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BBE 4505CourseOmar EspinozaUniversity Of Minnesota

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ISBN-10: ISBN-13:

2012

1121789048 9781121789043


Contents

1. Preface 12. Methods, Standards, and Work Design: Introduction 7

Problem-Solving Tools 27 3. Tex 294. Operation Analysis 795. Manual Work Design 1336. Workplace, Equipment, and Tool Design 1857. Work Environment Design 2398. Design of Cognitive Work 2819. Workplace and Systems Safety 327

10. Proposed Method Implementation 37911. Time Study 41312. Performance Rating and Allowances 44713. Standard Data and Formulas 48514. Predetermined Time Systems 50715. Work Sampling 55316. Indirect and Expense Labor Standards 58517. Standards Follow-Up and Uses 61118. Wage Payment 63119. Training and Other Management Practices 65520. Appendix 1: Glossary 68521. Appendix 2: Helpful Formulas 70422. Appendix 3: Special Tables 70623. Index 719

iii


Credits

1. Preface: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 12. Methods, Standards, and Work Design: Introduction: Chapter 1 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work

Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 7

Problem-Solving Tools 27 3. Tex: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 294. Operation Analysis: Chapter 3 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 795. Manual Work Design: Chapter 4 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 1336. Workplace, Equipment, and Tool Design: Chapter 5 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th

Edition by Freivalds, 2009 1857. Work Environment Design: Chapter 6 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 2398. Design of Cognitive Work: Chapter 7 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 2819. Workplace and Systems Safety: Chapter 8 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by

Freivalds, 2009 32710. Proposed Method Implementation: Chapter 9 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by

Freivalds, 2009 37911. Time Study: Chapter 10 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 41312. Performance Rating and Allowances: Chapter 11 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition

by Freivalds, 2009 44713. Standard Data and Formulas: Chapter 12 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by

Freivalds, 2009 48514. Predetermined Time Systems: Chapter 13 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by

Freivalds, 2009 50715. Work Sampling: Chapter 14 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 55316. Indirect and Expense Labor Standards: Chapter 15 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition

by Freivalds, 2009 58517. Standards Follow-Up and Uses: Chapter 16 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by

Freivalds, 2009 61118. Wage Payment: Chapter 17 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 63119. Training and Other Management Practices: Chapter 18 from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th

Edition by Freivalds, 2009 655

iv


20. Appendix 1: Glossary: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 68521. Appendix 2: Helpful Formulas: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 70422. Appendix 3: Special Tables: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds,

2009 70623. Index: Chapter from Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition by Freivalds, 2009 719

v


Freivalds: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition

Front Matter Preface The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

Preface

BACKGROUND

Faced with increasing competition from all parts of the world, almost every in-dustry, business, and service organization is restructuring itself to operate moreeffectively. As downsizing and outsourcing become more common, these organi-zations must increase the intensity of cost reduction and quality improvement ef-forts while working with reduced labor forces. Cost-effectiveness and productreliability without excess capacity are the keys to successful activity in all areasof business, industry, and government and are the end result of methods engi-neering, equitable time standards, and efficient work design.

Also, as machines and equipment grow increasingly complex and semiauto-mated if not fully automated, it is increasingly important to study both the man-ual components and the cognitive aspects of work as well as the safety of theoperations. The operator must perceive and interpret large amounts of informa-tion, make critical decisions, and control these machines both quickly and accu-rately. In recent years, jobs have shifted gradually from manufacturing to theservice sector. In both sectors, there is increasingly less emphasis on gross phys-ical activity and a greater emphasis on information processing and decision mak-ing, especially via computers and associated modern technology. The sameefficiency and work design tools are the keys to productivity improvement in anyindustry, business, or service organization, whether in a bank, a hospital, a de-partment store, a railroad, or the postal system. Furthermore, success in a givenproduct line or service leads to new products and innovations. It is this accumu-lation of successes that drives hiring and the growth of an economy.

The reader should be careful not to be swayed or intimidated by the latestjargon offered as a cure-all for an enterprises lack of competitiveness. Oftenthese fads sideline the sound engineering and management procedures that, whenproperly utilized, represent the key to continued success. Today we hear a gooddeal about reengineering and use of cross-functional teams as business leadersreduce cost, inventory, cycle time, and nonvalue activities. However, experiencein the past few years has proved that cutting people from the payroll just for thesake of automating their jobs is not always the wise procedure. The authors, withmany years of experience in over 100 industries, strongly recommend soundmethods engineering, realistic standards, and good work design as the keys tosuccess in both manufacturing and service industries.

x

Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th Edition 1




PREFACE xi

WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN

The objectives of the twelfth edition have remained the same as for the eleventh:to provide a practical, up-to-date college textbook describing engineering meth-ods to measure, analyze, and design manual work. The importance of ergonom-ics and work design as part of methods engineering is emphasized, not only toincrease productivity, but also to improve worker health and safety and thus com-pany bottom-line costs. Far too often, industrial engineers have focused solely onincreasing productivity through methods changes and job simplification, result-ing in overly repetitive jobs for the operators and increased incidence rates ofmusculoskeletal injuries. Any cost reductions obtained are more than offset bythe increased medical and workers compensation costs, especially consideringtodays ever-escalating health care costs.

WHATS NEW IN THE TWELFTH EDITION

A new Chapter 8 on workplace and systems safety has been added that includesmaterial on accident causation models, accident prevention, quantitative analyses,and general hazard control. This then completes the knowledge that a basic in-dustrial engineer should have for managing a production line or a service center.Old Chapters 10 and 11 on ratings and allowances were combined as support ma-terials to the new Chapter 10 on time study. Chapter 13 was expanded to includemore material on BasicMOST.

Approximately 10 to 15 percent more examples, problems, and case studieshave been added. The twelfth edition still provides a continued reliance on workdesign, work measurement, facilities layout, and various flow process charts forstudents entering the industrial engineering profession and serves as a practical,up-to-date source of reference material for the practicing engineer and manager.

HOW THIS BOOK DIFFERS FROM OTHERS

Most textbooks on the market deal strictly either with the traditional elements ofmotion and time study or with human factors and ergonomics. Few textbooks inte-grate both topics into one book or, for that matter, one course. In this day and age,the industrial engineer needs to consider both productivity issues and their effectson the health and safety of the worker simultaneously. Few of the books on themarket are formatted for use in the classroom setting. This text includes additionalquestions, problems, and sample laboratory exercises to assist the educator. Finally,no text provides the extensive amount of online student and instructor resources,electronic forms, current information, and changes as this edition does.

ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT AND COURSEMATERIAL

The twelfth edition is laid out to provide roughly one chapter of material per weekof a semester-long introductory course. Although there are a total of 18 chapters,

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Chapter 1 is short and introductory, much of Chapter 7 on cognitive work designand Chapter 8 on safety may be covered in other courses, and Chapter 15 on stan-dards for indirect and expense work may not need to be covered in an introductorycourse, all of which leaves only 15 chapters to be covered in the semester.

A typical semester plan, chapter by chapter, using the first lecture number,might be as follows:

xii PREFACE

Chapter Lectures Coverage

1 1 Quick introduction on the importance of productivityand work design, with a bit of historical perspective.

2 36 A few tools from each area (Pareto analysis, job analysis/worksite guide, flow process charts, workermachine charts) with some quantitative analysis onworkermachine interactions. Line balancing andPERT may be covered in other courses.

