upon
circum-
latter
sections
without
(SI) or metric
r'ývision ol "The
gratefully
our -Appreciation of tne help given
us by L. J. Deal and W. W. S',hroebel of the
Energy Research and De-elopment
Samuel Glasstone
possible by
the assistance
and cooperation
of members
Laborateries
...........
12
CHAPTER
I1.--..Descript
ions
.. 80
Underground Bursts
Ccmbir.d injuries ....................................... 588
Glossary ................................................
629
that of
atomic) explosion,' to blast
hand,
although
there arc several
basic differences be
of energy causes a consider- weapons. In the first lIace,
nuclear ex-
able increase
be maly thousands (or
peratures and pressures,
they expand amount
rapidly
and
thus
initiate
Con-
surrounding
some-
ini-
teached in a nuclear ex-
ied
by
are very much higher
far as weaponF,
explosions, and
energy are concerned, but "nuclear" is preferred for the reason givenu in § I.1i.
I
with distance ir, an ioeal shock
wave.
and
thae
radiation rhenomena associated
of vital
light and heat, generally referred to as importartce.
"thei'mal radiation." This is capable of 1.04 The purpose of this book
is
to
causing
skin burns and of startling fires at describe the cifferent
forms in
which thIe
clear explosicn is accompanied
highly-penetratlng and harmful
how
they
may
affect
rays, called the "initial i-.uclear radia- people (end other living organisms)
and
for specific observed effects, it
tive, emitting similar rad ations wver an should be kept in mind that there are
extended
or the data, for at least two reasons. in the
"residual
radioactivity"
(Fig.
1.02).
first
place,
there
are
inherent
difficulties
in making
The results are often
and a conventional explosion, including dependent on circumstznces which are
the tremendously g;,eater power
former,
(hat the effects of nuclear even in a test anJ certainly cannot be
weapons
require
In this connection, a
BLAST
NUCLEAR
EXPLOSION
have different quantitative
1.05 It
be 1.07 The
that element. Thus,
dition, architects
iznd engineers may be urznium, and so on, for all the elements.
able
to utilize the data in the design of The hydrogen
atom
is
damage by
blast, shock,
wihich provide shielding
pluto-
radiations.
nium,
ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
AND
ISOTOPES
cially
1.14).
Frequently,
two
a "mole-
kinds
of
consists
and nitrogen; the solid nonmetal& car- light particles known
as "electrons."
FXPI 0OsIONS
of fun- sequently
particles, referred to as "pro- and uranium-238, rcpectively. The nu-
tons"
arld
"neutrons."
have almost the same mass, but tons-as do the nuclei
of all uraolium
addi-
cleus,
explosion,
tween
arises from chemical
called the among
the atomn;, e.g.,
hand, the energy
thus
interactions. It is
nuclear
energy
ways.
by
nucleus.
the release
fissionable
iso-
These
tope
used
in
nuclear
artificially from ura-
basic law of
it can
two
smaller
accompanied
by
are called the
complete fission of I
release of nuclear energy in amounts as much explosive energy
as
requires
explosion
that the reaction
been started. 1.16 In nuclear fusion, a pair
of
Two
satisfy the conditions for
atom.
An
of
large
amounts of energy in a short example is the fusion of the hydrogen
time.
with some of the
of a heavier element,
-of very high
referred
plutonium.
on
cent),
and
isotope (or isotopes) in-
percent). The less abundant
of these volved in
the nuclei
would release roughly
tope, uranium-233, does
artificially starting
equivalent of I million
most abundant isotope tons (or 1,00M kilotons) of TNT. The
(uranium.? (8) in ordinary uranium as earliest nuclear bombs, such as were
well as
in
tests at Bikini in 1946, released very
appropriate fusion reactions with natural ro:ighly the same quantity of energy as
uranium can result in an extensive utili-
20,000 tons (or 20 kilotons) of TNT
zation of the latter for the release of
(see, however.
energy.
A device in which fission and much more powerful weapons, with en-
fusion
(thermonuclear)
combined can therefore produce an ex-
been developed.
plosion of
in § 1.15
might typically release about equal that the fission of I pound
of uranium or
release the same amount
and from fusion. of explosive
energy as about 8,(XX) tons
1.19 A distinction has sometimes of TNT, it is evident that in
a 20-kiloton
in nuclear weapon 2.5 pounds of material
which the energy arises from
fission, on undergo fission. However, the actual
the
one hand,
and hydrogen (or thermo- weight of uranium or plutonium in such
nuclear) weapon::,
involving fusion, on a weapon is greater than this amount. In
the other hand. In each case, however, other words,
in
eoergy nu- part the fis-
clear reactions, so that they are both sion. The efficiency is thus said to be
correctly describe: as nuclear weapons. less than 10()
percent. The material that
therefore, the general has not undergone fission remaias in the
terms "nuclear bomb" and "nuclear weapon residues after
the explosion.
1.22 It has
EXPLOSION important difference between nuclear
and conventional (or chemical) explo-
1.20 The "yield" of a nuclear sions is the appearance of an appreciable
weapon is a measure of the amount of proportion of the energy as thermal ra-
explosive
energy it can produce.
It is the diation in the former case. The M- c
usual practice to
weight
of
the quantity of TNT that would gen- for weight, the energy produced by a
erate
the
times as
that produced by a Chemical
weapon is one which produces the same ceplosive Consequently, the tempera-
amount of energy
in an explosion
does I kiloton (or
1,000 tons) of TNT. much higher than in the latter, namely,
Similariy, a I-megaton wv.apon would tens of millions of degrees
in a nuclear
in temper-
exploding nuclear
energy
is
quite
differeut
en-
kinetic
between air shock and
ecules as a whole;
ation
temperatures
radiation of less
is comparatively small,
the explosion
50
percent
air
energy from a fission
en-
nuclear
explosion, however, a consid- ergy release; in the latter, essentially all
erable
of
manner
in which this
later (§ 1.77 et seq.).
burst point in each
the
For a explosive
weapon
thermal radiation,
and heat.
The re-
various nuclear radiations.
the visible and
radiation,
about M0 percent of
is used in the production of air
shock. At of
through air
considerable thicknesses
time. This is largely due to the radioac- of material. Although
they can neither
the weapon
explosion.
sensation, gamma rays and
which only about half
of the total energy
arises from fission (§ 1.18), the residual even
at
nuclear
nuclear
radia-
of
the energy released in the explosion. tion is an important aspect of nuclear
It should be noted
The delayed
nuclear radiation
in the chemical reactions which take arises mainly from the fission products
place.
radioactive
radiation called "beta
electric
time
not
are
nuclear
explosion
within the nuclei of
the
radioactive
invisible, are much
they
the total energy
em;,s;ion of
beta
particles
i.e., a radioactive
energy
delivered
residual nuclear
radiation. Because
1.28 The initial nuclear radiation
of emission
that
in
of
thermal
(I) air burst,
a
takes
place
dis-
and luminous
the "fireball."
most
fined
the firebal
(at roughly
maximum bril-
However,
energy
that
products
remaining
the explosion energy is
form of thermal radiation
the second
and
occurs neare" the earth's surface, the the fraction of the energy that appears
a,-
the ex-
fall
to plosion becomes smaller.
the ground at points close to the explo- 1.37 The fraction of
the explosion
contaminated with radioactive material clear radiations is independent of the
and will, consequently, represent a pos- height of burst. However, the partition
sible danger to
1.36 A
bu;-st" is de- neutrons received at a distance will vary
fined as one in which the explosion takes
since
of 100,000 rays result fiom interactiorls of neutrons
feet.
Above
so low that the interaction of
tho
weapon
energy with
the surroundings is mark- of the initial nuclear radi•itior. with in-
edly different from that at lower alti- creasing distance from tno explosion is
tudes and, moreover, varies with
the determined by the
total amount of air
altituue. The absence of relativety dense through which the radiation travels.
air causes the fireball
high-altitude explosion to
those of an air
at
the
same slant
fraction of the energy converted into range on the earth's surface from a
blast and shock is less
and decreases high-altitude
affect
the
thermal energy radiato.d at the residual radiation fron: the fission
high altitude. First,
since a shock wave products and other weapon residues will
does not form so readily in the
less not be significant on
the ground
thermal
energy
resid-
titudes, have been used in the proacuc- ul nuclear ru'.ations from high-altitude
tion of air blast. Second, the less dense barsts will interact with the constituents
air allows energy from
weapoin
lower altitudes.
energy ehectron carries a negative electrical
simply warms the air at a disance from charge, the residual part of the atom (o r
the fireball
the energy that can
process
first to ais "ionizatiot,,', and
the separated,
of these factors is effective between electrons and positive ions
are
Callkd
a larger
radiation
emitted
earth
suriace of the land or
tensive area below the burst.
