activities to Toxic Contamination of Large Lakes Proceedings of the World Conference on Large Lakes; Mackinac '86, Volume m

Zugger, Paul, April 23, 1991. Stonn Water and Combined Sewer Overflow. Testimony Before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Public Works and Transportation Subcommittee for Water Resources

Institute of Water Research; Michigan State University 1987. An Introduction to Michigan's Water Resources

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) December 1983. Results of the Nationwide Urban Runoff Proe:ram-Volumc I Final Report Accession Number PB84-185552

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) April 1991. Guidance Manual for the Preparation of Pan 1 of the NPDES Permit Applications For Discharges From Municipal Separate Stonn Sewer Systems. EPA-505/8-91-003A

Michigan Department of Natural Resources, June 1986. Water Use for Thennoelccaic Power Generation in Michigan. Prepared in cooperation with U.S. Geological Survey.

Williams, K. February 1992. Strategies for Managing Capitol Improvements Published in "Planning and Zoning News", Magizine, Vol 10, No. 4 Pgs 5-10.

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STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION

PROBLEM:

Ozone is the dominant gas in the upper atmosphere that prevents harmful solar ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface of the earth. It is normally present in concentrations of only a few parts per million. Recent scientific studies have documented decreases in the average ozone concentration worldwide with a dramatic decrease recorded in the Antaretic where it averages a loss of 50 percent or higher with about 70 percent being lost during September and October. It has been estimated that for every one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone there is a two percent increase in ultraviolet-B (uv-B) radiation, the ultraviolet wavelengths of most concern, penetrating the atmosphere. This loss of upper atmospheric ozone and subsequent increase in uv­B radiation at the earths surface can cause undesirable impacts on humans such as increased rates of skin cancer, cataraetS in the eye, and possibly suppression of the immune system. It can also result in crop damage; damage to aquatic ecosystems, particularly phytoplankton, zooplankton, and the larval stage of ccnain fish; increased smog; and increased damage to materials such as making plastics more brittle and fading painL A very rapid change in the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth• s surface may also negate the ability of plants and animals to naturally adapt, through genetic development, to increased uv-B radiation. These effects arc serious and long lasting and have worldwide implications.

SOURCE:

Current science shows that chlorine and bromine compounds, when present with certain meteorological conditions, arc primarily responsible for the desuuction of Stratospheric ozone. Chlorine can enter the atmosphere as a component of several compounds, such as methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride, but the principle source is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) while bromine originates from halons.

CFCs arc synthetic, stable, volatile compounds not normally present in the atmosphere. They arc important commercially and widely used as refrigerants, solvents, cleaners, aerosol propellants, medical sterilants, and blowing agents in rigid and soft foams. There arc approximately 2.6 billion pounds produced worldwide each year with about 30 percent of the total produced in the United States. When released to the open atmosphere they do not break down but migrate upward, through a period of six to eight years, to the Stratosphere where they can be broken down by ultraviolet light, releasing chlorine which is capable of destroying ozone. The latest stratospheric ozone measurements generally reflect the impact of CFCs that were released through the early nineteen-eighties. It is predicted that chlorine concentrations will continue to increase due to past CFC releases with a peak level being reached in about the year 2010. These chemicals can survive in the upper atmosphere for over 100 years and can recycle many times before being removed. It has been estimated that on average, one chlorine atom may destroy 100,000 ozone atoms before it is removed from the stratosphere (57).

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The observed Joss of ozone is not uniform worldwide due to complex interactions between meteorological conditions and atmospheric chemistry. The complex cycle requires ozone, a catalyst such as chlorine or bromine-(CFCs etc.), a source of ultraviolet light to initiate the reactions-(the Sun), and extremely cold air to cause the formation of stratospheric clouds. While the majority of CFCs arc released in the Northern Hemisphere, the major ozone losses have occurred in the Southern Hemisphere. This is because the Jong atmospheric lifetimes of CFCs allow them to become uniformly distributed and equally available for reaction in both hemispheres but the most favorable atmospheric conditions for degradation exist in the Antarctic. There, the presence of extremely cold temperatures in the upper atmosphere causes the formation of polar stratospheric clouds which provide particle surfaces for the chemical reactions needed to release the chlorine which reacts with ozone. The Antarctic stratosphere is colder due to the formation in the winter of a ring of rapidly circulating air, called the Antarctic voncx, which lasts longer than the Arctic vonex. This trapped air, in the sunless atmosphere, becomes very cold-as low as minus 95 degrees Celsius-which enables polar. stratospheric clouds to form. In the southern hemisphere during spring, when the sun returns, the necessary chemical reactions arc initiated by ultraviolet light and eventually the vortex breaks up and supplies ozone-depleted air to other parts of the hemisphere. The same process occurs in the northern hemisphere but to a lesser degree. Because the Arctic vonex does not last as long, the Arctic air does not become as cold and fewer clouds form. For comparison, in I 989 the Arctic stratosphere above I 8 kilometers (km) suffered average ozone depletion equivalent to 6 percent of the total amount of ozone originally present while the Antarctic stratosphere averaged a 50 percent ozone loss(35). Ozone loss has been observed at other latitudes, for example concentrations declined up to 2.5% globally from 1969 to 1986 (57). The United Nations Environmental Program recently released a repon on ozone depletion which estimated that by the year 2000, ozone depletions between 5% and 10% were possible for mid-latitudes in the summer (60). Some of this may be due to non­catalytic destruction of ozone but funher investigation is needed. The National Atmespheric and Space Administration (NASA) has recently announced that the potential for greater ozone destruction now exists at latitudes down to and including the tropics. This NASA data was not available as of the date of this paper.

Michigan contributes to the stratospheric ozone depletion problem in several ways. We arc a heavily industrialized state with a number of companies that dircctly release ozone depleting chemicals to the atmosphere as a result of their manufacturing activities. In 1989, 145 companies released at least 6.5 million pounds of the three ozone depleting chemicals (CFC-113, methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride) which they are required to repon under the federal Community Right to Know Law. Reporting compliance under this Jaw is low plus other ozone depleting chemicals, such as the CFCs with higher usage, have only recently been added for reporting in 1992. The total number of pounds of ozone depleting chemicals release is expected to be considerably higher today. Also, as general consumers, we use many products that either contain ozone depleting chemicals or were made using them. It can be assumed that Michigan's per capita use/consumption of these chemicals would approximate that of the United States, which is about 1.5 kg per capita annually.