3 4 Operation analysis with an example for each step.4 4 Full, but can gloss over basic muscle physiology and

energy expenditure.5 4 Full.6 34 Basics on illumination, noise, temperature; other topics

as desired may be covered in another course.7 04 Coverage depends on instructors interest; may be

covered in another course.8 05 Coverage depends on instructors interest; may be

covered in another course.9 35 Three tools: value engineering, cost-benefit analysis,

and crossover charts; job analysis and evaluation, andinteraction with workers. Other tools may be covered in other classes.

10 3 Basics of time study.11 35 One form of rating; first half of the allowances that

are well established.12 13 Coverage of standard data and formulas depends

on instructors interest.13 47 Only one predetermined time system in depth;

the second may be covered in another course.14 23 Work sampling.15 03 Coverage of indirect and expense labor standards

depends on instructors interest.16 23 Overview and costing.17 34 Day work and standard hour plan.18 34 Learning curves, motivation, and people skills.





PREFACE xiii

The recommended plan covers 43 lectures, with two periods for examina-tions. Some instructors may wish to spend more time on any given chapter, forwhich additional material is supplied, for example, work design (Chapters 4 to 7),and less time on traditional work measurement (Chapters 8 to 16), or vice versa.The text allows for this flexibility.

Similarly, if all the material is used (the second lecture number), there isenough material for one lecture course and one course with a lab, as is done atPenn State University. Both courses have been developed with appropriate ma-terials such that they can be presented completely online. For an example of an online course using this text, go to www.engr.psu.edu/cde/courses/ie327/index.html

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL AND ONLINE SUPPORT

The twelfth edition of this text continues to focus on the ubiquitous use of PCs aswell as the Internet to establish standards, conceptualize possibilities, evaluatecosts, and disseminate information. A website, hosted by the publisher atwww.mhhe.com/niebel-freivalds, furthers that objective by providing the educatorwith various online resources, such as an updated instructors manual. Design-Tools version 4.1.1, a ready-to-use software program for ergonomics analysis andwork measurement, appears on the site as well. A special new feature of Design-Tools is the addition of QuikTS, a time study data collection program, and Quik-Samp, a work sampling program. The program may be downloaded via hot synchto a Palm device (m105 or higher) and used to collect time study data. The dataare then uploaded directly to the time study form on DesignTools for easy and accurate calculation of standard time.

The books website also links to a website hosted by the author atwww2.ie.psu.edu/Freivalds/courses/ie327new/index.html which provides instruc-tors with online background material, including electronic versions of the formsused in the textbook. Student resources include practice exams and solutions.Up-to-date information on any errors found or corrections needed in this newedition appear on this site as well. Suggestions received from individuals at universities, colleges, technical institutes, industries, and labor organizations thatregularly use this text have helped materially in the preparation of this twelfthedition. Further suggestions are welcome, especially if any errors are noticed. Please simply respond to the OOPS! button on the website or by emailto [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to acknowledge the late Ben Niebel for providing me with the opportunityto contribute to his well-respected textbook. I hope the additions and modifica-tions will match his standards and continue to serve future industrial engineers asthey enter their careers. Thanks to Dr. Dongjoon Kong, University of Tennessee,

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for devoting so much of his time at Penn State to programming DesignTools.Thanks also to the following reviewers for their invaluable input:

David R. Clark, Kettering UniversityLuis Rene Contreras, University of Texas, El PasoJerry Davis, Auburn UniversityCorinne MacDonald, Dalhousie UniversityGary Mirka, Iowa State UniversityDurward K. Sobek, Montana State UniversityHarvey Wolfe, University of Pittsburgh

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Dace for her patience and support.

Andris Freivalds

xiv PREFACE




1. Methods, Standards, and Work Design: Introduction

Text The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

1

KEY POINTS

Increasing productivity drives U.S. industry. Worker health and safety are just as important as productivity. Methods engineering simplifies work. Work design fits work to the operator. Time study measures work and sets standards.

1.1 PRODUCTIVITY IMPORTANCECertain changes continually taking place in the industrial and business environmentmust be considered both economically and practically. These include the globaliza-tion of both the market and the producer, the growth of the service sector, the com-puterization of all facets of an enterprise, and the ever-expanding applications of theInternet and Web. The only way a business or enterprise can grow and increase itsprofitability is by increasing its productivity. Productivity improvement refers to theincrease in output per work-hour or time expended. The United States has long en-joyed the worlds highest productivity. Over the last 100 years, productivity in theUnited States has increased approximately 4 percent per year. However, in the lastdecade, the U.S. rate of productivity improvement has been exceeded by that ofJapan, Korea, and Germany, and it may soon be challenged by China.

The fundamental tools that result in increased productivity include methods,time study standards (frequently referred to as work measurement), and work design. Of the total cost of the typical metal products manufacturing enterprise, 12 percent is direct labor, 45 percent is direct material, and 43 percent is overhead.All aspects of a business or industrysales, finance, production, engineering, cost,maintenance, and managementprovide fertile areas for the application of meth-ods, standards, and work design. Too often, people consider only production, whenother aspects of the enterprise could also profit from the application of productivity

Methods,Standards, andWork Design:Introduction

CHAPTER

1






tools. In sales, for example, modern information retrieval methods usually resultin more reliable information and greater sales at less cost.

Today, most U.S. businesses and industries are, by necessity, restructuringthemselves by downsizing, to operate more effectively in an increasingly com-petitive world. With greater intensity than ever before, they are addressing costreduction and quality improvement through productivity improvement. They arealso critically examining all nonvalue business components, those that do notcontribute to their profitability.

Since the production area within manufacturing industries utilizes the great-est number of engineers in methods, standards, and work design efforts, this textwill treat that field in greater detail than any other. However, examples from otherareas of the manufacturing industry, such as maintenance, transportation, sales,and management, as well as the service industry, will be provided.

Traditional areas of opportunity for students enrolled in engineering, indus-trial management, business administration, industrial psychology, and labormanagement relations are (1) work measurement, (2) work methods and design,(3) production engineering, (4) manufacturing analysis and control, (5) facilitiesplanning, (6) wage administration, (7) ergonomics and safety, (8) production andinventory control, and (9) quality control. However, these areas of opportunity arenot confined to manufacturing industries. They exist, and are equally important, insuch enterprises as department stores, hotels, educational institutions, hospitals,banks, airlines, insurance offices, military service centers, government agencies,and retirement complexes. Today, in the United States, only about 10 percent ofthe total labor force is employed in manufacturing industries. The remaining 90percent is engaged in service industries or staff-related positions. As the UnitedStates becomes ever more service-industry-oriented, the philosophies and tech-niques of methods, standards, and work design must also be utilized in the servicesector. Wherever people, materials, and facilities interact to obtain some objective,productivity can be improved through the intelligent application of methods, stan-dards, and work design.

The production area of an industry is key to success. Here materials are req-uisitioned and controlled; the sequence of operations, inspections, and methodsis determined; tools are ordered; time values are assigned; work is scheduled, dis-patched, and followed up; and customers are kept satisfied with quality productsdelivered on time.

Similarly, the methods, standards, and work design activity is the key part ofthe production group. Here more than in any other place, people determinewhether a product is going to be produced on a competitive basis, through effi-cient workstations, tooling, and worker and machine relationships. Here is wherethey are creative in improving existing methods and products and maintaininggood labor relations through fair labor standards.