The phe- water. Provided the distance above
thc
surface is
tic pulse"
(or EMP)
same as .'or a burst oc-
Chapter XI. The EMP can also
be pro- curring
on the surface.
As the height
under such
beneath
and of
be apparent that, as the height
of
the
nuclear radiation
when
breaks
upon
the
depth
ot
in addition sociated
energy, is
1.43
chain reaction.
which is converted into other trons are produced in the
fission reaction
that undergoes
neutrons are available for
of the decay energy of
the fission prod- fission neutrons
are lost by
escape,
ucts.
There is some compensation trom whereas others are lost in various
non-
energy reieased in reactions in which fission reactions. In order to sustain a
neutrons are
of energy, at least one fission
about 180 M'eV of
energy are immedi- neutron
ately
fission for each neutron previously
6.02 X 102, nuclei in 231 grams of absorbed in fission. If the conditions are
uranium-235 (or 239 grams of pluto-
such
than
miliar conversion :'actors
not
be
pro-
obtained for the energy (and other) duced, but the amount would not
be
,-nough,
calculations are based on an accepted,
would not be sufficiently
e,;ective explosion. It is necessary,
1012
a nuclear
the explosion of this amount of TNT.3 exploion, to establish conditions under
which the
In this connection, it is especially im-
Table
1.45
portant
the
neutrons
which
EQUIVALENTS
OF
I
KILOTON
OF
TNT
undergoing
fission.
Complete fission of 0.057 kg (57 grams or 1.47 The escape
of neutrons occurs
2 ounces) fissionable
1012
calories
mation
of
tne
was
term "kilo.on" of TN4T referred to a short kiloton
(2 x 106 pounds), a metric kiloton (2.205 x 10 f
pounds;,
or
a
long kiloton (2.24 x 106 pounds). In order to avoid
ambiguity,
"kiloton" woule refer to the release of 1012 calories
of ePxplosive e ergy. This is equivalent to I short
kiloton of
kiloton if the energy'
from the system is indicated
by
its
i:
evident
from
by is lost from
is
is
the
of a nuclear fission
thereby decreased, a point
self-sustaining. This is referred to
as the
1.51 Because
being generated in
1.50 For a nuclear explosion to take various ways, a quantity
of a suitable
place, the weapon
ex-
ura- ceeding the critical
mass would be likely
niurn (or plutonium) isotope
critical
sary,
material
composition
and
sion), and
In order to produce an explosion.
,Ahich can remove
must then
the critical
sionable material
so
"reflector,"
the
loss
of
neutrons
by
subexpiosive
change
mass can
thus be
1.52 general
nu-
to
say,
for
the familiar
reflecting and inertial properties, the in order to form one
piece
1.52).
SURCRITICAL SUBCRITICAL
nuclear device.
leading to an explosion.
the
it can become critical or supercrit'.cal as fission explosion
can be
obtained by
chain
shapes
(lenses)
sive. In
of
the fission process
explosive lens
means
Each stage of the
time" is the average
sur- fission
average
elapsed during the time
r. and if this
that
speed)
N = re'-.
energy,
usually
referred
I
- I) -
take
is, the increase
time,
of
the
7 gener-
of
neutrons
energy.
t/g is
or
of
are produced.
the particular
of the tamper (§ i.50) and the weapon
causing fission.
of ieutrons of very
called
especially
most, if not
fission fragments
elements. The radioac-
discussion, it may be stated that because tivity is usually manifested
by the
the fission process is accompanied by emission of negatively charged beta
the instantaneous liberation
it
although not
serves to carry
of large
amounts
radiation only is emitted.
As a result of
the
substance
fission fragments,
the decay
of
product
40 or so different ways of different ways in which
c ...,
fission
occurs;
hence
becomes very
different
isotopes
2 days, the
activity will have
to I percent o
activity due to the
is another
kind of
usually expressed
by means
be
"half-life"
involved. This
part of which,
a given
noted in
after the ex-
quantity of a particular nuclide to de- plosion. The fissionable uranium and
crease
fraction
of
second to something
like a million
sion is so complex that is not possible
1.66 Because of their greater mass
to represent the decay as a whole
in and charge, alpha particles are
much
rays of the same energy.
Thus,
radiation
intensity
products can be calculated approxi-
tive sources can
to
3
mately by meqns of a fairly simple for- inches in air before being stopped. It is
mula. This will be given and
discussed
Fig. 1.64. The residual
residues
a nuclear detonation is taken as
100 and
plu-
body by ingestion,
is seen that at
7 hours after the explosion, the fission through
inhalation, the effects may be
product activity will have decreased to serious.
3The general term
"fission products" is
FUSION
(THERMONUCLEAR)
21
plied
represents the lithium-6
actions appear to he
and variou:, par-
Hew-
at
MeV
dCIi-
(mass = I ) represents
above,
fission
therefore, to
make use of the thermonu- (or very high frequency) gamma rays
clear neutrons by
the invisi-
and radio
tributing
regions occupied by the
of elec:romagnetic
thermo-
i.e., in waves (or
c ;s the velocity of light, 3.00
tions in individual
cases, In "boosted" x 10"1 cn, per second. According to
fission weapons,
responding "quantum" (or
unit) of en-
carried
by
particle
given
by
THERMAL
RADIATION
E
(ergs)
--- (.74.1)
the
effects
on
people
and
materials
are
largely determined by the thermal radi- where h is a univeis -
constant equal to
The energy
to quantum values
fo; t ,, various
in Fig.
of what
tions." These
volt, units.
resulting from
charges
in the form
familiar kind of electromagnetic radia- E (MeV)
1.24 x 10
let(
increases in the spectral
equi- plode,, tempe-rature equilibrium is rap-
librium
material.
Ex
10
'T4
ergs/cm3
Within
about
one
microsecond
after
the
explosion energy, as
defined in § 1.27,
ventional
chemical
5,000*K, the radiation
is Almost all of the res nergy is in
then less than I erg/cml, compared with the form of kinetic energy ot
the
weapon
roughly 108 ergs/crzl' for the material debris at this time. The interaction of
the
energy,
vary
with the altitude of burst and will deter-
the radiation energy is very
small
mine
clear explosion,
a
nuclear
detonation
miliion degrees are reached, the radia- occurs in the air, :,vhere the atmos•pheric
tion energy density will
(and density) is near to sea-
of 1016 ergsicm.
the
primary
nuclear
of
to lower
1.76 Not
thermal
radiation
energy
serves
to
its as ther-
this
ingly.
a
at a
few thousand
degrees Kelvin,
fireball
and
part in the
visible, and in- (or blast) energy (see Chapter II). This
frared regions of the electromagnetic explains why only about 35 to 45 per-
spectrum (Fig.
tures
of a nucluar explosion, however, burst is received as thermal
radiation
pri-
very
rapidly,
but
radiation may constitute
"soft." The
latter have longer wavelengths and
lower energies, and they are more easily absorbed than hard X rays. They are, nevertheless, radiations of
high energy compared
 
Chains: Schematics
2.02 Thac
altitudes as well as those in
whereas others are neo directly
apparent,
are
associated
with nuclear uxplosions. to nucleir devices with ený.rgie,, in the
Certain
aspects
of
depend on the type of burst, i.e., air, For underwater
bursts, the information
is based on the detonations of
indicated in Chapter 1.This
arises from direct ard
teractions of the output
deep
water. Indications
weapon with its enviroment, and leads will be given of the results to be ex-
to variations in the distribution of the pected fhr explosions of other yields. As
energy released,
for a
affect the energy distribution. Fi- the energy of the explosion.
In the
will le supposed,
first, that a typical air burst
takes place
the explosion
well
the special effects, resulthg from a
less, the gross phenomena associated surface burst and for one at very high
with a particular type of nuclear
explo-
altitude
will
face, underwater,
ugdLrwater
and
under-
main unchangcd. It is such phenomena ground nuclear explosions will be de-
that are described in this chapter.
scribed.
26
I
of shown in Fig.
of time within a limited quantity of
times
several
of
parts
altitudes
are
of which
to those in the center of the energy yields were
less than 100
the sun. The
maximum temperature at-
sky, in the
not the
direct (line-of-sight)
dif-
high-explosive
weapon.