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IMPACTS:

In 1991 the ozone loss over Antaretica was larger than ever, with the size of the "hole" about the same as the continental United States. It appeared sooner in the season than previously and stayed longer before it disappeared in mid-November. National Aeronautic and Space Administration scientists reported that on October 6, I 991, Antaretic ozone levels reached the lowest values ever recorded by the total ozone mapping spectrometer aboard the Nimbus-7 satellite. On October 22, 1991, a United Nations scientific panel reponed that for the first time, the 0Z9ne shield over the United States and other temperate-zone countries weakened in the summer, the time of greatest hazard from cancer-causing solar radiation(8).

On February 3, 1992 NASA reponed that they had new data which showed elevated levels of chlorine monoxide (ClO) at high northern latitudes covering populated areas of Europe and Asia, including London and Moscow. They also reponed unexpectedly high 00 levels in lower latitudes including the tropics. Chlorine monoxide is a key potential source for chlorine atoms if atmospheric and solar conditions become favorable for its release. They also reported low stratospheric ozone levels in the tropics over an area that roughly coincides with the volcanic plume of Mount Pinatubo. These new data may indicate that chemical processes similar to those that take place in the Antaretic and Arctic are also taking -place over other areas of the globe.

The main impacts of stratospheric ozone depletion are biological and possibly climatic. Since uv-B wavelengths are only partially absorbed by stratospheric ozone, the remainder reaches the earth's surface where it can be absorbed by biological species. In humans, excess uv-B can cause an increase in skin cancer, increased numbers of eye cataraCtS and possibly suppression of • the immune system. EPA scientists estimate that for every 1 percent depletion in ozone, one can expect 20,000 additional skin cancer deaths in the U.S.(6). The EPA has also estimated "that ozone depletion will lead to an additional 31,000 to 126,000 cases of melanoma among U.S. whites born before the year 207 5 and an additional 7000 to 30,000 fatalities." In the same predictions, they estimated" an additional 550,000 to 2,800,000 Americans born before the year 2075 will have cataracts(20)."

Michigan's two-year average age-adjusted death rates from melanoma of the skin increased 58.8 percent among white males and 62.5 percent among white females between 1970-71 and 1988-89, rising to 2.7 and 1.3 per 100,000 population for these groups, respectively (22). Although it is not possible at this time to determine the relative influence of ozone depletion vs other factors, such as the changes in lifestyle, as contributors to this increase rate of skin cancer, the trend is of concern.

While skin cancer may be of most concern for light skinned humans, there is also medical concern that uv-B depresses the human immune system which would affect everyone. This suppression has not been quantified but may be induced at much lower levels of radiation than required to cause cancer.

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It is assumed that many biological species other than humans can have susceptibility to increased uv-B radiation but this is not well documented. Although there are not large human populations in the areas that are now experiencing the largest ozone depletions, there are significant biological populations in the oceans, particularly phytoplankton, which are highly vulnerable to damage from uv-B radiation. Initial screening of 200 plant species showed 70 percent of them to be sensitive to uv-B.

In addition to biological impacts, there is also concern that the global declines in temperature in the stratosphere at about 50km that have been documented during the past 10 years may be due to the decline in ozone. This could be caused by less absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation at this level which, in rum, could affect stratospheric wind patterns and global climate.

RECOVERY:

Because of the long atmospheric life of CFCs and also that about 25 percent of them are used in applications where their release will come slowly in the future, it will be about ten years after discontinuance of use before their peak concentrations are reached in the stratosphere. Also, if all emissions of CFCs were halted by the year 2000 and no chlorine containing substitutes were used, the chlorine in the atmosphere would not drop to 2 parts per billion (ppb) until the year 2075. (note: 2 ppb is the level of the early 1970s. It is now at 2.7-3 ppb.)

While it is possible for the atmosphere to eventually recover, we do not know how to mitigate the biological effects of increased uv-B radiation.

DISCUSSION:

Once the problem of stratospheric ozone depletion was recognized, governments and the scientific community mobilized to mediate it. A major world conference was held and in 1987 the Montreal Protocol to control CFCs and other ozone depleting chemicals was agreed to by most of the world's industrialized nations. It was ratified by the U.S. Congress in 1988. Based on new scientific evidence and increasing concern, the Protoeol was revised in 1990 to call for a complete phase out of the production of CFCs, halons and carbon tetraehloride by the year 2000 and methyl chloroform by the year 2005.

More significant from Michigan's standpoint are the new amendments to the Federal Oean Air Act which were passed in November, 1990. These established a completely new federal regulatory framework for the control, phase out of production and use of ozone depleting chemicals. Most of the dates in the Act are more stringent than those in the revised Montreal Protocol and also require the eventual phase out of the primary substitutes for CFCs-the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) by 2030 because they also contribute to ozone depletion. In addition to the requirements for phasing out production, there are substantial controls on the use of ozone depleting chemicals in the interim and requirements for periodic reviews of progress.

219

These controls are being enhanced by substantial new federal taxes which were imposed in 1990 (. on the use of the five main CFCs and three halons. These taxes increase each year and already have almost doubled the costs of the chemicals. They will continue until the chemicals are phased OUL

After NASA indicated they had new information on high levels of CJO in the stratosphere on February 3, 1992, President Bush announced that the United States would take unilateral action to phase out the production and use of CFCs by the end of 1995. This would be accomplished five years in advance of the current legal requirement under the Clean Air Act and several years in advance of dates that industry has indicated they could comply. To date we do not know the details of this action or the mechanisms for accomplishing iL

CONCLUSIONS:

The scientific basis for stratospheric ozone depletion is reasonably well established and accepted although new data indicates more work needs to be done. The effects of the resultant increases in ultraviolet radiation are less well understood. particularly for biological organisms other than humans but it is known to be important There has been sufficient scientific and political concern worldwide about the potential impactS to put in place major new control programs at both the international and national levels in the last two years. These programs should substantially reduce stratospheric ozone depletion. Predictions have been made that it is now possible to return to 1970 levels of aanospheric chlorine by the year 2075. Due to the lag time in the system we will continue to sec increasing ozone depletion until at least 2020. Unfommately, there are ~~ substantial uncertainties with these projections because:

1. There are many countries that are not signatory to the Montreal Protoeol and they may not follow its provisions.

2. There are no viable international enforcement mechanisms for the terms of the . Protocol even for those counlrics that have signed it

3. There presently are not viable substitutes for all the existing uses of CFCs and other ozone depicting chemicals.

4. Existing substitutes are currently more expensive, sometimes as high as six times the cost of CFCs. This will discourage early use of substitutes.