The objective of the manufacturing manager is to produce a quality prod-uct, on schedule, at the lowest possible cost, with a minimum of capital invest-ment and a maximum of employee satisfaction. The focus of the reliability andquality control manager is to maintain engineering specifications and satisfy

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customers with the products quality level and reliability over its expected life.The production control manager is principally interested in establishing andmaintaining production schedules with due regard for both customer needs andthe favorable economics obtainable with careful scheduling. The maintenancemanager is primarily concerned with minimizing facility downtime due to unscheduled breakdowns and repairs. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship ofall these areas and the influence of methods, standards, and work design onoverall production.

CHAPTER 1 Methods, Standards, and Work Design: Introduction 3

SalesManager

Controller ManufacturingManager

PurchasingAgent

IndustrialRelationsManager

ProductionControlManager

MaintenanceManager

Reliability andQualityControlManager

ChiefEngineer

A B C D

H

JG

I

E F

ManagerMethods

Standards, andWork design

ManufacturingDepartments

GeneralManager

A Cost is largely determined by manufacturing methods. B Time standards are the bases of standard costs. C Standards (direct and indirect) provide the bases for measuring the performance of production departments. D Time is a common denominator for comparing competitive equipment and supplies. E Good labor relations are maintained with equitable standards and a safe work environment. F Methods work design and processes strongly influence product designs. G Standards provide the bases for preventive maintenance. H Standards enforce quality. I Scheduling is based on time standards. J Methods, standards, and work design provide how the work is to be done and how long it will take.

Figure 1.1Typical organization chart showing the influence of methods, standards, and workdesign on the operation of the enterprise.






1.2 METHODS AND STANDARDS SCOPEMethods engineering includes designing, creating, and selecting the best manu-facturing methods, processes, tools, equipment, and skills to manufacture a prod-uct based on the specifications that have been developed by the productengineering section. When the best method interfaces with the best skills avail-able, an efficient workermachine relationship exists. Once the complete methodhas been established, a standard time for the product must be determined. Furthermore there is the responsibility to see that (1) predetermined standards aremet; (2) workers are adequately compensated for their output, skills, responsibilities,and experience; and (3) workers have a feeling of satisfaction from the work thatthey do.

The overall procedure includes defining the problem; breaking the job downinto operations; analyzing each operation to determine the most economicalmanufacturing procedures for the quantity involved, with due regard for operatorsafety and job interest; applying proper time values; and then following throughto ensure that the prescribed method is put into operation. Figure 1.2 illustrates

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Totaltimeofoperationunderexistingconditionsorunderfutureconditionswhenmethodsengineering,standards,and workdesignare notpracticed

Minimumwork contentof product

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gnWork content added by defects indesign or specification of product,including material specification, geometryspecification, tolerance and finish specification

1

2

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4

Work content added by inefficient work designand methods of manufacture or operation,including setup, tools, working conditions,workplace layout, and motion economy

Time added due to shortcomings of themanagement, including poor planning, poor material and tool inventory control, poor scheduling, and weak supervision,instruction, and training

Time added due to shortcomings of theworker, including working at less thannormal pace, taking excessive allowances

Figure 1.2Opportunities for savings through the applications of methods engineering and time study.

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the opportunities for reducing the standard manufacturing time through the application of methods engineering and time study.

METHODS ENGINEERING

The terms operation analysis, work design, work simplification, and methods engineering and corporate reengineering are frequently used synonymously. Inmost cases, the person is referring to a technique for increasing the productionper unit of time or decreasing the cost per unit outputin other words, produc-tivity improvement. However, methods engineering, as defined in this text, entails analyses at two different times during the history of a product. First, themethods engineer is responsible for designing and developing the various workcenters where the product will be produced. Second, that engineer must continu-ally restudy the work centers to find a better way to produce the product and/orimprove its quality.

In recent years, this second analysis has been called corporate reengineering.In this regard, we recognize that a business must introduce changes if it is to con-tinue profitable operation. Thus, it may be desirable to introduce changes outsidethe manufacturing area. Often, profit margins may be enhanced through positivechanges in such areas as accounting, inventory management, materials require-ments planning, logistics, and human resource management. Information automation can provide dramatic rewards in all these areas. The more thoroughthe methods study during the planning stages, the less the necessity for additionalmethods studies during the life of the product.

Methods engineering implies the utilization of technological capability. Primarily because of methods engineering, improvements in productivity arenever-ending. The productivity differential resulting from technological innova-tion can be of such magnitude that developed countries will always be able tomaintain competitiveness with low-wage developing countries. Research and development (R&D) leading to new technology is therefore essential to methodsengineering. The 10 countries with the highest R&D expenditures per worker, asreported by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (1985), arethe United States, Switzerland, Sweden, Netherlands, Germany, Norway, France,Israel, Belgium, and Japan. These countries are among the leaders in productiv-ity. As long as they continue to emphasize research and development, methodsengineering through technological innovation will be instrumental in their abilityto provide high-level goods and services.

Methods engineers use a systematic procedure to develop a work center, pro-duce a product, or provide a service (see Figure 1.3). This procedure is outlinedhere, and it summarizes the flow of the text. Each step is detailed in a later chapter.Note that steps 6 and 7 are not strictly part of a methods study, but are necessary ina fully functioning work center.

1. Select the project. Typically, the projects selected represent either newproducts or existing products that have a high cost of manufacture and alow profit. Also, products that are currently experiencing difficulties in







1. Select Project

2. Get and Present Data

3. Analyze Data

4. Develop Ideal Method

5. Present and Install Method

6. Develop Job Analysis

7. Establish Time Standards

8. Follow Up

Verify savingsAssure that installation is correctKeep everyone soldRepeat methods procedure

Stopwatch time study

Standard dataFormulasPredetermined time systems

Job analysisJob descriptionsAccommodation of differently abled workers

Use decision-making toolsDevelop written and oral presentationOvercome resistanceSell method to operator, supervisor, and managementPut method to work

Worker and machine process chartsMathematical techniquesEliminate, combine, simplify, rearrange stepsPrinciples of work design with respect to:

Motion economy, manual work, workplaceEquipment, tools, work environment, safety

Use 9 primary approaches to operation analysisQuestion every detailUse: why, where, what, who, when, how

Obtain production requirementsProcure engineering dataProcure manufacturing and cost dataDevelop description and sketches of workstation and toolsConstruct operation process chartsConstruct flow process chart for individual items

New plants and plant expansionNew products, new methodsProducts with high cost/low profitProducts unable to meet competitionManufacturing difficultiesBottleneck operations/exploratory tools

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Figure 1.3The principal steps in a methods engineering program.

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maintaining quality and are having problems meeting competition arelogical projects for methods engineering. (See Chapter 2 for more details.)

2. Get and present the data. Assemble all the important facts relating to theproduct or service. These include drawings and specifications, quantityrequirements, delivery requirements, and projections of the anticipated lifeof the product or service. Once all important information has beenacquired, record it in an orderly form for study and analysis. Thedevelopment of process charts at this point is very helpful. (See Chapter 2for more details.)

3. Analyze the data. Utilize the primary approaches to operations analysis todecide which alternative will result in the best product or service. Theseprimary approaches include purpose of operation, design of part, tolerancesand specifications, materials, process of manufacture, setup and tools,working conditions, material handling, plant layout, and work design. (See Chapter 3 for more details.)

4. Develop the ideal method. Select the best procedure for each operation,inspection, and transportation by considering the various constraintsassociated with each alternative, including productivity, ergonomics, andhealth and safety implications. (See Chapters 3 to 7 for more details.)