Because
of
ex- by particles of dust
and possibly by
into
as
to
(or luminance)
many millions of pounds per greatly with the total energy
yield
the fireball in an air
burst is
same, regardless of the
which are the
en-
absorbed within a
few feet in the sur- gulfing the surrounding air. This growth
rounding
(sea-level)
1.78). This
seven-tenths of a millisecond
an
allntude
of
12.000
containing
across,
in
rate
of
the
extent that
it
no
longer
emits
are often soon hidden
ascends, the toroid
internal circu atory
observed
escaped fission, and
condensation
and cloud changes
burst
the
and under the
amount of dirt and debris
UPDRAFT
THROUGH
'CENTER
 
31
drawn
up
RATE OF
Height Time Rate of Rise
do
not
27
into
may be ex-
the
very snvall particles
of radioactive fis-
be the
the cloud ascends.
a tendency for it
of the cloud
in active cloud at
this height, a portion
will have
the more stable ,ir C.zhe strato-
30 seconds
ranging from 25,000 feet
.A!
TIME AFTER
clouds wh*h
of the
33
I2WO
Figure
I 2,000 feet a
BURST
l t
or low air
bursts•.
Figure
2.18a. Fireball formed by a nuclear explosion in the megaton energy
range near the
earth's surface. The
?I
bursit
cause
from
the
other material in the area very small (.,es produced by
condensa-
Additional material is
have
been
and the raised by the afterwinds. The exact
strong afterwinds cause large amounts composition of the
cloud will, of
associated
tween
moderate amount
found
as a
droplets,
the
small
fission
other
contaminated
for
the
preciable crater
TIHF
FALLOUT
beneath
the
point
of
burst,
and
the
me-
teorological
an appreciable
of surface
occurred,
result
burst. Thus
of burst 1670 feet,
12.5 kilotons) Und
capture in
37
(height
diameter, mn4,
ar-
have traveled
tropopaose,
atmospheric
given
explosion energy yield,
about 24 hours after the
tern is affected
'This
fallout fallout, also
sometimes called "local"
area, from the
of the
very slowly over large
the
burst
until the particles reach the "delayed" (or "worldwide") fallout, to
ground, perhaps several
hours later, af-
feet the ,allout pattern following a nu- of
various types---air,
surface, and
contribute (see Chapter
time. In the
yet recorded, it
should te pointed
4A micrometer (also called a
micron) is a onc-millionkh part of a meter, i.e., 10 " meter,
or ab iut
inch,
shock
whereas
The
behavior
is
quite
gen-
yield
of
the
The explosion.
from the fireball
damage re- high. As
pulse
weapon.
by the
energy is
dose
delivered
thermal
surface temperature
source
8 9 10
in an air burst.
INITIAL NUCLEAR
most of plosion of a nuclear
weapon is asso-
visible and infrared
this radiation which is
the main cause of gamma rays, and alpha and beta par-
skin
up to 12 miles or part of the gamma rays
are emitted in
distances, from
the explosion
the nuclear
Some of the neutrons
undergo
the radioactive
accompanied by
the instantaneous cloud has reached a height of 2 miles,
emission of gamma rays. In addition, the effects
of the initial nuclear
tions
of
distance, the initial nuclear ra-
source
einitted in the
after the explosion.
2.44 The foregoing
prooucts based on
the characteristics of
given
above.
2.42 The
initial nuclear radiation is is an increase in the rate at which
the
generally
the effective
distance is
after the
gamma
emitted by the
the same,
the energy
radiation 2.45
Neutrons are
the only
cant nuclear radiations
2.43 The
the initial nuclear
present in the exploding
the lib-
of
gamma
rays.
explosion is very roughly
It is seen, therefore,
an explo-
2 miles
and
fusion
effect
at
the
processes occur consist
cloud
yield.
point
currents flow in
the air and
rare-
producing
suitable
cloud.
It
clear air burst
that are worth mentioning seen from the photograph that the :oud
although they have no connection
with formed some
must
of
tion., a violet-colored glow may be ob- blast
pressure has fallen sufficiently for a
served,
particularly
warmed
the dropl ts evaporated. The original
blast wave front has moved still farther dome-like cloud first changed to a ring
away, as is apparent in Fig.
2.49, where shape, as seen in Fig. 2.50,
and
then
surface of
condensation
2.50
its thermal radiation, it has
of the air makes the conditions for the
influence on this radiation. It is true that
formation
most
occurring over (or under)
fireball.
apart from being
the
have any appreciable
DESCRIPTION OF HIGH-ALTITUDE BURSTS
The
2.52
Nuclear
devices
were
ex-
STARFISH
PRIME
devi'e,
with
on
BOWL
test
series
iii
1962.
in
the
October
20,
1962,
October
26,
1962,
HARDTACK
serie.-'
two
high-altitude
and
November
1,
1962
(GCT),
respec-
bursts,
with
energy
yields
in
the
mega-
tively.
ton
range, were set off in the vicinity of 2.53 The ARGUS operation was
Johnston Island,
miles southwest of not intended as a test of nuclear
weap-
Hawaii.
It was an
was detonated on
provide
infor-
(Greenwich Civil
Time) at an altitude of mation on the trapping of electrically
252,000 feet, i.e., nearly 48 miles. The charged p articles in the earth's magnetic
second,
at an altitude of 141,000 feet, i.e., of
three high-altitude nuclear detona-
1958 tions, each having a yield from I to 2
(GCT). During the FISHBOWL series, kilotons
TNT
equivalent. The burst al-
a megaton and three submegaton de- titudes were from about 125 to
300
vices
Ii
(Fig. 2.56).
though
then
directly
(line-of-sight)
visible
eral,
estimated to
ambient
in diameter.
of
distances the
atmosphere
to
weapon yield),
as the
i.e., the
of debris particles
late-time
in control-
about 200
zon from
rays
the
the field lines.
fireball grew very
I1
miles and it increased
the debris is
seconds. The fireball also ascended with stopped by the atmosphere, at about
75
and ionize the 4k
large
which
will
from Hawaii. 780
of the explosion and
ef burst. For
These
i.e., to the
are weaker than those
close-in
region
surrounding
a
surface
burst, they are
and
Because of
cover
was
not
of
air-
and
purple streamers were seen to craft flying above the low clouds.
The
spread
at TEAK shot,
but an aurora
the other
high-altitude explosion,:
EXPLOSION PHENOMENA
of the lagoon
2.63 Certain characteristic phe- prevented a clear view of the fireball,
nomena are associated with an under- and the general effect was similar
to
that
vaqy
with
persisted
for
a
second, but it dis-
water. The
on
kilotons yield was detonated well
below 2.65
the surface of the lagcon which was
pansion, the hot gas bubble, while still
about 200 feet deep. These conditions underwater, initiates a shock wave. In-
may be regarded
as corresponding to a tersection of the shock wave with the
shallow underwater explosion, surface produces an effect
which,
appears
rapidly
This
is
BAKER
test
the water in the vicinity of because of its resemblance to an oil
h
slick. Following closely behind the dark is proportional to
the
region is a white circular patch called direct sho,.k wave,
and so
time)
after the appear- result, the sides of the spray dome
be-
mound or column
and the resis-
spray, called the "spray dome," is tance of the air. The total time of rise
thrcwn up
2.66). This
dome is caused by the ye- thc energy of the explosion, and upon its
locity imparted to the water near the depth below the
water
if the
shock
wave
the surface layer into drops of spray, reflected from the water
bottom and
The initial upward velocity of the water compression waves produced by the gas
Figure 2.66. The "spray
explomson.
()SIONS
with suflicicn intensity,
the shallow
Bikini, the spray
into
The max-
imuigi height attained
shiltlivw undefrvw ittr
columni into
by the
The c•olumn was
than the height at-
by the radioactive
cloud in an
created by the
caused a series of
raised in the column.
2.69
which
max-
the
fission
and
and was about
residues,
as well as a large quantity of I (XX) feet front
surface zero. This
moved outward
sucked
up
fromn the bottom of the lagoon was also 22,0(X)
feet from surface zero, the ninth
present, for a
decks
that cer-
of ships
underwater and water
caused unexpectedly serious
underwater
explosion.
a
wave.
The
extent
A
nearly an hour,
oped from the cloud mdss.
In
the rain was
droplets still descending
cloud.
with
of good approximation, the
the lagoon
in the
clouds have
cloud, moving rapidly
column,
is
surge have not
spray
at the base is reason bly certain that no base surge
of Niagara FL, ; (or other high water-
would accompany bursts at great
falls),
The underwater test shots
a homogeneous
2.73 The base surge at Bikini com- (§ 2.77) base
surge.
between the
at Bikini
outward
The other
inore
the surface of the water where
across and
the low-lying
base formed.
the THE RADIOACTIVE
 
of
base surge, but
dioactivi y, it may represent
a hazard for
a distance of several miles, especially
in
be
radioactive
debris
as the visible base surge at early continues to expand
in the same manner
water
cloud or ay
re-
centric
main
deeper
bursts.