5. Some existing substitutes are also conlributms to ozone depletion, although at much lower levels.

6. There are substantial non-aunosphcric "sinks" of ozone depleting chemicals that are difficult to recover or destroy. The timing of the eventual release of chemicals from these sources cannot be determined or easily controllcd.

220

Thus, while solutions for lowering the risk from stratospheric ozone depletions seem to be in place, there will be cause for concern for quite some rime. Monitoring of the effectiveness of existing regulatory programs must continue and more data are needed on the timing and extent of ozone depletion worldwide. Additional research is needed on the biological impacts of increased uv-B and on possible ways to mitigate them. New substitutes for CFCs and other ozone depleting chemicals must still be developed and successfully marketed.

Since the potential impacts of ozone depletion are serious, widespread and long lasting, the risks from not adequately addressing this problem are very high.

I

221

References

I. American Cancer Society, "Skin Cancer", Cancer Facts & Figures-I 991. 2 J.G. Anderson, D.W. Toohey, W Ji. Brune, ''Free Radicals Within the Antareti.c Vortex:

The Role of CFCs in Antaretic Ozone Loss," Science. Volume 251, January 4, 1991, pp. '39-52.

3. Richard Barnett, "Ozone Protection: The Need for a Global Solution," EPA Journal, · Volume 12, Number 10, December 1986, pp. 10-11.

4. Mario Blumthaler and Walter Ambach, "Indication of Increasing Solar Ultraviolet-B Radiation Flux in Alpine Regions," Science, Volume 248, April 13, 1990, pp. 206-208.

5. W.H. Brune, J.G. Anderson, D.W. Toohey, D.W. Fahey, S.R. Kawa, R.L. Jones, D.S. McKenna, L.R. Poole, "The Potential for Ozone Depletion in the Arctic Polar Stratosphere," Science, Volume 252, May 31, 1991, pp. 1260-1266.

6. Henry S. Cole, "Slow Bum, How CFCs are Destroying the Ozone-and Why You Should Care," Clean Water Action News, Summer 89, pp. 4-6.

7. Dianne Dumanoski, "SO-Nation Deliberations on Ozone Resume Today," The Boston Globe, September 8, I 987.

8. Arthur Fisher, 'That Hole in the Ozone Layer," Popular Science, January 1992. 9. Donald A. Fisher, Charles H. Hales, David L Ftlkin, Malcolm K. W. Ko, N. Dale Sze,

Peter S. Connell, Donald J. Wuebbles, Ivar S.A. Isalcsen, and Frode Stordal, "Model Calculations of the Relative Effects of CFCs and their Replacements on Stratospheric Zone," Nature, Volume 344, April 5, 1990, pp. 508-516.

10. Joseph P. Glas, "Greenpeace Criticisms Unfair to DuPont Co.," The News Journal Opinion, June 1, 1990.

11. David E. Gushee and John R. Justus, "Stratospheric Omnc Depiction," CRS Review, August 1989, pp. 11-12.

12. Richard A. Kerr, "Another Deep AntaICtic Ozone Hole," Science, Volume 250. 13. Richard A. Kerr, "Huge Eruption May Cool the Globe," Science, Volume 252, p. 1780. 14. Richard A. Kerr, "Ozone Destruction Closer to Home," Science, March 16, 1990, p. 1297. 15. Richard A. Kerr, "Ozone Destruction Worsens," Science, Volume 252, p. 204. 16. Richard A. Kerr, "Ozone Hole Bodes ID for the Globe," Science, VoL 241, August 12,

1988, pp. 785-786. 17. Margaret E. Kriz, "Ozone and Evidcncc,"National Journal, November 11, 1989, pp. 2750-

2753. 18. Soren H. Larsen and Thormod Henriksen, "Persistent Arctic Ozone Layer," Nature,

Volume 343, January 11, 1990, p. 124. 19. Daniel A. Lash of and Dilip R. Ahuja, "Relative Contributions of Greenhouse Gase

Emissions to Global Warming," NatuTC, Volume 344, April 5, 1990, pp. 529-531. 20. Alexander Leaf, MD, "Potential Health Effects of Global Climatic and Environmental

Changes," The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 321, No. 23, December 7, 1989, pp. 1577-1583.

21. L.E. Manzer, "The CRC-Ozonc Issue: Progress on the· Development of Alternatives to CFCs," Science. Volume 249, July 9, 1990, pp. 31-35.

222

4',.

22. Michigan Dcpamnent of Public Health, "Cancer Incidence and Monality. Michigan 1989." Office of the State Registrar and Center for Health Statistics, Lansing, Michigan, July, 1991.

23. Joel A. Mintz. "Are Our Skies Protected? An Evaluation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer," Environmental Law. American Bay Association, Spring 1989Nolume 9, Number 3.

24. Medwin M. Mintzis, M.D., "Skin Cancer: The Price for a Depleted Ozone Layer," EPA Journal, Volume 12, Number 10, December 1986, pp. 7-9.

25. · Roben W. Pease, "Ozone Chicken Littles Are at It Again," Wall Street Journal, March 23, 1989.

26. Stuan A. Penkett, "Changing Ozone-Evidence for a Pcnurbcd Atmosphere," Environmental Science Technology. Volume 25, No. 4, 1991.

27. F. Sherwood Rowland, "Stratospheric Ozone In the 21st Century-The Chlorofluorocarbon Problem," Environmental Science Technology, Volume 25, No. 4,

1991. 28.

29.

30.

31.

32. 33.

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40.

41. 42. 43.