5. Present and install the method. Explain the proposed method in detail tothose responsible for its operation and maintenance. Consider all details ofthe work center, to ensure that the proposed method will provide the resultsanticipated. (See Chapter 8 for more details.)

6. Develop a job analysis. Conduct a job analysis of the installed method toensure that the operators are adequately selected, trained, and rewarded.(See Chapter 8 for more details.)

7. Establish time standards. Establish a fair and equitable standard for theinstalled method. (See Chapters 9 to 15 for more details.)

8. Follow up the method. At regular intervals, audit the installed method todetermine if the anticipated productivity and quality are being realized,whether costs were correctly projected, and whether further improvementscan be made. (See Chapter 16 for more details.)

In summary, methods engineering is the systematic close scrutiny of all direct and indirect operations to find improvements that make work easier to per-form, in terms of worker health and safety, and also allow work to be done in lesstime with less investment per unit (i.e., greater profitability).

WORK DESIGN

As part of developing or maintaining the new method, the principles of work designmust be used to fit the task and workstation ergonomically to the human operator.Unfortunately, work design is typically forgotten in the quest for increased produc-tivity. Far too often, overly simplified procedures result in machinelike repetitivejobs for the operators, leading to increased rates of work-related musculoskeletal







disorders. Any productivity increases and reduced costs are more than offset by theincreased medical and workers compensation costs, especially considering todaysever-escalating health-care trends. Thus, it is necessary for the methods engineer toincorporate the principles of work design into any new method, so that it not onlywill be more productive but also will be safe and injury-free for the operator. (Referto Chapters 4 to 7.)

STANDARDS

Standards are the end result of time study or work measurement. This techniqueestablishes a time standard allowed to perform a given task, based on measure-ments of the work content of the prescribed method, with due consideration forfatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays. Time study analysts use severaltechniques to establish a standard: a stopwatch time study, computerized datacollection, standard data, predetermined time systems, work sampling, and esti-mates based on historical data. Each technique is applicable to certain conditions.Time study analysts must know when to use a given technique and must then usethat technique judiciously and correctly.

The resulting standards are used to implement a wage payment scheme. Inmany companies, particularly in smaller enterprises, the wage payment activityis performed by the same group responsible for the methods and standards work.Also, the wage payment activity is performed in concert with those responsiblefor conducting job analyses and job evaluations, so that these closely related activities function smoothly.

Production control, plant layout, purchasing, cost accounting and con-trol, and process and product design are additional areas closely related toboth the methods and standards functions. To operate effectively, all these areas depend on time and cost data, facts, and operational procedures from themethods and standards department. These relationships are briefly discussedin Chapter 16.

OBJECTIVES OF METHODS, STANDARDS, AND WORK DESIGN

The principal objectives of methods, standards, and work design are (1) to increaseproductivity and product reliability safely and (2) to lower unit cost, thus allowingmore quality goods and services to be produced for more people. The ability to pro-duce more for less will result in more jobs for more people for a greater number ofhours per year. Only through the intelligent application of the principles of meth-ods, standards, and work design can producers of goods and services increase,while, at the same time, the purchasing potential of all consumers grows. Throughthese principles, unemployment and relief rolls can be minimized, thus reducingthe spiraling cost of economic support to nonproducers.Corollaries to the principal objectives are as follows:

1. Minimize the time required to perform tasks.2. Continually improve the quality and reliability of products and services.

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3. Conserve resources and minimize cost by specifying the most appropriatedirect and indirect materials for the production of goods and services.

4. Consider the cost and availability of power.5. Maximize the safety, health, and well-being of all employees.6. Produce with an increasing concern for protecting the environment.7. Follow a humane program of management that results in job interest and

satisfaction for each employee.

1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

THE WORK OF TAYLOR

Frederick W. Taylor is generally conceded to be the founder of modern timestudy in this country. However, time studies were conducted in Europe manyyears before Taylors time. In 1760, Jean Rodolphe Perronet, a French engineer,made extensive time studies on the manufacture of No. 6 common pins, while 60years later, an English economist, Charles W. Babbage, conducted time studieson the manufacture of No. 11 common pins.

Taylor began his time study work in 1881 while associated with the MidvaleSteel Company in Philadelphia. Although born in a wealthy family, he disdainedhis upbringing and started out serving as an apprentice. After 12 years work, heevolved a system based on the task. Taylor proposed that the work of each em-ployee be planned out by the management at least one day in advance. Workerswere to receive complete written instructions describing their tasks in detail andnoting the means to accomplish them. Each job was to have a standard time, determined by time studies made by experts. In the timing process, Taylor advo-cated breaking up the work assignment into small divisions of effort known as elements. Experts were to time these individually and use their collectivevalues to determine the allowed time for the task.

Taylors early presentations of his findings were received without enthusiasm,because many of the engineers interpreted his findings to be a new piece-rate sys-tem rather than a technique for analyzing work and improving methods. Bothmanagement and employees were skeptical of piece rates, because many stan-dards were either typically based on the supervisors guess or inflated by bossesto protect the performance of their departments.

In June 1903, at the Saratoga meeting of the American Society of Mechani-cal Engineers (ASME), Taylor presented his famous paper Shop Management,which included the elements of scientific management: time study, standardiza-tion of all tools and tasks, use of a planning department, use of slide rules andsimilar timesaving implements, instruction cards for workers, bonuses for suc-cessful performance, differential rates, mnemonic systems for classifying prod-ucts, routing systems, and modern cost systems. Taylors techniques were wellreceived by many factory managers, and by 1917, of 113 plants that had installedscientific management, 59 considered their installations completely successful,20 partly successful, and 34 failures (Thompson, 1917).







In 1898, while at the Bethlehem Steel Company (he had resigned his post atMidvale), Taylor carried out the pig-iron experiment that came to be one of themost celebrated demonstrations of his principles. He established the correctmethod, along with financial incentives, and workers carrying 92-lb pigs of ironup a ramp onto a freight car were able to increase their productivity from an average of 12.5 tons/day to between 47 and 48 tons/day. This work was performedwith an increase in the daily rate of $1.15 to $1.85. Taylor claimed that workmenperformed at the higher rate without bringing on a strike among the men, with-out any quarrel with the men and were happier and better contented.

Another of Taylors Bethlehem Steel studies that gained fame was the shov-eling experiment. Workers who shoveled at Bethlehem owned their own shovelsand would use the same one for any joblifting heavy iron ore to lifting lightrice coal. After considerable study, Taylor designed shovels to fit the differentloads: short-handled shovels for iron ore, long-handled scoops for light rice coal.As a result, productivity increased, and the cost of handling materials decreasedfrom 8 cents/ton to 3 cents/ton.

Another of Taylors well-known contributions was the discovery of the TaylorWhite process of heat treatment for tool steel. Studying self-hardeningsteels, he developed a means of hardening a chrometungsten steel alloy withoutrendering it brittle, by heating it close to its melting point. The resulting high-speed steel more than doubled machine cutting productivity and remains in usetoday all over the world. Later, he developed the Taylor equation for cutting metal.

Not as well known as his engineering contributions is the fact that in 1881,he was a U.S. tennis doubles champion. Here he used an odd-looking racket hehad designed with a spoon curved handle. Taylor died of pneumonia in 1915, atthe age of 59. For more information on this multitalented individual, the authorsrecommend Kanigels biography (1997).