The
fire are con-
cerned.
the point of
In addition,
the
initiation
of
control
out
the fireball
and vents, the gamma
hazard from
the
radioactive
initial
underwater
contribute
p ume
from the clouc
of the bottom
ual nuclear radiation,
Althrugh as much as 90 per- above. For an underwater
birst, it is
between initial
and residual
invisible,
could
The initial nuclear
Because the effects
nuclear
in general
emission of
thermal radiation.
It fol-
will be considered
the bottom at this
a result of
the outward momentum
(Fig.
well
then causes
within the bubble
the densation of
(water) pressure is
bottom
and reaching a cal
moves upward
the top to
as
no linger- A
condensed
to
make
additional
pulsations
after explosion in deep water.
 
ing
pressure is below
non called "blowin" occurs.
The plume sities may
col- expected to
regarded as one which
be
of
burst,
at too
wave may reach tile
sphere of
it is still
tional energy to
on the nature of
referred to
as "gas
yield of the explosion.
upward first assumes the
and gas acceleration
to the at- depend to large extent on
the moisture
the rock
medium. In
(Fig. 2.93). Subsequently, much of the gready
increased by the
presence of
ejected material collapses and falls water vapor. Gas acceleration then plays
back,
partly
into
the
crater and partly
however, the coptribution of
motion of
small
The 2.95 As in an underwater burst, part
size of the remaining
a shallow underground explosion ap- tamination over a
large area, the extent
blast wave. The
of
the energy
imparted to the air in the burst, the nature of the soil, and
the
form
conditions,
yield. The greater the
surge
burst.
the air. For a sufficiently deep explo- 2.97 Throwout crater formation is
sion, there of course, no blast wave.
apparently always accompanied by
occurs.
BiSE
a
2.96
shallow underground
detonation de- erally also forms and rises to a height of
to the ground, it
fne dust particles
reaching the ground
and
thereby
producing base surge, similar greater distance. The main cloud and
to that
formed in the SEDAN test
explosions
1
par- (100
of feet in alluvium
the explosion and is subsequently car- water) are shown in
the
photograph in
ried downwind. Eventually the particles Fig. 2.97, taken six minutes after the
and produce radioactive con- explosion.
Figure 2.97. Main cloud
burst.
EXPLOSION
main
no
sig-
out.
ma', and nuclear
except in the few
small
with
general
derground detonations
the best in terms of four phases having
neutrons
the 2.102 First,
i.e., less than
9.35). This
million at-
the mospheres
few
tenths of
a second
velocity equal
surface bursts
attained 6 x
its maximum
"tuff." During
chamber expanded to form
ity and it will
have crushed or fractured
130 feet
and frac-
tured it
waves (§ 6.19).
to distances of
a weak signal
The
the cavity
decreases to
term
broken rock or
the chimney
l."
evet o OpraionPlu~bob
sites. No co,:rreaion has
in the vicinity
(§ 6 24 et
from
the the atoms,
others are raised to hig, -1r
en-
ergy (or excited)
attached to the nuclei.
perhaps a
the medium :surrounding ti,e explosion,
weapon residues consist essentially of
The exact
excited
are dependent
density,
and composition. It is thf vari- is deterrnined by the temperature.
Since
of' several times
most of
or so is in the
soft
associated
with
face, and subsurface
scribed e.
fireball
lion
degrees
and
sections
OSIONS
ra- from a nuclear explosion is
in the soft
of
the
spectrum.
volume. In a
rays are absorbed
shock
wave
erable distances.
of this fire-
tne burst con-
At
aborbed
within
and the relatively small
to a
(or wave-
ambient medium.
the
cover
from
ploding
of excess of the average. These
high-en-
not
of
the kinetic energy so they move ahead of the fireball front.
of
shock and
case mospheric molecules, the X rays so alter
in a less dense medium, air.
At
very high altitudes.,
the air burst
altitudes, a veil of
opaque
air
dissi-
early
growth
croseconds
elapse
thermal
veil.
tance from the explosion will depend on 2.112 The X-ray fireball grows
in
a result of the transfer of radia-
tion from the very hot
interior
AN AIR
BURST exterior. Durirg this "radiative
2.110 As seen above, most of the growth" phase, most of the energy
initial
in the hot
OSION P11IINOMUIN,\
usually
of
path
The
sphere has
iverage pho- dropped
to about 3(X),O(X))C,
2.113 If the mean free path
of the
transfer of
called "hydrodynamic
exterior
when the fireball radius
driven by
each re-emission
the si'here
velocity.
;hock at the
hot fireball
1I
[-AR [\XII OSIONS
debris shock front
is a strong source of perature regions form. The outer region
ultraviolet radiation, and
small yield-to-mass ratio it
latter
growth. therefore,
2.117
the fireball.
front from
ahead
a tremendous compression
bient
air
and
the temperature is thereby be understood. In the isothermal stage
increased to an extent sufficient to
the pressure is uniform
at the outside,
but after a
nous shell thus formed constitutes the short time, when the shock front has
advancing visible fireball
of the fireball. Within
region
is
ahead
of
isothermal
of the pressure in ihc fireball to a pe Ak,
at a somewhat
characteristic of
somewhat
un-
become sharply do-fined.
left and
at a rate
air. Dur-
the temperatuie of the
first picture, at shocked air decreases steadily so that it
0. 1 millisecond,
much
so hotter and still incandescent interior
of
that the condition is that of the isother- the fireball, i.e.,
the isotherrmal sphere,
be seen through the faiitly visible
fron, begitis to move ahead of the isoth- shock front (see Fig. 2 '2). "Theonset of
ermal sphere, the temperature
the
de'onation of a
more gradual fall near the outside of the 20-kiloton weapon, for ex imple,
is re-
to
roughly
rate than before,
maximum
dimensions
should be called
700
.J
APPROXIMATE
BREAKAWAY
degrees, the ability
first tern.
TEMPERATURE OF THE
the
2.122
shock
perature, whi..n
minimum and then increases
to a max- from
at graphic and spectroscopic
emits
air burst.
indicate the
radia- the
is
invisible
detonation
of the
front emits
the shocked
air approaches
3,000'C explosions
independent
of
from the isothermal sphere and. there is a the yield of the explosion.
But
occur for an
thermal sphere, representing
as the
(Chapter
VII).
of breakaway is generally very
of the isothermal sphere, the apparent
soon after the thermal
passing
through
creases with the energy
Because of the complex ;n-
second) after the explosion
radiation
fireball at the
the brightness continues to increase thermal minimum is nGt very different
from the minimum, radiation
fireball is emitted
interior (or
unimpeded by
shock
wave
ahead
of
apparent surface temperature increases
to a maximum
of about 7,700'C W is the explosion yield in kilotons
(14,000F), and this is followed by a TNT equivalent. The
breakaway phe-
nomenon,
entirely by hydrodynamic
radiation and mixing
so that a distinction
should be made between
For an air burst the radius of the
air burst (§ 2.38
in Figs. 2.121 For a corntact surface burst, i.e., in
and 2. 123 apply to a 20-kiloton ruclear which the exploding
weapon is actually
burst, but similar results are obtained for on the surface, 8
blast
as
the surface.
greater
than
of breakaway
(cf. Fig.
ambient air
until it
is in
a region
up to about 100,000
and detonation
X-ray
and
the
ceived as effective
phe-
pulse
low)
air
with
the
burst
there is
normal
1"
FVFt
The
level burts.
plosioni is richer in ultraviolet radiation
however, the debris
The in-
2.134 For
pancake)
an
essentially
of
burst.
single pulse
energy but
ergy depositien.
the result of
inensions
of
speed
of
excited particles are
hundred miles in
Soon stages by the interaction
of fast neutrons
in the downward
at
of air fluo-
The excess energy
of the excited
a
about 100,000
Fur-
to
AURORAL
PHENOMENA
travel
in
helical
(spiral)
paths
along
the
field
extent, by
the equator
in
to form (Fig.
For
ever,
namely, phere
region
interactions of the
by a nuclear expl(
2.145; Because
have high
velocities, the beta auror i,ý in lines, there is a tendency for
them
to
magnetic field strength is
results
mo-
aurora
near the conjugate
Within
nuclear detonation,
the beta
60 particles
miles, whereais
(§ 2.53),
miles,
well-
detonation is, defined
thick-
the "ARGUS effect."
are EFFECT ON THE
points. There they continue to decay
and upper atmosphere, mainly in the strato-
so
beta
10 to 20 miles),
vicinity of of ozone is limited by
its decomposi-
1$
life.
chemical
decomposition
reactions
nitrogen.
high
any
time
represents
other determining
following
tions in the
ozone layer and
accompanied
by
an
increase
the 1902
High
l, , "Blast Wave,"
B., 'EMP
2 (1969).