Milton Russell, "Ozone Pollution: The Hard Choices," Science, Vol. 241, September 9,

1988. Kathy Sawyer, "Rise in Ultraviolet Radiation Tied to Antarctic Ozone Hole," Washington Post, April 6, 1989. Mark R. Schoeberl and Dennis L. Hartmann. "The Dynamics of the Stratospheric Polar Voncx and Its Relation to Springtime Ozone Depictions," Science, Volume 251, January 4, 1991, pp. 46-52. Cynthia Pollock Shea, "Protecting Life on Eanh: Steps to Save the Ozone Layer," Worldwatch Paper 87, December 1988. Cynthia Pollock Shea, "Protecting the Ozone Layer," State of the World 1989. pp. 77-96. Keith Shine, "Effects •Of CFC Substitutes," Nature, Volume 344, April 5, 1990, pp. 492-493. Susan Solomon, "Progress Toward a Quantitative Understanding of Antarctic Ozone Depiction," Nature. Volume 347, September 27, 1990, pp. 347-354. Owen B. Toon and Richard P. Turco, "Polar Stratophcric Clouds and Ozone Depiction," Scientific American, June 1991, pp. 68-74. Peter Usher, "World Conference on the Changing Atmosphere: hnplications for Global Security," Environment. Vol. 31, No. I, January/February 1989. Theresa R. Walter, "Breaking Up is Hard To Do," Industrv Weck. November 20, 1989, pp. 41-42. Pamela S. Zurcr, "Producers, Users Grapple with Realities of CFC Phaseout," C&EN, July 24, 1989, pp. 7-13. Pamela S. Zurcr, "Search Intensifies for Alternatives to Ozone-Depleting Halocarbons," C&EN. February 8, 1988, pp. 17-20. A Perspective on Achieving a CFC Phaseout by the Year 2000," DuPont Magazine, September/October 1989. "The Case Against HCFCs and an Overview of Safe Alternatives," Greenpeace. "Changing Directions," Stones in a Glass House. pp. 71-77. "The Changing Atmosphere," UNEP Environment Brief No. 1

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44. "Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)," Environmental Watch, Revised September 1990. ( 45. "Danger: To the Ozone Layer in Michigan," Report Prepared by: Clean Water Action ·

and Clean Water Fund, July 11, 1989. 46. "How Industry is Reducing Dependence on Ozone-Depleting Chemicals," United States

Environmental Protection Agency, June 1988. 47. "List of Products Containing Chlorofluorocarbon Compounds (CFC's),"l Prepared by:

Mich. Department of Natural Resources and Mich. Department of Management and Budget, July 7, 1989.

48. -"NASA Scientist says Repair of Ozone Hole Will Require Eventual Ban on CFC Substitutes," Environmental Reponer, October 20, 1989, p. 1094.

49. "Ozone Friendly Cooling," Popular Science, July 1990. 50. "The Ozone Layer," UNEP/GEMS Environment Library No.2 51. "Protection of Stratospheric Ozone; Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking," Federal

Register, Pan N, 40 CFR, Pan 82, Environmental Protection Agency, August 12, 1988. 52. "Realistic Policies on HCFCs Needed in Order to Meet Global Ozone Protection Goals,"

Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy. June 1990. 53. "Senate Panel Chairman, Bill Sponsor Say Even Minor CFC Emissions Harmful,"

Environmental Reponer, October 27, 1989, pp. 1126-1127. 54. "State/Local Regulation of CFCs" 55. "Title VII-The Stratospheric Ozone and Climate Protection Act" 56. "Wonder Chemicals Turning to Stone," Stones in a Glass House, pp. 11-69. 57. "Air Pollution," George T. Wolff, General Motors, reprinted from ~

OthmC!' Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Fourth Ed., Volume No. 1, Copyright 1991. ~-.

58. Richard A. Kerr, "New Assaults Seen on Eanh's Ozone Shield," Science, Vol. 255, February 14, 1992, pp. 797-798.

59. Brian Dunbar, Jessie Katz, James Wilson, "Ozone Depletion a Possibility Over Nonhcrn Populated Areas," National Aeronautics and Space AdminiStration, New Release, February 3, 1992.

60. Jan van der Leun and Manfred Tevini, "Updated Report on Stratospheric Ozone Agreement Released", United Nations Environment Programme {UNEP) Repon, February 6, 1992 Press Release.

224

TRACE METALS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

"And when there is mining for veins of gold and silver Which men will dig far and deep down in the earth

What stenches arise, as at Scaptensuls! How deadly are the exhalations of gold mines!

You can see the ill effects in the miners' complexions. All these exhalations come from the earth

And are breathed forth into the open light of day."

Lucretius (9Ci-55 BC) (De rerum nll1Ura, Book VI)

(from Nriagu, 1990)

"All organic substances are eventually biodegradable, except the great class of plastics .... Not so for metals. No metal - or element - is biodegradable. If released into the environment, all metals will accumulate until they are leached out of soil to enter the sea [also large lakes]. In the sea [also large lakes] they tend to fall to the bottom .. If in the process they enter the body of man, they may do good or harm. It is hard to get rid of them. Too little attention has been paid 10 them. For this reason they are important"

Henry A. Schroeder, M.D. (1974)

"Because chemical loading of the environment can occur long before effects are observed, the term chemical rime bomb has been coined to describe such phenomena."

William M Stigliani, et al. (1991)

Problem

This white paper addresses the issue of trace metals in the environment The discussion that follows is not meant to be an exhaustive survey of metals in the environment Such surveys can be found in recerit works such as that of Fergusson (1990). Rather, the aim of this paper is to examine why there is a concern about metals in the Michigan environment and the Great Lakes region as a whole and some of the problems associated with understanding pathways and fates of metals in the environment The paper is presented in five sections that discuss ( 1) the issue, (2) the source of the problem, (3) time and space scale of problem, (4) recovery time, and (5) risks. The paper then concludes with an overall summary and suggestions.

225

Issue

Trace metals are metals and metalloids (e.g., lead and arsenic, respectively, see Figure 1) that typically occur in low concentrations in the major elemental reservoirs of the earth: sediment, soil, rocks and minerals, water, air, and biota. The problems associated with trace metals in the environment, as summarized in the above quotations, are: metal contamination has occurred since ancient times and has caused health effects; metals cannot be destroyed, are hard to remove from the environment, and can be concentrated; and not addressing the issue [in pan stemming from .,i. lack of knowledge) could result in serious consequences.

-roDC• Heavy Metat& E§I ~utrient • Metals 0

F...- J. Sdeaal_.<11---' .ii am.

•·­MeulkMd. I

Some of these metals such as the "heavy" metals arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) are toxic even at low concentrations. Hence, the International Joint Commission (U.S.and Canada) has targeted these four metals (along with 10 organic compounds) as critical contaminants in the Great Lakes region (e.g., Colborn et al., 1990).

However, with increasing concentration in the environment, metalsnot normally toxic, and even essentialto life at low concentrations, become toxic. Such is the case for the "transition" metals titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and copper (Cu).