In the early 1900s, the country was going through an unprecedented infla-tionary period. The word efficiency became pass, and most businesses and industries were looking for new ideas that would improve their performance. Therailroad industry also felt the need to increase shipping rates substantially tocover general cost increases. Louis Brandeis, who at that time represented theeastern business associations, contended that the railroads did not deserve, or infact need, the increase because they had been remiss in not introducing the newscience of management into their industry. Brandeis claimed that the railroadcompanies could save $1 million/day by introducing the techniques advocated by Taylor. Thus, Brandeis and the Eastern Rate Case (as the hearing came to beknown) first introduced Taylors concepts as scientific management.

At this time, many people without the qualifications of Taylor, Barth, Mer-rick, and other early pioneers, were eager to make names for themselves in thisnew field. They established themselves as efficiency experts and endeavored toinstall scientific management programs in industry. They soon encountered a nat-ural resistance to change from employees, and since they were not equipped tohandle problems of human relations, they met with great difficulty. Anxious tomake a good showing and equipped with only a pseudoscientific knowledge,

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they generally established rates that were too difficult to meet. Situations becameso acute that some managers were obliged to discontinue the whole program inorder to continue operation.

In other instances, factory managers would allow the establishment of timestandards by the supervisors, but this was seldom satisfactory. Once standards wereestablished, many factory managers of that time, interested primarily in the reduc-tion of labor costs, would unscrupulously cut rates if some employee made whatthe employer felt was too much money. The result was harder work at the same,and sometimes less, take-home pay. Naturally, violent worker reaction resulted.

These developments spread in spite of the many favorable installations startedby Taylor. At the Watertown Arsenal, labor objected to such an extent to the newtime study system that in 1910 the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) startedan investigation of time study. Several derogatory reports on the subject influencedCongress to add a rider to the government appropriations bill in 1913, stipulatingthat no part of the appropriation should be made available for the pay of any personengaged in time study work. This restriction applied to the government-operatedplants where government funds were used to pay the employees.

It wasnt until 1947 that the House of Representatives passed a bill that re-scinded the prohibition against using stopwatches and the use of time study. It isof interest that even today the use of the stopwatch is still prohibited by unions insome railroad repair facilities. It is also interesting to note that Taylorism is verymuch alive today, in contemporary assembly lines, in lawyers bills that are cal-culated in fractional hours, and in documentation of hospital costs for patients.

MOTION STUDY AND THE WORK OF THE GILBRETHS

Frank and Lilian Gilbreth were the founders of the modern motion-study technique, which may be defined as the study of the body motions used in per-forming an operation, to improve the operation by eliminating unnecessary motions, simplifying necessary motions, and then establishing the most favorablemotion sequence for maximum efficiency. Frank Gilbreth originally introducedhis ideas and philosophies into the bricklayers trade in which he was employed.After introducing methods improvements through motion study, including an ad-justable scaffold that he had invented, as well as operator training, he was able toincrease the average number of bricks laid to 350 per worker per hour. Prior toGilbreths studies, 120 bricks per hour was considered a satisfactory rate of per-formance for a bricklayer.

More than anyone else, the Gilbreths were responsible for industrys recogni-tion of the importance of a detailed study of body motions to increase production,reduce fatigue, and instruct operators in the best method of performing an opera-tion. They developed the technique of filming motions to study them, in a tech-nique known as micromotion study. The study of movements through the aid of theslow-motion moving picture is by no means confined to industrial applications.

In addition, the Gilbreths developed the cyclegraphic and chronocycle-graphic analysis techniques for studying the motion paths made by an operator.







The cyclegraphic method involves attaching a small electric lightbulb to the fin-ger or hand or part of the body being studied and then photographing the motionwhile the operator is performing the operation. The resulting picture gives a per-manent record of the motion pattern employed and can be analyzed for possibleimprovement. The chronocyclegraph is similar to the cyclegraph, but its electriccircuit is interrupted regularly, causing the light to flash. Thus, instead of show-ing solid lines of the motion patterns, the resulting photograph shows shortdashes of light spaced in proportion to the speed of the body motion being pho-tographed. Consequently, with the chronocyclegraph it is possible to compute velocity, acceleration, and deceleration, as well as to study body motions. Theworld of sports has found this analysis tool, updated to video, invaluable as atraining tool to show the development of form and skill.

As an interesting side note, the reader may wish to read about the extremelengths to which Frank Gilbreth went to achieve maximum efficiency even in hispersonal life. His eldest son and daughter recount vignettes of their father shav-ing with razors simultaneously in both hands or using various communicationsignals to assemble all the children, of which there were 12. Hence the title oftheir book Cheaper by the Dozen (Gilbreth and Gilbreth, 1948)! After Franksrelatively early death at the age of 55, Lillian, who had received a Ph.D. in psychology and had been a more than equal collaborator, continued on her own,advancing the concept of work simplification especially for the physically hand-icapped. She passed away in 1972 at the distinguished age of 93 (Gilbreth, 1988).

EARLY CONTEMPORARIES

Carl G. Barth, an associate of Frederick W. Taylor, developed a production sliderule for determining the most efficient combinations of speeds and feeds for cut-ting metals of various hardnesses, considering the depth of cut, size of tool, andlife of the tool. He is also noted for his work in determining allowances. He in-vestigated the number of foot-pounds of work a worker could do in a day. He thendeveloped a rule that equated a certain push or pull on a workers arms with theamount of weight that worker could handle for a certain percentage of the day.

Harrington Emerson applied scientific methods to work on the Santa FeRailroad and wrote a book, Twelve Principles of Efficiency, in which he made aneffort to inform management of procedures for efficient operation. He reorganizedthe company, integrated its shop procedures, installed standard costs and a bonusplan, and transferred its accounting work to Hollerith tabulating machines. Thiseffort resulted in annual savings in excess of $1.5 million and the recognition ofhis approach, termed efficiency engineering.

In 1917, Henry Laurence Gantt developed simple graphs that would measureperformance while visually showing projected schedules. This production con-trol tool was enthusiastically adopted by the shipbuilding industry during WorldWar I. For the first time, this tool made it possible to compare actual performanceagainst the original plan, and to adjust daily schedules in accordance with capacity,backlog, and customer requirements. Gantt is also known for his invention of a

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wage payment system that rewarded workers for above-standard performance,eliminated any penalty for failure, and offered the boss a bonus for every workerwho performed above standard. Gantt emphasized human relations and promotedscientific management as more than an inhuman speedup of labor.

Motion and time study received added stimulus during World War II whenFranklin D. Roosevelt, through the U.S. Department of Labor, advocated estab-lishing standards for increasing production. The stated policy advocated greaterpay for greater output but without an increase in unit labor costs, incentiveschemes to be collectively bargained between labor and management, and the useof time study or past records to set production standards.

EMERGENCE OF WORK DESIGN

Work design is a relatively new science that deals with designing the task, work-station, and working environment to fit the human operator better. In the UnitedStates, it is more typically known as human factors, while internationally it isbetter known as ergonomics, which is derived from the Greek words for work(erg) and laws (nomos).

In the United States, after the initial work of Taylor and the Gilbreths, the selection and training of military personnel during World War I and the industrialpsychology experiments of the Harvard Graduate School at Western Electric (seethe Hawthorne studies in Chapter 9) were important contributions to the work design area. In Europe, during and after World War I, the British Industrial FatigueBoard performed numerous studies on human performance under various condi-tions. These were later extended to heat stress and other conditions by the BritishAdmiralty and Medical Research Council.