ChRist OI i i os. N.
C , "'The'
Nuclear SocietN
-144.52,
Health
(Il M1ORF.
Las
Vegas.
Ni_:sada,
Southwestemr, Radiological
Health Laboratory.
Session on Nuclear
R.
C.
Bubbles.'
9. 1962
U.S. Naval
NOLTR 62- 184.
605 ct seq. (
''Photo-
of High Altitude Nuclear E
xplosion
of California, TEAK.'' J, Geoph'v~s. Res., 65. 545 (1960)),
L~os
1970,
'_A
6405.
''Plie- terface,''
Uses
of
195h.
I 30.
Altitude Explosions.''
J, Geophy,.
Res., 64.
1149 (1959).
*The se do~cu ment s ma he purchased fro nt
thle
ion ( enuter, .,S,
 
the
indi-
dynamic
square
inch
ot
more.
In
quently dteirable
to consider
three times as
the
already
structure. In
firebalL.
and
80)
phase" of the
a regular manner.
in air with distance
the pressure in
but there
an overpressuie
of
building
types,
depends largely
the overpressure
the over-
With increasing
distance from
For example, at a distance
of I
from a 20-kiloton explosion ill the
sure, but below
be
about
3
dy- seconds,
namic pressure is the
smaller. Like the about
he
roughly 1.4 and 4,5 seconds. respec-
increasing distance from the explosion tively.
center,
although
different rate. 3.10 It is evident that the blast wave
Some peak dynamic
yield will
sponding to various
as calculated
the
in
this velocity
(761
(abojit I. 100 leet
which determine the dyn-amic
in the shock
off
per :quare
blast wave ap-
When the (ideal)
in arrives at
CHANGES
IN
THE
BLAST
WAVE
Subsequently
the
overpressure
Je -
WITH
TIME
creascs.
as
indicated
by
the
upper
curve
zero ir. a short line,
znd this marks
the
it is of intercst t,) examine the changes enJ of the positive (or compressien,
of overpressure and dynasnic pressure
phase of die O:verpressure
of the overpres-
after
yield ard the distance
some time for the blast wave to travel exampie, this
phase lasts roughly I sec-
from the point of the
explosion to the ond
This time interval (or 2 miles, for a I megaton
explosion, the
arrival time)
seconds.
(DECREASING TO ZZRC] I
from the ex-
to decrease after it falls to zero so) that
it ',he given observation point.
becomes
negative.
in the
associated dynamic
atmospheric
pressure.
However,
as
1
trong
because
normal
atmospheric
as indicated by
HI *8S1\k\\W,
matter
fuy lter in
3.16 By the time
he blowing away
negative (sec
i):
that
than the ambiert
air
is
to become negative. dircction, i.e.. toward the explosion.
3.14 Since
the wind veloc- short
The
feeble
(ideal)
obser-
of
but
in the dynamic
overpressure, as shown
pres- wind changes
sure positive
to zero when
When the peak pressures are high, the
observation
point.
positive
may be
namic
pressure
remains
sures, on the other hand, the difference negative.
Since the overpressui:
pressure ,.nd the ambient atmospheric
overpressure
and
merely
longer than
the overpressure
to drop
reference to
Conse- any other pressure. It is a
measure of the
quently, it is
air behind the
location change different
lo t, reprewent
the surface in the rc•gion of
regular
reflection.
ii
above thc surface
tacit
assump-
separate shocks will be felt, the first ;ion that the two waves
travel with ap-
justified
early stages. when the wave front is not
This
situation can be illustrateJ by con- far from ground zero.
However,
incident wave front
reaches this point,
wave. As
overtakes it
the two
obtained "irregular"
which
the
also
3.25
sage of the reflected
poim fairly close to ground zero,
such as
cerning the delay between 1he arrival of A in Fig. 3.21, is represented
in Fig,
stage, farther from
point
of reular reflection.
the three
wave
the
0.-INCIDENT WAVE
point" is
circle
the burst
(or
waves
in
general.
The
overpressure
height of burst in-
paiticular
location will fall off with time creýases for a given yield, and also as the
and the positive
will
be followed by a negative (suction) burst. For moderate heights of burst,
phase in the usual manner.
Mach merging of
in the air above the waves occurs at a distance
from ground
zero approximately equal to
sure
increases will be felt. The first will creased, the distance from ground
zero
be
due to the incident blast wave ard the at which
the Mach effect commences
fPected wave. When a weapon is deton- larger amounts.
ated
only a HEIGHT OF BURST AND BLAST
singi, merged wave develops. Conse- DAMAGE
quently,
be observed
height ui burst and energy
ground.
yield of the nuclear explosion are im-
3.28 As far as the destructive action portarnt factors in determining the extent
of
of
of
should be drawn. First, only a single zero and owher
associated blast wa,,e
the distance
zero
at
stem begins to form. As the height
of
explosion
of
yield is decreased, or as the eneigy yield
is nearly
blast
direction at
nearer to ground
winds are approximately parallel to the zero, and (2) the overpressure at the
ground (Fig. 3.25).
region. Alast forces on abovegrcund larger. An
actual contact surface burst
structures and other objects are directed leads to the highest possible overpres-
nearly horizontally, so that vertical
sur- sures near ground zero. In addition
faces are loaded
shock phenomena
horizontal surfaces.
detonation and the height of the
burst explosion, the air blast
phenomena to be
above the ground. Provided the height expected on the ground from
a weapon
af burst is not too great, the Mach stem of large yield detonated at a height of a
forms at
 
A I A StURF:..(I.
a near surface burst
explo-
seq.),
5,850 flected shock
no single
the triple
point for
(op ;,P'Id) etc.,
surface burst, incident and reflected
waves
coincide.
MODIFICATION
OF
wave are
not expected
particular,
shielding
from
blast
of the explosion
cannot be seen
the surface, a dis-
nearly
phase of the blast wave. For An "ideal" surface is
define:d
none)
of
it.
No
area
make
and IPke idea surfaces
ý'uch as fled as "nearly ideal."
Fqr an ideal
are essentially
free of
anJ
pressure
in the significant, it is said to be
"nonideal."
pressure-distarnc-
relationship
surface might be expected.
sures, these
differences are small for characteristics of the blast wave. In
weapons of
low energy y~eld. For gzneral, the nature of the reflecting
sur-
which will
be expected.
of mechanical
in order effect
ning purposes,
sea
amounts of heat
SURFACE
EFFECTS
foi'mntion
of
an
auxiliary
wave,
called
a
"precursor,"
that
precedes
the
main
in-
smaller particles
however',
the
blast
wave
may
dynamic
wave. There may
tively small at ground leel; the
effects
air blast
the
over-
may be
be correspondingly increased, espe- However, even if the structure is
strong
cially in regions where the precursor is enough to withstand the
effect of the
wave can
relatively
rigid
may
flexible
meta
pipe
will
rela-
a true (or
from the Rankine-Hugoniot
equation of state for
the
The
air behind the
so that it is actually the kinetic energy
tions.
shock front, that the hind the shock front; this quantity
has
3.55 The shock
Rankine-Hugoniot equa-
pressed by
-y+
I
p)12
speed cf sound q
pressure.
The
velocity, particle (or peak wind) veloc-
the shock
velocity becomes
ity, and
1
2
4
7
10
20
AS] W1 VE PHLN()NM11 N\ 99
3.56 When the blast wave strikes a
rival
flat surface, such as that of
a s;ructure. overpr4,2sure. is
duralion (o the
each
p,
= 2p
oerpressure v.with
in
(3.56.2)
the
where
r-
very large values of the incident over- is the duration of the dynamic pressure
pressure
on the
for
indicated
values
for
with
pected value
of twice the incident value, 3.76. t should be noted ýhat, since the
i.e.,
pressure
posi-
longer
when the moving ait changes direction than r , Figs. 3.57 and 3.58 do not have
as a result of striking
the surface.
important
stantaneous (peak) reflected pressure, age parameter is the "impuise," which
with the peak incident overp:'essure, for takes into z.'ount the duration of the
normal
is positive
Impulsc
3.57 The equations
in § 3.55 give (per unit area) may be denned as 1ý' ý
the
peak
values
point
then be repre-
motion and the
these
curves
the
"normalized"
over-
Fig. 3.57 for
between 3 and 3,000
4
LIJ
of
3 0.0.4' 0. 0. .
applied with confidence
that
W,
= 1.
follows,
therefore,
from
equation
(or slant (3.6 1.1)
for where D, refers to the slant range from a
any (xplosion of W kilotons
energy
is specifiedl,
then the
quired to produce a certain effect, e.e..
bursts wilh he same scaled height) may
a given peak ovprpressute, can be cal-
be
expressed
can be evalukiied from equation 1
= dl W1
(3-61.2). and
having
different
energy
yields,
before, d,
For explosions of different energies and d ae distances from ground
zero. If
having the same scaled height of burst, W, is taken as I kiloton, then the
the cube
;,.•rious quantities are related as
follows:
as to distances from the explosion.