Thus, there are potentially more trace metals (both heavy and transition) and forms (oxidation state, methylated, etc.) of the metals that may be of concern in the Great Lakes region than the four "critical" contaminants. The list of these metals might include V, Cr (Ill, VI), Co, Ni, Zn, ~ Mo (molybdenum), Cd, Hg (0, ionic, methylated), In (indium), TI (thallium), Sn (tin), Pb (ionic

· and methylated), As (ionic and methylated), Sb (antimony), Se (selenium), and Te (tellurium).

The earth is a dynamic system and these elements are moved naturally from one reservoir to another. The movement of an element among the reservoirs in the ecosystem is the biogeochcmical cycle of the element. Anthropogenic activities have disrupted the natural cycles of many elements. For example, the world's population consumes approximately 1.0 * 1()6 kg of mineral resources per person per year. The emission of trace elements associated with this consumption (50 * 1015 kg/y) exceeds the natural global supply of trace clements as represented by the amount of metals transported to the ocean via sediments in rivers (17 * 1()15 kg/y) (Apsimon, ct al. 1990). This disruption of biogcochcmical cycles has resulted in decreased elemental abundances in the rock-mineral reservoir and increased abundances in the "environmental" reservoirs soil, water, air, and biota. This has increased the risk for the interaetion of humans and other biota with trace metals (Apsimon, et al. 1990).

The issue of traec metals in the environment is pan of the broader concern of environmental geochemistry and health and disease. This is the study of the relationship of the chemistry of drinking water (from ground water, river, lake), soil, plants, animals, and air to geographic patterns of health and disease. The scope of this issue is multi-disciplinary, involving atmospheric scientists, geologists, ecologists, geochemists, MDs, dentists, hydrogeologists, soil

226

scientists, and biologists. Hoops (1974) presents an excellent inttoduction to these studies. The Society for Gcochcmiso-y and Health (SGH) links these researchers to study topics such as F (fluoride) and arsenic in drinking water (Rajagopal and Tobin, 1991; Varsanyi, ct al., 1991) Pb in the diet (Sherlock, 1987), Cd concentrations in soils in cities (Mielke, ct al., 1991), Pb in house dust (Laxen, et al., 1988), and accumulation of metals in workers (Hewitt, 1988). The papers presented in the journal of SGH (Environmental Geochemistry and Health) show that the issue of trace metals in the environment is being addressed by other countries and other regions of the U.S.

Some of the problems with trace metals in the Michigan ecosystem are obvious. Ingestion of leaded paint by children, mercury in fish throughout the midwest, and arsenic in ground water in the Bad Axe area are a few examples. Other problems, such as the continual build-up of metals in soil, are not as obvious. The geochcmiso-y of trace metals (and other elements as well) in the Michigan environment and how this geochemistry relates to health and disease is poorly understood. This lack of knowledge continues to load the chemical time bomb.

Developing ·solutions to deal with this problem rests on understanding the local, regional, and global scales of this problem; an understanding of sources; the biogeochemical cycles of the elements; and the toxicity and synergism of trace elements. Our efforts in developing solutions are complicated by the fact that there are natural as well as anthropogenic sources for these elements; these elements can be reintroduced into the environment after what might have appeared to be their permanent removal; and total elemental concentrations in either the solid phase or aqueous phase may not indicate an element's bioavailability.

Source of the Problem

Of major concern is the build-up of metals in the environment due to anthropogenic emissions, mainly from fossil-fuel combustion, waste incineration, manufacturing processes, mining, and smelting. The relative importance of these sources varies for each metal. This is illustrated on Table 1 for the big four metals As, Cd, Hg, and Pb.

The major anthropogenic sources for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb are historical pesticide use, coal burning, iron/steel production, and motor fuel/tndustry, respectively. There have been some

. significant changes in the relative importance of these sources recently, which the table does not indicate. For example, the amount of Pb emission from motor fuels in 1981 was 15,400 * 106

g/year, which would have made this source the most important (EPA, 198 l ). However, the table does show that even if the major sources were eliminated, there are significant other sources for the metals. For example, if industrial emissions of Hg were eliminated, coal burning would still connibute a large amount of Hg to the ecosystem. What is important to realize, however, is that anthropogenic emission of trace metal to the environment is not the only source for the metals. Natural processes also contribute to the flux of trace metals to the environment.

C

Table 1. Anthropogenic emissions and crustal abundance of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb. Emission umts are in HP g/yr. (lWber et al., 1992) and crustal abundances are in µgig (Fergusson, 1990). Interference is calculated as emission rate I crustal abundance. Data for Pb oil, motor .iJel, industiy, and solid waste disposal from EPA 1]9901. Boxes hiwhJjwht si-i.icant sources fiJr metal. SOURCE ARSENIC CADMIUM MERCURY LEAD

COAL 931.0 80.7 132.4 778.0 OIL 19.8 25.7 6.4 50.0

MOTOR FUEL 14.7 2,200.0

NON IRON SMELTING 365.8 46.4· 51.0 WASTE INCINERATION 2.7 20.7 104.0

IRON/SIEEL 113.0 PRODUCTION

INDUSTRY 36.3 '! 355.6 2,200.0

SOLID WASTE 2,200.0 DISPOSAL

MINING 17.4 '! PESTICIDE USE 1,500.0

TOTAL 2,873.0 199.5 649.7 7,428.0 ANTHROPOGENIC

CRUSTAL ABUNDANCE 1.8 0.11 0.05 13.0

INTERFERENCE 1,596 1,814 12,994 571

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These natural sources include the weathering (chemical breakdown) of minerals in sediments (e.g. glacial till) and rock ( e.g. iron formations in the Upper Peninsula), and degassing of volatile elements such as Hg from the crust One of the most significant differences in understanding trace metals in the environment as compared to toxic organic compounds is that toxic organic chemicals have few, if any, natural sources.

Mercury is a good example of the importance of natural trace metal emissions 10 the ecosystem. The anthropogenic emission rate for Hg is 649.7 * 10" g/year and the natural emission rate is 1018.~ * 106 g/yr., the latter accounting for 61% of total emissions. Thus, even if we were to eliminate anthropogenic emissions of Hg, there would still be a significant natural source for the element

Anthropogenic activities are, however, significantly affecting the biogcochcmical cycle of Hg. For example, a crude anthropogenic interference index can be calculated (ignoring units) as the emission rate divided by the crustal abundance (Table l). Crustal values are used as the normalizing number because the crust is the ultimate natural source for metals in the ecosystem. Except for Hg, the relative magnitudes of the interference number among the metals are similar. According to these calculations, anthropogenic activities are affecting the Hg biogcochemical cycle by an order of magnitude more than the other metals.