World War II, with the complexity of military equipment and aircraft, led tothe development of the U.S. military engineering psychology laboratories and areal growth of the profession. The start of the race to space with the launch ofSputnik in 1957 only accelerated the growth of human factors, especially in theaerospace and military sectors. From the 1970s on, the growth has shifted to theindustrial sector and, more recently, into computer equipment, user-friendly soft-ware, and the office environment. Other driving forces for the growth in humanfactors are the rise in product liability and personal injury litigation cases andalso, unfortunately, tragic, large-scale technological disasters, such as the nuclearincident at Three-Mile Island and the gas leak at the Union Carbide Plant inBhopal, India. Obviously, the growth of computers and technology will keep human factors specialists and ergonomists busy designing better workplaces andproducts and improving the quality of life and work for many years to come.

ORGANIZATIONS

Since 1911, there has been an organized effort to keep industry abreast of the latest developments in the techniques inaugurated by Taylor and Gilbreth. Technicalorganizations have contributed much toward bringing the science of time study,work design, and methods engineering up to present-day standards. In 1915, the







Taylor Society was founded to promote the science of management, while in 1917the Society of Industrial Engineers was organized by those interested in produc-tion methods. The American Management Association (AMA) traces its origins to1913, when a group of training managers formed the National Association of Cor-porate Schools. Its various divisions sponsor courses and publications on produc-tivity improvement, work measurement, wage incentives, work simplification, andclerical standards. Together with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME), AMA annually presents the Gantt Memorial Medal for the most distin-guished contribution to industrial management as a service to the community.

The Society for the Advancement of Management (SAM) was formed in1936 by the merger of the Society of Industrial Engineers and the Taylor Society.This organization emphasized the importance of time study and methods andwage payment. Industry has used SAMs time study rating films over a long period of years. SAM annually offers the Taylor key for the outstanding contri-bution to the advancement of the science of management and the Gilbreth medalfor noteworthy achievement in the field of motion, skill, and fatigue study. In1972, SAM combined forces with AMA.

The Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE) was founded in 1948 with the pur-poses of maintaining the practice of industrial engineering on a professionallevel; fostering a high degree of integrity among the members of the industrialengineering profession; encouraging and assisting education and research in areas of interest to industrial engineers; promoting the interchange of ideas and information among members of the industrial engineering profession (e.g., pub-lishing the journal IIE Transactions); serving the public interest by identifyingpersons qualified to practice as industrial engineers; and promoting the profes-sional registration of industrial engineers. IIEs Society of Work Science (the result of merging the Work Measurement and Ergonomics Divisions in 1994)keeps the membership up to date on all facets of this area of work. This societyannually gives the Phil Carroll Award and M. M. Ayoub Award for achievementin work measurement and ergonomics, respectively.

In the area of work design, the first professional organization, the Ergonom-ics Research Society, was founded in the United Kingdom in 1949. It started thefirst professional journal, Ergonomics, in 1957. The U.S. professional organizationThe Human Factors and Ergonomics Society was founded in 1957. In the 1960s,there was rapid growth in the society, with membership increasing from 500 to3,000. Currently, there are well over 5,000 members organized in 20 differenttechnical groups. Their primary goals are to (1) define and support human fac-tors/ergonomics as a scientific discipline and in practice, with the exchange oftechnical information among members; (2) educate and inform business, indus-try, and government about human factors/ergonomics; and (3) promote humanfactors/ergonomics as a means for bettering the quality of life. The society alsopublishes an archival journal, Human Factors, and holds annual conferenceswhere members can meet and exchange ideas.

With the proliferation of national professional societies, an umbrella organiza-tion, the International Ergonomics Association, was founded in 1959 to coordinate

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ergonomic activities at an international level. At present, there are 42 individual so-cieties encompassing over 15,000 members worldwide.

PRESENT TRENDS

Practitioners of methods, standards, and work design have come to realize thatsuch factors as gender, age, health and well-being, physical size and strength, aptitude, training attitudes, job satisfaction, and motivation response have a directbearing on productivity. Furthermore, present-day analysts recognize that work-ers object, and rightfully so, to being treated as machines. Workers dislike andfear a purely scientific approach and inherently dislike any change from theirpresent way of operation. Even management frequently rejects worthwhile meth-ods innovations because of a reluctance to change.

Workers tend to fear methods and time study, for they see that the results arean increase in productivity. To them, this means less work and consequently lesspay. They must be sold on the fact that they, as consumers, benefit from lowercosts, and that broader markets result from lower costs, meaning more work formore people for more weeks of the year.

Some fears of time study today are due to unpleasant experiences with ef-ficiency experts. To many workers, motion and time study is synonymous withthe speedup of work and the use of incentives to spur employees to higher lev-els of output. If the new levels established were normal production, the work-ers were forced to still greater exertions to maintain their previous earningpower. In the past, shortsighted and unscrupulous managers did resort to thispractice.

Even today, some unions oppose the establishment of standards by measure-ment, the development of hourly base rates by job evaluation, and the applicationof incentive wage payment. These unions believe that the time allowed to per-form a task and the amount that an employee should be paid represent issues thatshould be resolved by collective bargaining arrangements.

Todays practitioners must use the humane approach. They must be wellversed in the study of human behavior and accomplished in the art of communi-cation. They must also be good listeners, respecting the ideas and thinking ofothers, particularly the worker at the bench. They must give credit where creditis due. In fact, they should habitually give the other person credit, even if there issome question of that person deserving it. Also, practitioners of motion and timestudy should always remember to use the questioning attitude emphasized by the Gilbreths, Taylor, and the other pioneers in the field. The idea that there isalways a better way needs to be continually pursued in the development of newmethods that improve productivity, quality, delivery, worker safety, and workerwell-being.

Today, there is a greater intrusion by the government in the regulation ofmethods, standards, and work design. For example, military equipment contrac-tors and subcontractors are under increased pressure to document direct laborstandards as a result of MIL-STD 1567A (released 1975; revised 1983 and







1987). Any firm awarded a contract exceeding $1 million is subject to MIL-STD1567A, which requires a work measurement plan and procedures, a plan to es-tablish and maintain engineered standards of known accuracy and traceability, aplan for methods improvement in conjunction with standards, a plan for the useof the standards as an input to budgeting, estimating, planning, and performanceevaluation, and detailed documentation for all these plans. However, this re-quirement was cancelled in 1995.

Similarly, in the area of work design, Congress passed the OSHAct estab-lishing the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), a re-search agency for developing guidelines and standards for worker health andsafety, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), an enforcement agency to maintain these standards. With the sudden increase inrepetitive-motion injuries in the food processing industry, OSHA established theErgonomics Program Management Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants in 1990.Similar guidelines for general industry slowly evolved into a final OSHA Er-gonomics Standard, signed into law by President Clinton in 2001. However, themeasure was rescinded soon afterward by Congress.

With increasing numbers of individuals with different abilities, Congresspassed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990. This regulation has amajor impact on all employers with 15 or more employees, affecting such em-ployment practices as recruiting, hiring, promotions, training, laying off, firing,allowing leaves, and assigning jobs.

While work measurement once concentrated on direct labor, methods andstandard development have increasingly been used for indirect labor. This trendwill continue as the number of traditional manufacturing jobs decreases and thenumber of service jobs increases in the United States. The use of computerizedtechniques will also continue to grow, for example, predetermined time sys-tems such as MOST. Many companies have also developed time study andwork sampling software, using electronic data collectors for compiling the in-formation required.