Thus, if di is the distance from ground and
zero
at
which
a particular overpressure I* x W1,3 at a distance d---d x IV•'.
or dynamic
will be observed at
calcu- 3.64 The data presented (§
3.55 et
lations of
the characteristic properties of
strictly
homogeneous (or uniform) atmosphere
instead of from the explosion (slant at sea level. At altitudes below
about
3.63 Cube root scaling
also be sures in , atmosphere do not change
applied to airival time of the shock very much from the sea-level values.
front,
positive
phase duration, and pos- Consequently, up to this altitude, it is a
itive phase
bking homogeneous
sea-level properties. The equations
given
'The symbol
dis used
zero, whereas
distance from the actual burst.
 
correction if the burst and target
are
both
feet,
If is
mean altitude
used. But
if the
iequired to determine the air blast pa- altitude difference is ,.onsiderable,
a
good approximation
(§ 3.46).
an
in
partition (§ 3.67.)
which take
on the equalions in the
pre-
TO and P0
as follows. For the overpressure p
P- (,.65.1)
s 0
for
the
given by
Wsa (3.66.2)
itive
phase
duration
is
SS
(3.66.4)
t
(3.65.3) standard
The at-
The factor (T//T7W'- appears in this ex- mospheric pressure P0 is 14.7 pounds
pression
because
the
speed
of sound is per square inch and the temperature is
proportional to the square roct of
the 59'F or 15'C, so that To is 5190 Rankine
absolute
temperature. For impulse at al- or 2880 Kelvin. In a strictly
hormogen-
scaling
2/3
1/2
factors
SP,
Sd'
and
S,
woutd
all
be
unity
not
from
unity
when
the
target and burst point are at and the approximation of a homogen-
roughly the
difference
seriously in error,
the general
discussion already
of peak overpressure,
time, and positive
function of altitude
since, at high
be constructed for other
useful.
3.70 From
the curves
made
air
loading and
nuclear
60,000
"TNT equivalent
on the pages racing the
a particular range fror, a
given explo- figures.
sion, it
for nearly
line
where
overpressures
oecause
they
include
the
3.73a,
Hugoniot
equations
(§ 3.55
As determining
to a sponse.
level atmosphere
wave.
The
face. It will be noted, as mentioned magnitude of the
reflected pressure pr(U)
side-on pressure
p and
angle, a,
3.78a). The
p,(ox)/p
as
of angle
pressures Lire given in
that for normal
i.e., when a
inc.eases with
3.78b are particularly
a somewhat less than
i.e., where the overpressure
range) from the
for
explo.iion
(For
eV',Lr-
60,000
feet.
pressure
is
obtained from
equation (3.66.
1) aad
is based
the Table
3.66; thus
altitude S,--aling
faciors are
with the = 0.30 psi.
conditions.
1
overpressures
80 KT
burst
distance from
where the triple
scaled
appro. heigtlt,
d = di WII'
distance from ground
given overpressure
extends scale
as the
i.e., From
Fig. 3.73a,
ground
or
less,
problems for the
4
A
 
2o320 feet.
d
h
400
feet
and
a
burst
height
of
500
feet,
The curves
Example
pressure
and the
1,100 e
less, a
problems for the
corresponding
height
0 0 0 0
Examplt
the positive
duration,
respectively, for I KT; and d, d= =_ 4,_", = 740 feet.
h,
and
t
are
the
corresponding
distance,
W113
0
00)IP3
For a height of
burst ot 5.000 feet
KT
less,
ground
The
sure positive
therefore,
t
KT at 740 feet from grot: z -o and
a
160
ground
BURSTS
The
reflected
overpressure
ratio
the
angle
(side-on)
overpressure.
The curves
apply to a wave front s;triking a reflect- Finrpr es res
ing surface, such
ture.
flected
overpressure
ratio,
p,,,/p,
for
50
an
sure for
x 50
(Text
if it does, the lower
portion is so
3.79 The
ferred to biast wave conditions near the sharply defined, through
which the en-
ideal ergy
feeds the precursor may flow.
(§ 3.47), so that the Rankine-Hugoniot Ahead of the main shc.ck front, the
blast
free not only
face
is nonideal, there may be mechani- te follow the rapidly moving shock front
cal or thermal
layer,
gate
upward
into
the undisturbed air
associated with mechanical effects were ahead of the main shock front. This
mentioned
in § 3.48. As a consequence divergirg flow pattern within the pre-
of
thermal
pressure and dynamic
wave
are associated with the formation of a tends to strengthen the precursor shock
precuisor (§ 3.49) which
nificant changes in the parameters of the happens
within
is de- Fig. 3.81. Only that portion of the pre-
tonated
over a thermally nonideal (heat- cursor shock front that i% tt the preshock
absorbing) radiation the faster than the
fireball produces a hot layer
of air, re-
diverging
ferred to as a "thermal layer," near the upward, out of
this
of
and
the
overiaking
layer. Intetaction
of
the blast wave with which may billow to heights of more
the hot air layer may affect the
reflection than 100 feet,
process to a considerable extent. For
air in the precursor
modification of
blast wave characteristics may
surfaces, an auxiliary (or sec- occur within the precursor region.
The
leading edge
disturbed
jump at the
completely absent.
example of
& measured overpres-
main shock
front
 
PHENOMENA 125
Thermal effects on
expected to be small
many situations,
nearly ideal
wave conditions would prevail.
over a 3.84 For this
reason, the curves for
to various
air blast
parameters presented
which
apply
to
EXAMPLES OF
Therma, y Thermally
occur for
sor
for
concrete
vegetatior.
scaled
heights
spars:
6 psi), precursors are not expected to Commerc;-4 and indus-
vegetation
,-.,i areas
theoretical
factor
for
an
phenomena and damage
be irregu-.
be
Under
times
siderably
region for a given
"Blast Wave CalculAtions," Comm. on
Pure
"Long Range
sity of
88.
BRINKI.FY, S.
Shock Wives." John Wiley
72, 1109 (1')47). PENNEv,
W. G., D). E.
of Spheri.'al
(1955) Hiroshima and
Nagasaki," Phil. Roy.
in Proceedings for the Symposium on
BRODF, H. L., "Height o" Burst Fffects at High Public Health
Aspects of Peaceful Uses of Nu-
Overpressures,'' Rand Corporation, S-,.ita clear
Explosives, Southwestern
Laboratory,
April
Blast
Wave
Roy.
*U.S. Standard
the
National
 
to wind pressure,
developments described
in
DIFFRACTION
LOADING
wave moving
in a
is seen approaching the
pressure on
back face as
around
all dir%.c- equal
A pres-
fa.
' -Re
an angle to
to the wind
that the structure
faces will have
as
2A
chapter.
or
has
not
strueture, as in Figs. 4.071b, c,
andn d o; and
ooti,'ely to
will the drag pressure
force fac'ý. The actua
"diffraction load-
the positive
has
ended. Hence,
a structure
response will depend uporn the
size, pressure, i.e.,
and in,,, action,
Other
loading will cease
sponse, as
and the drag
period
131
STRUCTURAL.
CHARACTERISTICS
second
only,
the
full,. positive
primarily
and the
quickly
equalized,
either
well as
on ings
after the
the
that
the diffraction processes are neglig- structue, so that the frame is
subject to
small diffraction
by
the
The
trusses,
shape
of rapidly become so because of loss of
piojected area, the
or
phone
the drag loading and its duration.
Thus,
(§ 4.29).
frame
buildings
with
one of
tive because of the failure of the walls at lower yield because of the longer
dura-
low
phase in the former
an
object
dicting
blast damage is by an analysis, is a function of
both
the
supported by such laboratory and full- wave characteristics, i.e. - the
peak
scale
dynamic pressure, decay,
duration, as described in Chapter
the air blast loadiig on
the particular III, and the size,
shape, orientation, and
of
wave with an object
complicated
process,
for
theory,
discussed in mental
chapter may
AS1 1 3
been developed. To reduce may be from two to eight
times as great
the complex problem
of blast loading
reasonable terms,
tiL present
purpose, that (I) the over- around the cube exerting pressures on
pressures of interest are less than 50 the side.; and top of the object, an d
pounds per
face. The object is
engulfed in the high pressure
of the
square inch),
and (2)
loaded is in the region of Mach reflec- eventually returning
to ambient condi-
of
the
the
front
blast
blast
sides,
namely,
toward the explosion,
will be selected
an e,.mple.