The cast-north central states (Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) are a major source for and recipient of trace metals. This is demonstrated by comparing emissions rates of this region to other regions on Table 2.

Table 2. .Relatire anthropogenic emission rates of selected metals for the U.S. (from OOber et al., 1992). Wues in $.

.

STATES As Cd H2 Pb

New England 0.5 3.0 1.7 4.3 Middle Atlantic 4.3 6.9 4.4 11.9

East-North Central 12.3 17.3 5.7 16.6

South Atlantic 11.4 7.9 8.2 14.6 East-South Central 7.7 7.2 3.5 5.9 West-North Central 2.3 11.7 6.7 6.3 West-South· Central 4.1 20.l 6.1 10.6 Mountain 10.3 18.0 27.2 5.4 Pacific 0.9 2.1 13.2 11.6

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Trace metals enter the Michigan ecosystem both from within the state and from outside Michigan borders (trans-boundary effect; see Somers, 1987). Mercury emission from the east-nonh central states is relatively low compared to the other areas, yet mercury has been identified as a critical pollutant in this region. One could infer from this that (1) trans-boundary input of Hg may be important, (2) Hg may have a high natural emission rate in this area, and (3) Hg is probably a critical contaminant in other regions as well.

Funher evidence of the potential trans-boundary problem of metals in the Michigan ecosystem is demonstrated in Table 3. This table shows the relative volumes of hazardous wastes contributed by Great Lakes states and provinces. Point and non-point sources include waste isolation (leakage from landfills and waste incineration), mining activities (extraction, tailings leachate, smelting), industrial leakages (e.g., paint manufaclllring, tanning, paper mills), agriculture (e.g., metal-bearing pesticides), and energy generation (burning of the fossil fuel: oil, gas, coal). Although Michigan generates a significant amount of waste, only 2 of the Great Lake states are much higher.

Table 3. Hazardous waste generation in the Great LaJa:s Region (Colborn, 1990).

STA TE/PROVINCE WASTE lOUg/yr

Illinois 2.3 Indiana 2.0

Michi= 3.5

Minnesota 0.4 New York 14.5 Ohio 3.7 Ontario 3.6 Pennsvlvania 26.4 Wisconsin 0.1

Time and Space Scale of the Problem

Pathways for trace metals in Michigan (and the Great Lakes region in general) are: atmosphere to land and water (Great Lakes, inland lakes, rivers); from land (that which is added from the atmosphere and that from the weathering of minerals) 10 ground water and river; and from ground water and rivers to the Great Lakes (as well as inland lakes). The Great Lakes themselves therefore might be considcredthe ultimate "sink" for trace metals. Although data are scarce, recent mass balance modeling for Pb in the Great Lakes ecosystem indicates that the atmosphere may be the major "source" for this metal (Straehan and Eisemeich, 1988). This could be true for the other metals as well. Cur.rent reseaICb (Eisemeich, et al., 1991) is attempting 10 address this problem for Pb, As, Hg, and Cd. Linle is known abo\Jt the other trace metals.

The use of metals is a reward of humans (Apsimon, et al., 1990). Hg and Pb were being mined and used in ancient times (pre-Roman) (Aitchison, 1960). This of course led to early local pollution. The Greek historian and military leader, Xenophon (430-355 BC), for example, thought that the silver mines in Laurion (Greece) were too polluted to allow a son of a friend

230

visit the ci:: (Book 3, Verse 6).- The health effects of emissions from mining activities were written about by the Roman poet, Lucretius (see poem at beginning of paper). Vittuvius (1 BC), a Roman architect and engineer, commented on extensive water pollution around mines (Book 8, verse 3). As pan of his naruralist observations, Pliny (23-79 AD) was concerned that the emissions from mining activities were unhealthy to all animals (Book 33, verse 3 I). It is now clear that these early mining activities severely contaminated local environments (Livette, 1988).

By the 16th century metal emissions from smelters in Britain were affecting the regional envirQnment (Livett, 1988). During the 17th century this pollution began to affect central Europe and remote regions of Scandinavia (Davis, et al.; 1983). Today, trace-metal pollution is truly a global problem ranging from the Arctic to Antarctica (Ng and Patterson, 1981; Boutron, 1986; Davidson and Nriagu, 1986; Boutron and Patterson, 1987; Llvett, 1988).

Anthropogenic activities arc moving metals among reservoirs faster than natural processes. This has resulted in the perturbation of the natural global cycling of trace metals. As early as 1973 and with limited data, Garrels, et al. (1975) demonstrated this effect· by comparing mining production, metal emission rates to the atmosphere by human activities, world-wide atmospheric rainout, and total stream load (used as a measure of the "natural" flow of metals). They found that mining production of metals approaches or exceeds the stream load and that emission rates arc within an order of magnitude of the stream load. By comparing emission rates with atmospheric rainout rates it was clearly demonstrated that human activities have a profound effect on the natural cycle of the trace metals. Recent calculations by Nriagu (1990) support the results of Garrels, et al. (1975). Anthropogenic emissions arc comparable to or greater than natural emissions for most met::.ls.

Such global emissions arc not without consequence. Table 4 (from Fergusson, 1990) shows that a significant number of people have been adversely affected by the trace metals Pb, Cd, Hg, and As. · The toxicity of all metals released to the environment by anthropogenic emissions exceeds the combined toxicity of all radioactive and organic wastes (Nriagu and Pacyna, I 990). What ·is also important here is that metals arc nondegradable. This further differentiates metals from organic contaminants that can degrade in the natural environment to safe compounds, and also from radioactive wastes that decay into safe elements. Metals can accumulate in the environment and have been doing so for a long time.

Table 4. Magnitude of metal poisonings (Fergusson, 1990).