Table 1.1 illustrates the progress made in methods, standards, and workdesign.

SUMMARYIndustry, business, and government are in agreement that the untapped potentialfor increasing productivity is the best hope for dealing with inflation and compe-tition. The principal key to increased productivity is a continuing application of the principles of methods, standards, and work design. Only in this way cangreater output from people and machines be realized. The U.S. government haspledged itself to an increasingly paternalistic philosophy of providing for the dis-advantagedhousing for the poor, medical care for the aged, jobs for minorities,and so on. To accommodate the spiraling costs of labor and government taxesand still stay in business, we must get more from our productive elementspeople and machines.

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Table 1.1 Progress Made in Connection with Methods, Standards, and Work Design

Year Event

1760 Perronet makes time studies on No. 6 common pins.1820 Charles W. Babbage makes time studies on No. 11 common pins.1832 Charles W. Babbage publishes On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.1881 Frederick W. Taylor begins his time study work.1901 Henry L. Gantt develops the task and bonus wage system.1903 Taylor presents paper on shop management to ASME.1906 Taylor publishes paper On the Art of Cutting Metals.1910 Interstate Commerce Commission starts an investigation of time study.

Gilbreth publishes Motion Study.Gantt publishes Work, Wages, and Profits.

1911 Taylor publishes text The Principles of Scientific Management.1912 Society to Promote the Science of Management is organized.

Emerson estimates $1 million per day can be saved if eastern railroads applyscientific management.

1913 Emerson publishes The Twelve Principles of Efficiency.Congress adds rider to government appropriation bill stipulating that no part ofthis appropriation should be made available for the pay of any person engagedin time study work.Henry Ford unveils the first moving assembly line in Detroit.

1915 Taylor Society is formed to replace the Society to Promote the Science of Management.

1917 Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth publish Applied Motion Study.1923 American Management Association is formed.1927 Elton Mayo begins Hawthorne study at Western Electric Companys plant in

Hawthorne, IL.1933 Ralph M. Barnes receives the first Ph.D. granted in the United States in the

field of industrial engineering from Cornell University. His thesis leads to thepublication of Motion and Time Study.

1936 Society for the Advancement of Management is organized.1945 Department of Labor advocates establishing standards to improve productivity

of supplies for the war effort.1947 Bill is passed allowing the War Department to use time study.1948 The Institute of Industrial Engineers is founded in Columbus, Ohio.

Eiji Toyoda and Taichi Ohno at Toyota Motor Company pioneer the concept oflean production.

1949 Prohibition against using stopwatches is dropped from appropriation language.The Ergonomics Research Society (now The Ergonomics Society) is foundedin the United Kingdom.

1957 The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society is founded in the United States.E. J. McCormick publishes Human Factors Engineering.

1959 International Ergonomics Association is founded to coordinate ergonomics activities worldwide.

1970 Congress passes the OSHAct, establishing the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration.

1972 Society for the Advancement of Management combines with the AmericanManagement Association.

1975 MIL-STD 1567 (USAF), Work Measurement, is released.1981 NIOSH lifting guidelines are first introduced.1986 MIL-STD 1567A, Work Measurement Guidance Appendix, is finalized.1988 ANSI/HFS Standard 100-1988 for Human Factors Engineering of Visual

Display Terminal Workstations is released.






QUESTIONS1. What is another name for time study?2. What is the principal objective of methods engineering?3. List the eight steps in applying methods engineering.4. Where were time studies originally made and who conducted them?5. Explain Frederick W. Taylors principles of scientific management.6. What is meant by motion study, and who are the founders of the motion-study

technique?7. Was the skepticism of management and labor toward rates established by

efficiency experts understandable? Why?8. Which organizations are concerned with advancing the ideas of Taylor and the

Gilbreths?9. What psychological reaction is characteristic of workers when methods changes are

suggested?10. Explain the importance of the humanistic approach in methods and time study

work.11. How are time study and methods engineering related?12. Why is work design an important element of methods study?13. What important events have contributed to the need for ergonomics?

REFERENCESBarnes, Ralph M. Motion and Time Study: Design and Measurement of Work. 7th ed.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.Eastman Kodak Co., Human Factors Section. Ergonomic Design for People at Work.

New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983.Gilbreth, F., and L. Gilbreth. Cheaper by the Dozen. New York: T. W. Crowell, 1948.Gilbreth, L. M. As I Remember: An Autobiography. Norcross, GA: Engineering &

Management Press, 1988.

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Table 1.1 (continued)

Year Event

1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is passed by Congress.Ergonomics Program Management Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants are established by OSHA. This serves as a model for developing an OSHA ergonomics standard.

1991 NIOSH lifting guidelines are revised.1995 Draft ANSI Z-365 Standard for Control of Work-Related Cumulative Trauma

Disorders is released.1995 MIL-STD 1567A Work Measurement is canceled.2001 OSHA Ergonomics Standard signed into law but rescinded soon afterward by

Congress.2006 50th Anniversary of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

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Kanigel, R. One Best Way. New York: Viking, 1997.Konz, S., and S. Johnson. Work Design. 5th ed. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway,

2000.Mundell, Marvin E. Motion and Time Study: Improving Productivity. 5th ed. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1978.Nadler, Gerald. The Role and Scope of Industrial Engineering. In Handbook of

Industrial Engineering, 2d ed. Ed. Gavriel Salvendy. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1992.

Niebel, Benjamin W. A History of Industrial Engineering at Penn State. UniversityPark, PA: University Press, 1992.

Salvendy, G., ed. Handbook of Human Factors. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987.Saunders, Byron W. The Industrial Engineering Profession. In Handbook of Industrial

Engineering. Ed. Gavriel Salvendy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982.Taylor, F. W. The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper, 1911.Thompson, C. Bertrand. The Taylor System of Scientific Management. Chicago: A. W.

Shaw, 1917.United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Industry in the 1980s: Structural

Change and Interdependence. New York: United Nations, 1985.

WEBSITESThe Ergonomics Societyhttp://www.ergonomics.org.uk/Human Factors and Ergonomics Societyhttp://hfes.org/Institute of Industrial Engineershttp://www.iienet.org/International Ergonomics Associationhttp://www.iea.cc/OSHAhttp://www.osha.gov/


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2. ProblemSolving Tools Tex The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

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KEY POINTS

Select the project with the exploratory tools: Pareto analyses, fish diagrams,Gantt charts, PERT charts, and job/worksite analysis guides.

Get and present data with the recording tools: operation, flow,worker/machine, and gang process charts, and flow diagrams.

Develop the ideal method with quantitative tools: worker/machinerelationships with synchronous and random servicing and line balancingcalculations.

Agood methods engineering program will follow an orderly process, startingfrom the selection of the project and ending with the implementation of theproject (see Figure 1.3). The first, and perhaps most crucial, stepwhetherdesigning a new work center or improving an existing operationis the identifi-cation of the problem in a clear and logical form. Just as the machinist uses toolssuch as micrometers and calipers to facilitate performance, so the methods engi-neer uses appropriate tools to do a better job in a shorter time. A variety of suchproblem-solving tools are available, and each tool has specific applications.

The first five tools are primarily used in the first step of methods analysis, select the project. Pareto analysis and fish diagrams evolved from Japanese qualitycircles of the early 1960s (see Chapter 18) and were quite successful in improvingquality and reducing costs in their manufacturing processes. Gantt and PERTcharts emerged during the 1940s in response to a need for better project planningand control of complex military projects. They can also be very useful in identify-ing problems in an industrial setting.