It will
which is the sum
overpressure
and
the
dynamic
],hss when subjected
blast wave (or shock) front is taken to be wave
to sweej from
that it front face to the center of this face
and
can
be
considered
to
to the edges.
referred
4.26
The pressures on the sides and
to below are the average pressures on a top of the cube build up to the incident
particular face. Since the object
is in
is perpendicular to the
of the lowed by a short period of low pressure
ground. The front of the
cube, i.e., the caused by
a vortex formed at the front
side facing
and
normal
(Fig. 4.24). behind the wave front (Fig. 4.26). After
4.25 When the blast wave strikes the vortex has passed, the pressure re-
the front of the cube, reflection occurs
turns
incident
producing reflected pressures which blast wave which decays with time. The
air flow
loading to the sides and top, because, as
'" BLAST WAVE FRONT will
here
the rear of the cube, it diffracts around
the edges, and travels down the back
surface (Fig. 4.27). The pressure takes a
certain
the overpressure
Figure 4.26.
Blast wave
fluctuations
are
minor
significance
as
face
component
ference between
resulting
loading. When
windows are
ing, which
wave enters and tends to equalize dures described may provide
nc more
In than
fact, a structure may be
designed to
certain parts frangible to lessen 4.39 As a general rule,
the loading
of the analysis )f a diffraction-type
structure is
structuwe. Thus, the response of certL-in extended only until the positive phase
elements
overpressure falls
time,
structural element is not considered to the value is so
small thj' the drag force
influence the
ment itself. However, an exception to type structures, the
analysis is continued
this rule arises in the case of an aircraft until
the dynamic
pressure is zero. Dur-
in flight when struck by a blast wave. ing the negative
oc~rpressure phase,
BLAST
LOADING-TIME
CURVES
are
too
smnall
to
have
any
significant
4.38 The
procedures whereby
4.40 The
analysis and
in Table 4,40.
for the following five relatively simple Chapter III where (he
data may
be ob-
shapes: (I)
distance from
ground zero for an
are
structure;
box-like structure
by a paralle-
having a length
shaped structures, however,
breadth B. Structures
deter-
the mine the
(doers when
such openIings up to about 5 percent
of is calculated
is first atained. It has
been
tcrior
inch or less), t,
posed
toward the explosion and is
perpendicu-
t -
lar
to
the S
face. The
puted
below
(b) velocity. rhe drag coefficient for the
the side and
the net horizontal
.;ure and dynamic
The average
pressure subsequently
t, and t,ý
face can
pressure range under con-
creases from zero at t =
0 to the value
as shown in Fig. 4,43.
mences
immediately
at t = 0, the any time t is given by
sides and top are not fully loaded until
P aU-p
the wave
pressure, p,,, at this time is considered to
+ CA
be
+ Ciq -
Pr
Lu
,o,
G.s
I
.//-- p'00)+-W')
0
TIME
front and
whereas the
PARTIALLY
structure.
negligible
4.51 (d)
Net Horizontal
and Top.- The outside pressures are ing.-The net horizontal loading
is
obtained
4.43),
or,
their 4.52 A structure in which small
effect on the
loading curves
may be
Face.-The
buildings with a ma-
the
glass, and
industrial buildings
back come
the
magnitude
I[
open box-like structure.
ible wal' material
of one member
-s to
For
of which is obtained in the fol-
or aluminum
frame is an
ond
panels are not likely to fail
when the sidered as being
delivered at the time the
peak overpressure
and back faces
where the majority
4.54 Another difficulty in
ment of open frame
struct're con•'its
of
an individual
during the diffraction piocess. B3ecause member in the open, the drag
coefficient
angles, and for
in the
= IA
F, i.e., 4.56 The
for a
frame ot
Fig. 4.56. Th e
A,
sum of
loaded until
structure at this time
presented
SCd
ore
detailed
and the average
4.62 et seq.
this Surface.-When an
of a structure,
frame at any
the pressure
pressure (§
tion
of
the
t* +
arrives
propagated one
blast
BLAST
WAVE
D
FRONT
vortex formation
the
value of
at the time t = 3D/2U,-
the
of PQ. is about half the maximum
decays in an approximately linear man-
overpressure at this time, i.e.,
ner
at abtout
time t
the cylinder
on
the
side
then
mences immediately after
strikes the front
surface but, as
closed
blast wave begins to af-
the
sides
are
until the fect the back surface of the 7ylinder at
wave has
average pressure
at time t =DIU. The average pressure gradually builds up to pb,
(Fig.
value of p,,, is
(10
D
9D
TIME
Figure 4.59. Average pressure variation on the side face of a cylinder.
The average pressure
until
it reaches a maximum, P62, at a ing cannot be deterr Ited
accurately Ir
simple procesvi of
The
a better approx-
method
referred
is
direction of propagation
been concerned with aveIr'3e values
of
cylindrical structure, such as discussed
cylinder,
whereas
the
point.
each
on the propagation of the
blast wave, between
seq.), the presert
The general
4.63 When an ideal blast wave im-
situation is depicted in Hig. 4.62; H is pinges on a curved
surface,
radius of mation occurs
point that there may
between the
is reached. generalized
,oining z to the center of curvature presentation of the
variation of the
of the semicircle
is the
i
struiire subjected to a blast
wave.
front or
tainment
time interval ti, spectively,
base of
the time unit H/U.
the stagna-
i.e., for ot
where Cd is the appropriate
drag coeffi-
above give
the loads
arbitrary
0 20 40 60 80 IC0 120 140 160 ISO
ANGLE a• (DEGREES)
time intervals
U.
Z
0
0
X
0.4
q(0)4
I-
w
Z
TIME
Figurc
BLAST 15 1
nents of the loads over the two areas and sure range of interest (§ 4.23). Hence,
then subtract them.
the
proximation may be used to obtain th,. remainder of the net horizontal loading
required result
in such
cases where the may be represented by the force 0.4
net horizontal loading
considered to q(t)A, as s-en in Fig. 4.66, which ap-
be important. It
plies to a
up of
than the net loading, which
is
C'd
to an initial
with loading
cat~sed
by blast
to waves reflected from
propagation. It ground
however, the wave form
for
the blast front to traverse the struc- be ideal. In particular, if a precursor
ture. The net drag coefficient for a
single wave is formed (§ 3.79 et seq.), the
cylinder
153
those
described
above.
discussion of 4.43, and 4.44 indicates the departures
ncnideal
loading,
4.67a shows
a countered
in certain
nificantly less
mg patterns
block as not necessarily
always be the case.
1460-I), Part I!.
•,•s Effects,"' ASCE
Practice No. 42, 1961.
U.S. Atomic
Effects
Buildihigs,"
Chicago,
"Efle,:t
Institute,
Loading of Menlo Park, Cplifornia, November 1971.
a Structure,"
3andia Corporation,
of
Load-
July
1969.
WmEIIn u., "Air
Research Co.,
Burlingame, Cal-
blast and the loads on structures pro-
duration of
action of
the air blast phase of the olast wave results in "mass
wave. In the present chapter, the actual distoriion"
of
buildings,
similar
explosion will
In addition, criteria of damage to structure, but the blast
from
can surceund and destroy whole
quantitative relationships will be given buildings in addition to causing loca-
between the damage and the distances
lized structural damage.
5.04
An
examination
dif- lapan affected by nuclear explosions
(§
5.02 Direct
attributable to
air blast
forms. For example, the blast may
de- pletely.
by blast and
roofs, dish-in walls, shatter panels, and subsequently destroyed by fire. Indus-
break
windows.
In
results from some type
(or distortion) and the manner in which twisted frames remained.
Nearly
every-
of a nuclear explosion will be examined, and smokestacks of
strong
was
destroyed.
Some
build-
important difference between the blast ings leaned away from ground zero as
effects of a nuclear weapon and those though struck by a wind of stupendous
due to a conventional high-explosive proportions. Telephone poles were
154
numbers
action of etc. These ,;aused considerable
amounts
distance
the large quantities of debris re-
and gutted by fie.
an indirect
some
instances
the
thermal
radiation
the ini- 5.07 Many structures in Japan were
tiation of fires, but in many other cases designed to be earthquake
resistant,
lines. The loss of water
pressure by the United States.
On
was undoubtedly lighter
stances arising from the explosions, to popular belief
concerning the flimsy
residences, it was
5.06 A highly important
power of the the nuclear bonmb damage, that the re-
nuclear exph'sions was the formation
of sistance to bast of American residences
rr
the
imental structures exposed to
air blast at
shima and Nagasaki. This has been nucieac weapons tests in Nevada.