Element Production Global Emissi'IDS 1000 t/yr People 1985 1000 t Air Water Soil Affected

Pb 4100 332 138 796 > I billion Cd 14 7.6 -9.4 22 0.5 million Hg 6 3.6 4.6 8.3 80,000 As 50 18.8 41 82 100,000s

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The continual build-up of trace metals in the environment will eventually become stressful to r·. organisms as safe environmental thresholds are exceeded (Apsimon, 1990). These thresholds may have already been exceeded in some environments, but as yet have gone unrecognized (Nriagu, -1988). This leads to the concept of Chemical Time Bomb as discussed by Stigliani, et al. (1991).

The concept of Chemical Time Bomb (CI'B) is quite simple. The environment has a capacity to absorb toxic metals (as well as toxic organics), the major chemical sinks being soils and sediment (rivers,)akes, and oceans). As long as these chemical sinks maintain the capacity to store and thus immobilize the toxic metals, the effects of pollution are significantly reduced. However, if the amount of metals added exceeds the storage capacity or if the storage capacity is reduced because of some environmental change (such as from microbial processes, acid rain, or global climate change), then serious environmental damage can result For example, microbial processes were involved in the outbreak of Minamata disease (Hg poisoning) in Japan (Davies, 1991) and acid rain is mobilizing trace metals into the ecosystem in eastern Europe (Stigliani, et al., 1991). Changes in the storage capacity of the environment as a result of global climate change are yet to come, but could be anticipated (Apsimon, 1990). Setting off the CTB can result in serious, unanticipated environmental problems which may be more severe than conventiottal pollution.

The CTB problem adds a new twist to the issue of trace metals in the environment On the one hand we arc and must be concerned with the immediate problems such as Hg in fish, Cu in Torch Lake, and Hg emissions from paper mills. However, the CTB concept adds the dimension of time by considering future problems due to overloading or reduction of the storage capacity of the environment Consider the following problem. Soils arc an important sink for metals ~ supplied to the terrestrial environment from the atmosphere (Apsimon, et al., 1990). Since the atmosphere may be the major source for metals in Michigan it is likcly that soils would be strongly impacted. If the storage capacity of the soils were exceeded or reduced, then metals would be released to the Great Lakes. A matter of concern that knowledge of this storage capacity. the length of time for overloading, or sensitivity of the storage capacity to environmental change is lacking. Michigan docs not have a program to address the tc:IrcStrial (i.e. soil) system.

The CTB concept puts trace metal pollution on the same scale as global climate change and thus giving such pollution more urgency than previously taught CI'B as applied to trace metals is characterized by the following:

• metals released to the environment may have hannfuJ effects on the ccosystcm; • there is a time delay between chemical accumulation and the resulting adverse effectS; • metals may be suddenly released to the environment rather than a slow build-up; and • environmental systems do not behave namrally when metal-safe thresholds arc exceeded.

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Recovery Time

Anot:,ar aspect of assessing the risk of excessive trace metals in the environment is determining how long it will talce the' ecosystem to recover if imported metal inputs are reduced. Since metals are a natural component of the environment, they cannot be completely removed. Therefore, the first task is to define a clean environment with respect to trace metals. To accomplish this, it is necessary 10 know the natural concentrations of metals in the environment, i.e. the concentrations that existed before industrial activity.

Detennining natural concentrations in the various reservoirs is difficult for most metals since these levels no longer exist ( this is especially true for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb). In addition, since the natural abundance of a metal is frequently very small (e.g., lead in natural fresh water), even minor contamination of samples during collection or analysis can give misleading results.

One way of estimating natural levels is to measure trace metal concentrations in remote environments such as the Anrarctic. Another approach is to measure background concentrations. For example, deep samples from ice and peat cores can be used to estimate metal concentrations in ancient atmospheric deposition, and sediment cores, to estimate terrestrial + atmospheric deposition of elements to lakes (and oceans).

Knowledge of natural concentrations is important in developing legislation to deal with metals in the environment. For example, if total metal concentrations are used when determining "safe" exposure levels and natural versus anthropogenic concentrations are not differentiated, then it is quite possible that legislation could be enacted that could attempt to regulate or rcmediate natural environmental concentrations of a metal.

Assessments of metal pollution based on total concentrations also may be misleading because metals exist in different forms in solution or sediment and each form will control metal bioavailability and toxicity (Jenne and Luoma, 1977). For example, metals can be made significantly more toxic by changes in their oxidation-reduction state in the environment Chromium is significantly more toxic as Cr (VI) than it is as Cr (Ill) (NAS 1974). Arsenic (Ill) is more toxic than arsenic (V) (Fergusson, 1990). The methylation of metals and formation of methyl-metal complexes can significantly increase the toxicity of metals. Mercury as methyl­mercury species (CH'Hg•) is more toxic than as the ionic species Hgl+ (D'Itri, 1972). Other metals that can become methylated include Sn, As, Te, Se, TI, and Pb (Stumm and Morgan, 1981). Metal complexes with other organic compounds and inorganic ligands (e.g., Cr) can reduce metal bioaccumulation and toxicity (e.g., Dodge and Theis; Giesy, et al.. 1983).

Adsozption onto particles is a major control on metal cycling in ecosystems because the process removes metals from the water column of lakes and rivers and from ground water and reduces metal bioavailability (e.g., Sigg et al., 1988; Domencio and Schwanz, 1990; Rudd and Turner, 1983). Particles in sediments and soils are composed of a variety of organic and inorganic phases to which metals can be absorbed. Each phase has a different effect on the bioavailability of metals. For instance, metals associated with clays may be more bioavailable than metals

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associated with organic matter (Luoma and Bryan, 1982; Swanz, et al., 1986). Differences in the form of metal in sediments could cause some lakes with metal pollution to maintain a good fishery, while other polluted lakes to have a damaged fishery. Thus, .knowledge of the form(s) of metals in solution soils and sediments is important in legislative decisions.

Another problem in determining how long recovery will take is that there are processes within terrestrial and aquatic systems that delay the cleaning process. For example, soils may continue to be a source of metals to the Great Lakes, even after anthropogenic emissions are reduced. Another example is the delay to the cleaning process in the Great Lakes. A research group at M.S.U .. (c.g. McKee, et al.; 1989; Matty, 1992) has been srudying the cleaning process for metals in the Great Lakes. They have found that trace metals are removed from the lake ecosystem by becoming buried in the bottom sediments. However, the n:moval process is not 100% effective. Various amounts of metals are released from the bottom sediment before they can be permanently buried. The fate of the released metal is not well defined, but the process will delay the recovery of the lakes. These metals will continue to "bleed" into the lake environment for some time after anthropogenic emissions are reduced. And, until the anthropogenically derived metals are permanently buried in the lakes, the lake sediments themselves may be a major source of trace metals to the ecosystem (Salomons, et al., 1987).