Typically, project selection is based on three considerations: economic (prob-ably the most important), technical, and human. Economic considerations may involve new products, for which standards have not been implemented, or existingproducts that have a high cost of manufacturing. Problems could be large amountsof scrap or rework, excessive material handling, in terms of either cost or distance,or simply bottleneck operations. Technical considerations may include process-ing techniques that need to be improved, quality control problems due to the method,

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or product performance problems compared to the competition. Human consid-erations may involve highly repetitive jobs, leading to work-related muscu-loskeletal injuries, high-accident-rate jobs, excessively fatiguing jobs, or jobsabout which workers constantly complain.

The first four exploratory tools are most typically used in the analysts office.The fifth tool, job/worksite analysis guide, helps identify problems within a par-ticular area, department, or worksite and is best developed as part of a physicalwalk-through and on-site observations. The guide provides a subjective identi-fication of key worker, task, environmental, or administrative factors that maycause potential problems. It also indicates appropriate tools for further, morequantitative evaluations. Use of the job/worksite analysis guide should be a nec-essary first step before extensive quantitative data are collected on the presentmethod.

The next five tools are used to record the present method, and they comprisethe second step of methods analysis, get and present the data. Pertinent factualinformationsuch as the production quantity, delivery schedules, operationaltimes, facilities, machine capacities, special materials, and special toolsmayhave an important bearing on the solution of the problem, and such informationneeds to be recorded. (The data are also useful in the third step of methodsanalysis, analyze the data.)

The final three tools are more useful as a quantitative approach in the fourthstep of methods analysis, develop the ideal method. Once the facts are presentedclearly and accurately, they are examined critically, so that the most practical,economical, and effective method can be defined and installed. They shouldtherefore be used in conjunction with the operational analysis techniques described in Chapter 3. Note that most of the tools from all four groupings caneasily be utilized in the operational analysis phase of development.

2.1 EXPLORATORY TOOLS

PARETO ANALYSISProblem areas can be defined by a technique developed by the economist Vilfredo Pareto to explain the concentration of wealth. In Pareto analysis, itemsof interest are identified and measured on a common scale and then are orderedin descending order, as a cumulative distribution. Typically 20 percent of theranked items account for 80 percent or more of the total activity; consequently,the technique is sometimes called the 80-20 rule. For example, 80 percent of thetotal inventory is found in only 20 percent of the inventory items, or 20 percentof the jobs account for approximately 80 percent of the accidents (Figure 2.1), or 20 percent of the jobs account for 80 percent of the workers compensationcosts. Conceptually, the methods analyst concentrates the greatest effort on thefew jobs that produce most of the problems. In many cases, the Pareto distribu-tion can be transformed to a straight line using a lognormal transformation, fromwhich further quantitative analyses can be performed (Herron, 1976).

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FISH DIAGRAMSFish diagrams, also known as cause-and-effect diagrams, were developed byIshikawa in the early 1950s while he was working on a quality control project forKawasaki Steel Company. The method consists of defining an occurrence of atypically undesirable event or problem, that is, the effect, as the fish head andthen identifying contributing factors, that is, the causes, as fish bones attachedto a backbone and the fish head. The principal causes are typically subdividedinto five or six major categoriesthe human, machines, methods, materials, en-vironmental, administrativeeach of which is further subdivided into subcauses.The process is continued until all possible causes are listed. A good diagram willhave several levels of bones and will provide a very good overview of a problemand its contributing factors. The factors are then critically analyzed in terms oftheir probable contribution to the overall problem. Hopefully, this process willalso tend to identify potential solutions. An example of a fish diagram used toidentify operator health complaints in a cutoff operation is shown in Figure 2.2.

Fish diagrams have worked quite successfully in Japanese quality circles,where input is expected from all levels of workers and managers. Such diagramsmay prove to be less successful in U.S. industry, where the cooperation betweenlabor and management may be less effective in producing the desired solutionsand outcomes (Cole, 1979).

CHAPTER 2 Problem-Solving Tools 23

Figure 2.1 Pareto distribution of industrial accidents.Twenty percent of job codes (CUP and ABY) cause approximately 80 percent of accidents.





GANTT CHARTThe Gantt chart was probably the first project planning and control technique toemerge during the 1940s in response to the need to manage complex defense pro-jects and systems better. A Gantt chart simply shows the anticipated completiontimes for various project activities as bars plotted against time on the horizontal axis(Figure 2.3a). Actual completion times are shown by shading the bars appropriately.If a vertical line is drawn through a given date, you can easily determine which pro-ject components are ahead of or behind schedule. For example, in Figure 2.3a, bythe end of the third month, mock-up work is behind schedule. A Gantt chart forcesthe project planner to develop a plan ahead of time and provides a quick snapshot ofthe progress of the project at any given time. Unfortunately, it does not always com-pletely describe the interaction between different project activities. More analyticaltechniques, such as PERT charts, are required for that purpose.

The Gantt chart can also be utilized for sequencing machine activity on theplant floor. The machine-based chart can include repair or maintenance activ-ity by crossing out the time period in which the planned downtime will occur.For example, in the job shop in Figure 2.3b, in the middle of the month, lathework is behind schedule, while production on the punch press is ahead ofschedule.

PERT CHARTINGPERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique. A PERT chart, alsoreferred to as a network diagram or critical path method, is a planning and con-trol tool that graphically portrays the optimum way to attain some predeterminedobjective, generally in terms of time. This technique was employed by the U.S.

24 CHAPTER 2

Environment

Administrative

Methods

Machine Human

MoraleBoredom

Age

PayRestSelfpaced Incentives

Work HardeningSkill

TrainingExperience

ImpuritiesType of AlloyLayout

Reach

Interference

Capacity

Visibility

MagnificationStereoscope

OrientationIndexing

AlignmentVibrationPrecision

Foot pedal

Job enlargement

Intensity

HumidityTemperatureVentilationContrast

VisibilityLighting

NoiseFrequency

Housekeeping

Job organizationJob rotation

Heads-up video

Activation

GravityParts feed

Tweezers

ChuckingFixture

Setup

Pretreatment

ThicknessSheet gage

Stiffness

EmployeeComplaints

Materials

Palm button

Figure 2.2 Fish diagram for operator health complaints in a cutoff operation.

32 BBE 4505




military in the design of such processes as the development of the Polaris missileand the operation of control systems in nuclear-powered submarines. Methodsanalysts usually use PERT charting to improve scheduling through cost reductionor customer satisfaction.

CHAPTER 2 Problem-Solving Tools 25

Figure 2.3 Example of (a) project-based Gantt chart and (b) machine- or process-based Gantt chart.

(a)

(b)





In using PERT for scheduling, analysts generally provide two or three timeestimates for each activity. For example, if three time estimates are used, they arebased on the following questions:

1. How much time is required to complete a specific activity if everythingworks out ideally (optimistic estimate)?

2. Under average conditions, what would be the most likely duration of thisactivity?

3. What is the time required to complete this activity if almost everythinggoes wrong (pessimistic estimate)?

With these estimates, the analyst can develop a probability distribution of thetime required to perform the activity.

On a PERT chart, events (represented by nodes) are positions in time thatshow the start and completion of a particular operation or group of operations.Each operation or group of operations in a department is defined as an activityand is called an arc. Each arc has an attached number representing the time(days, weeks, months) needed to complete the activity. Activities that utilize notime or cost yet

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