FACTORS AFFECTING
beam
spans.
the lat-
the
clude various aspects of the strength and
5.11 The resistance
to blast of
5.09
to the
blast
in
is a general blast load is applied laterally to the
term, for
building. The use of steel
reiiforcemcrnt
this type greatly in-
and others are jt-c. The mo, -)bvious creases their strength.
indication
of
modified
strength of the
and
in
the structure. Some of these factors will produced by moderately
strong
winds.
(or
build up
also be con- relatively slowly and remain
fairly
5.10 The strongest strictures
is
concrete
cer-
crcasing
the mass
Such structures,
often stiffened
by dia-
may This
5.14 Thz e
ability of
ab- structure.
sorb energy
inelastically without failure; 5.17 It is evident that ductility is a
in other words,
failure. required to
ductility and
fail suddenly after passing erty to a considerable extent. They
are
of
energy,
5.15 There
are two main aspects of e.g., from a blast wave, without failure
ductility to be considered. When
a
(or load) is applied to a material
so
used.
deform it, as is the case in a nuclear Structural steel
has further advan-
yield point (or elastic
tinder
static
material will recover
when the loading
is removed. However,
if the "stress" (or internal
force) pro- ductile, when steel and concrete are
duced by the
load is sufficiently great, used togcther properly, as in rein-
the
not
some deformation is considerable
quently, the ability
reinforcement, masonry walls
strength" does failure occuf'. arm. completely lacking in ductility and
5.16 Ideally,
a structure which is to readily suffer brittle failure, as stated
suffer
5.19 In this and several subsequent
of
blast
window
sections,
the actual damage to various openings and to subsequent fires. An
types of structures caused by the air exceptionally strong structure
of earth-
to-
5.20a. Al-
exterior walls were hardly
roof was depressed
frame
construc-
empirical information concerning the tion in the United States was the build-
effects of air blast on such multistory
ing shown in Fig. 5.20b at about
the
servations made at Hiroshima and Na- suffered more severely
than the one
steel-frame
buildings, and buildings concrete buildings in Japan was the
with load-bearing walls. As is to be construction code established after
the
buildings
of the first two types are more of new buildings was limited to
100 feet
type; however, even light to
moderate lateral force equal
ca.-
nized
phragms and
MULTISTORY,
more
important
buildings
were
well
de-
REINFORCED-CONCRETE
FRAME
signed
and
constructed
according
to
the
BUILDINGS
code.
However,
some
were
built
with-
out
reinforced-concrete
several
types
explosion.
resistance
the blast
was more
and construction, but they generally significant and so greater damage to the
suffered remarkedly little dama ge exter- roof resulted from the downward force
nally. Close to ground zero,
however, (Fig. 5.22a) than appeared farther away.
there was considerable destruction of Depending upon its strength, the
roof
the
groun~J
 
ground zero at
was pushed
 
miles and in
failed completely. The remainder of the a few instances out to 8 miles.
structure was less damaged
roof siabs and the lateral displacement below.
of
walls,
5.25
only one
and failure of floor slabs (Fig. 5.23). steel.frame structure having more than
Heavy damage to false
cities ex-
and partitions occurred as far out as posed to nuclear explosions.
This was a
zero, fivw-story structure in Nagasaki
at
from
is a nulfistory, steei-frame' building
(0.35
feet (
was
frame
in the design
of girts and
girls (horizontal connecting
and
in-
..
_ _ _
 
at 1 3 ity
SELF-FRAMING WITH CORRUGATED
PANELS
rear
large bolt fasteners
5.44. Self-framing corrugated steel panel building after a nuclear explosion (3.1 psi
peak overpressure).
Replacement
this type was
structure
proved
to
crushed
blast-resistant
of
those
tested.
lieved
pounds per
of the roof square
so as to rLdu, !
All the
although a few panes in the rear re- POSITIVE PHASE
DURATION
TESTS
mained
exposed to
1.3 pounds per square inch vada in 1955 and a,. Eniwetok
Atoll in
investigate the
of were exposed,
to nuclear
tions in
the kiloton and megaton ranges. bolts failed, and yielding was found
Two representative
(horizontal
dustrial
drag-type structure (Fig. 5.48a).
loading of about
semidrag structure (Fig.
blown off, the
connections and column bases.
tion
of
the were
to simildr
pressures in
column anchor the blast wave from a megaton range
Figure
in
Figure 5.48b after exposure to 3.5 psi peak overpressure and 0.3
psi dynamic
pressu;e; positive
complete
collapse
and
b).
for the
drag-type building,
and 5
there-
for the semidrag structure. How ever, structures can be
enhanced, for a
overpressure value, if
structure., increased
quaii,.y
of
5.52 There were many wood.. the workmanship in framing was usually
framed
residential
paid
the
whole,
a therefore, the construction w•s not well
large proportion were destroyed by fire adapted to resist wracking action (dis-
that very
cerning blast
the
positive
to 5 psi
phasc
during
demol-
effects.
ished
WOOD.FRAME HOUSE: the first floor debris. The roof was blown
195. TEST
off in
several sections
 
and upper Poors
fur-
because
of
the
the
house. Although complte
rear. lieved
most .ibvious
damage was
shelters located
damaged
were open before
the
TWO-STORY,
WOOD-FRAME
HOUSE:
Mach
fiont
would
be
BRICK-WAL L-BEARiNG
the two-story.
wood-frame structures
5 and 1.7 pounds per
was such that it could be made available squarc inch peak (overpressure. respec-
for emergency
s;helter by
damage was moach the cinder block: the floors, partitions, and
same
degree
5.67
per
square
a nudear explosion.
was
failed
initially
inward,
but
its
very
little
(RAMBO
house. Th. first floor
lapsed
into
frame
houses
were
ground, consisting
siaonding
structure
Figure 5.68. Unreiiidorced
psi peak overpres-
right.)
explosion,
Nevada
Test
was s3me indication
design was such as to comply with the that the roof slabs
at the front of the
Califernia code for earthquake-resistant
house were lifted slightly
5.73 This house stood up
well, even break any
connections. Some of the
5 pounds per walls were cracked slightly and others
square inch. By replacement of den'ol- shcwf..d indications of
miror movement.
dows,
available siab connections
for occupancy (fig.
111111
tilti
--i
i
ID
Figure 5.71 Reinforced precast concrete house after a nucled" explosion (5 psi peak
ovcrpresurel. The LP-gas tank, sheltered by
the house- is
window-sash was somewhat distoited, levels, and openings were spanned by
but it remained in place.
reinforced
roof was
5.75 At a peak overpressure of 1.7 made of precast, lightweight concrete
pounds per square inch, the precast slabs,
similar to those used in tCie pre-
concrete-slab house
a peak overpressure of
5 pounds
per square
inch, win-
Eut, apart
The steel window-
sti el wLidow-sash,
damage was spalling of the concrete at mained ia
place. The house suffered
sash
only
minor
small cost (Fig. 5.77).
any connzctions.
5.76 The
last ,ype of house sub- The masonry wall under the large win-
jected to test
earth-
pushed
on
conc:etc
slab,
due
between
the
walls
floor slat. The
walls ',cre also rein- proper installation of the reinforced lin-
forced with
3:bstitution of a
venetian
various
as
bile homes, were subjected to bNat in were large picture
windows,
found inside.
usually in a
panels, broken and upset
and
and
tion
of
heaters were not displaced,
over plumbing was, iii general, still operable
by the explosion.
whereas the second, at an angle of about pairing
cabinets,
improvising
window
weight. All thc
others at both
habitable for
emergency use.
tained was
per squzre inmh
location some
repairs r,:quired
tively few ruptures. Most
in merit
at 6,000 feet
quently left
have
erable by blast and fire as well as by been exposed to
several of the nuclear
located behind wood-frame
(5 ps i
peak overpressure), the front of this car can be seen in Figure 5.37. Although
badly damaged, tbtw. car could
still be
Nevada Tes Site;
kcft background, was
age by flue missiles, were somewhat pounds per square location
different from
destroyed,
and
and part
of the
In most after the blast. At 5 pounds per square
cases, iiwever, it was
an
overpressure, but drag forces, which earth-boring machine bolted to the
bed,
the
blast.
he de~ermirned from
leakinae
gaso-
fects,
of ,hX overturned truck
torized veniiis are shown in Figs. in Fig. 5.89. ",:,s a heavy-duty electric
5.?
a
and
b.
5
were
th•;r tcps and doors and cab dished in, the
hood
partly
sides
pushed
in,
There
vehicles could be damage to tools or equipment and the
driven away afte