'.

Table 5 presents rough estimates of the range of times for various environmental reservoirs to rid themselves of metal pollution and obtain background concentrations. These times do not consider the effects of CTB or of delay processes such as described. The CTB effect would "quickly" move metal pollution from one reservoir to another. Estimates are based on data for various metals on transfer rates among reservoirs and amount of metals in the reservoirs. The ~ only biological factor taken into account is the half-life of heavy metals in humans. Data were taken from Fergusson (1990);Garrels ct al. (1974), Fergusson (1982), Long, (1985), Stumm and Morgan (1982), and Strachan and Eisenreich (1988).

These data suggest that the time for environmental cleaning could be very long; that is, if we were to stop polluting today (both within state and trans-boundary), the environment would not be clean "tomorrow."

Risks

The health effects of "nutrient" trace metals (Figure 1) have been known for some time (e.g., Hoops, 1977). Adequate Zn intake helps to protect against Cd poisoning. Low levels of Cu can increase the risk of atherosclerosis. Copper is necessary for the utilization of iron and helps to counter toxic effects of Cd and Pb. Chromium deficiency interferes with glucose metabolism resulting in diabetic like symptoms. These and other nutrient metals become poisons in relatively high concentrations. Copper concentrations of 5 to 25 ug/1 are lethal to some fish (Hodson, et al., 1979) and may have caused the tumors in fish in TOicil Lake. The exact cause of these

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tumors is still unclear, however (Evans, I 990). High concentrations of Zn and Cr promote cancer (Babich, et al., 1985; NAS, 1974).

Table S. E.stimatzd times ior v.arious eDVUOl11Dl:11"1l resenoirs ID rid themselves of 11Jt!t1'l poUutioIJ a,,d obtaiIJ bacqrour,d coaceatnliODS. lJas«J OD 11Jll1Jn/ rates.

RESERVOIR TIME TO CLEAN REMOVAL MECHANISM

Hum.ans 0.15 lo > 100 VIS

Excretion Great Lakes • Water hrs - davs - vrs

Scav-amo hv .,.,.,;cles. llushin•

Great Lakes - Sediment 10 lo JOO yrs Burial

Groundwater min lo 10,000 y,s

Adsomtion by mrticles min-davs Flusbin2 1,000 • 10,000 • 100,000 VIS

Air . hrs lo days Wet and drv denosition

Soil 100 • 1,000 - 10,000 yrs Erosion, leaching, biolooic n:moval

Some metals such as As, Pb; Hg, and Cd have no beneficial health value and can cause ccnain adverse cffcctS at very low levels. Exposure to these metals is associated with cardiovascular diseases, carcinoma, reproductive impainnents, brain and other organic damage (Furgcsson, 1990; Nriagu, 1988). These health problems can be considered the extreme effects of interactions with heavy metals. However, adverse effects from low-level exposure to toxic heavy metals may be more subtle, such as neurological cffcctS that could lead to learning difficulties.

Sherwin (1983) defined health as •._a smte where there has not been an inordinate loss, reversible ot ineversible, of the structural and/or functional reserves of the body.• Further, adverse health was defined as "the causation, promotion, facilimtion, and/or exacerbation of structural and/or functional abnormality, with the implication that the abnormality produced has the potential of lowering the quality of life, contributing to a disabling illness, or leading to a premature death." Nriagu (1988) draws from this that a significant portion of the "well" population may be suffering from metal poisoning without knowing iL These health effects would be sub clinical (e.g. unrecognized lesions) and/or depiction of function or integrity of cells or organs.

As an example, low levels of Pb can cause membolic disorders and tubular protcinuria in kidneys. In most cases, the early signs of metal intoxication arc unclear and could be masked by other health problems.

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In sum, health risks of trace elements in the environment are:

Humans-• High levels of "nutrient" metals can cause adverse health effects • Low and high levels of "toxic" metals can cause adverse health effects • Many people could be suffering from metal poisoning and be unaware of the symptoms

Aquatic and Land Biota--• Poisoning

• Tumors • Bioconcentrarion in food chain and pathway to humans

In addition to health risks associated with metals in the environment thc:re are possible economic risks. Economic planning with respect to the environment is almost always shon-sighted. Soils and sediments are considered large reservoirs that will store and eliminate metals from the environment forever. This type of planning ignores the problems associated with the long-term build-up of metals in the environmenL Stigliani, et al. (1991) suggest that if long-term economic planning does not take into account the potential impacts of CTB, then it may be difficult to ensure ecological and economic sustainability.

Conclusions

Summary

Local, regional, and global · biogeochemical cycles of heavy metals have been disrupted. The result is that humans and other biota have a greater chance of being exposed to high levels of metals. At high levels, some normally nontoxic metals such as Cr and Ni could become toxic, adding to the environmental pool of toxic metals such as Pb and Hg that have no beneficial effects in humans or aquatic and tctICstrial biota.

As the heavy metal-burden in the environment (air, soil, and water) increases, the threshold level at which "safe" environments become poisonous is approached. This threshold level for most metal-environment-biologic interactions is poorly understood, in some environments has already been surpassed (and may be unrecognized), and could be lowered suddenly by changes in the environment due to such factors as acid rain and global climate change. Assessments of metal pollution based on total concentrations in soils, sediments, etc. may be misleading because metals have natural sources and have different toxicities as a function of their form in the environmenL Emission inventories for the region indicate that metal pollution could be a problem in Michigan. Delay in addressing the issue of heavy metals in the environment loads the Chemical TIIllC Bomb.

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C

Possible Courses of Action

• Recognize that trace metal accumulations in the ecosystem, both aquatic and terrestrial, is a concern.

• Identify metals of interest and establish shon and long-term strategies for dealing with the problems (e.g. prioritize metal problems but factor in a time frame for reassessment of priorities).

• Assess potential natural sources for metals in the environment Determine relative imponance of anthropogenic versus natural. Determining the natural or background signal could be used as the base line for studies in the future assessment of environmental degradation.

• Investigate the role of selected ecosystems as environmental sinks or sources for toxic metals (e.g., wetlands and volatilization of Hg from soils, respectively).

• Determine the "state" of the Michigan ecosystems with respect to toxic metals and identify potential CI'B "hot spots."

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