1914-present

The world has changed enormously since 1914- but because we don’t have full perspective yet (don’t know where we are going) hard to make full judgements. Since 1914 the dominance of the western powers has faded (somewhat) and there is a rebalancing and creation of new patterns of interactions

1. 2 world wars, revolutions, and cold war have reconfigured nations of Europe. Supernationalism

2. Same forces have also shifted Europe’s place in the world- causing Europeans to re- evaluate their priorities.

3. Social movements (women’s rights, minority rights, environmentalism) have created a post industrial consciousness where human rights are a key issue

4. Everyday life has been altered by demographic shifts. Mass culture has expanded, op. for ed has increased, changing gender roles. Ethnic and racial mixing.

1914-1929

A cataclysmic event for Europe- the beginning of all the changes that have come since.

1st “total” war (used full resources) Industrialization became mechanization of death. (30 mill killed or wounded)

Conditions in 1914 were ripe, there had not been a “major” war since Napoleon.

Balance of Power had been the hallmark of the 1800s- but the balance had gotten out of whack

Nationalism: Intense rivalries among industrial powers. Capacity seen as an indication of power. England had been dominate for so long, saw it as necessary.

Germany had caught up to England (1870 Eng 32%, Ger 14%- now both 14%, US so big) Eng saw Ger as a threat.

Scramble for empire sparked rivalries (markets and resources) Germany particularly aggressive because they were late to the game.

Militarism: As Europeans led colonies, they got used to handling things with military- and winning. Bigger and bigger armies etc…

Berlin conference 1885- Germany’s attempt to guide (control) colonial issues.

1906 Moroccan crisis: Germany backing Moroccan independence- Britain and Italy support France

Encordement: Germany says France and England are trying to block their rise (they were)

Militarism contributed to inevitability of war. British policy to have navy 2x larger than anyone else.

1898 Kaiser Wilhelm II (Victoria’s grandson) put German military emphasis on Navy- Drednaughts and U boats

British felt compelled to keep up- and threatened

1902 Kaiser sent Boers a telegram congratulating them on a battle where they beat the English. Angers England- created tension

Resentment in Multi-ethnic empires Austrian (particularly vulnerable), Russian, Ottoman(which has been losing people) people of same nationality should have their own country. Wanted to follow example of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria and Serbia

Balkans are the powder keg of Europe

1st Balkan War 1912: Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria unite to try to drive Turks out(Serbia wanted Access to adriatic) Blocked by Austria

2nd Balkan War 1913: Fought over Macedonia (claimed by Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria) Serbia beat Bulgaria- occupied Albania (part of Austria)

Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Bosnians, Slovenes all want their own lands- and all are “Slavs” (as are Serbs, and Bulgarians)

Encouraged by Russians who claimed they were “older brother” to all Slavic peoples. Really wanted to step in to these new territories- they are pushing west after humiliating defeat in east in Russo-Japanese War.

Ottoman Empire was known as the “Sick Man of Europe”- an empire that was falling apart, and Europe is eager to carve off pieces. 1908 Austria annexed

Bosnia- Herzegovinia1911 Italy took Libya

Young Turks were a secret society led by Mustafa Kemal (Attaturk) whose goal was to modernize the nation- and prevent further loss

As countries competed, they looked for friends- which made Europe into 2 camps, poised for war

Began in 1870 with Franco-Prussian war. Germany draws close to Austria, France and Russia become closer since both are threatened by increased Germanic power

England “splendid isolation”

Created by Bismarck 1887- his great fear is a 2 front war. Russia/Germany guaranteed neutrality if either went to war with another country

Kaiser Wilhelm disavowed in 1890s- pushes Russia closer to France

1902. Central Powers- Italy, Austria, Germany

Included a mutual defense clause- if one nation is attacked OR declares war- they are ALL in.

Ottomans will join after war begins

Allied Powers1907 France, Russia

and EnglandMost concerned

about checking power of triple alliance. Did NOT have mutual defense clause.

US and Japan will join after war, Italy switches sides

Entente Cordial 1904: As Anglo-German arms race began, England and France became closer

June 28th 1914. Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand (emperor’s brother) assassinated in Sarajevo Bosnia by “Black Hand” a secret Slavic society (Gavrillo Princpe)

Austria demanded the ability to punish Serbia– demands control of their gov’t. Germany reiterated their “blank check” of support. Russia vows to assist “Slavs”.

Austria declares war on Serbia. Serbia asks for Russia’s help, Russia declares war on Austria. Austria asks for Germany’s help, Germany declares war on Russia. Russia asks for France’s help, France declares war on Germany.

England stays out of first round- comes in when Germany violates Belgian neutrality to invade France.

The Course of the War The Western FrontMost people assume war

would be short (as wars had been for 100 years) instead, they get 4 years of unprecedented horror

Most famous part of the war was fought in France. Germany had a plan for how to handle their two front war….

Schiefflen PlanAlfred Von Schiefflen created

war plan which called for a rapid, concentrated attack on France (which they thought would fall within 6 weeks). Germans figured Russia would be slow to mobilize, they could crush France, then turn to face Russia (which they knew would be tough- too big)

Tricky part- the French defenses are on border, to get around them Germany will have to cross Belgium, which is neutral, and England has pledged to support them.

Decided it was worth the risk- and invade. But Belgians resist, and England is fast- so plan fails and the Central powers get bogged down in Eastern France, and get a 2 front war after all

Major Battles of the Western Front

Marne: Sept 1914- stopped German advances within sight of Paris

Verdun: Feb 1916 Longest Battle (10 Months) French and Germans each lost over 500,000 troops

Somme: July 1916 Bloodiest Battle. British offensive attempt to break stalemate. 400 k British, 200 k French, 600 k Germans lost

Trench Warfare The two armies dug in

on opposing sides across “No man’s land”

Stalemate: neither side strong enough to break through. War of Attrition- squeeze and see who can hang on the longest

High casualty rates due to technology. By 1916 Germany has lost 850 K and Eng/Fr 1 million with no real progress

Trenches stretched from North Sea to Switzerland.

Erich Remarque “All Quiet on the Western Front”

Psychological damage from this style of fighting- shell shock.

Technological Advances Industrialized warfare and the mechanization of

death. Machine Gun: inflicted the greatest #s of casualties. Tanks: made artillery mobile Airplane: originally used for surveillance, then

Germans developed 1st fighter plane by syncronizing machine gun with propellors

Zeppelins: also surveillance, and bombing Radio: made communications

more effective Poison gas: later considered

inhumane

Eastern Front: Russia and the Balkans Schiefflen plan failed,

Russia mobilized faster than expected. Front Lines much more fluid in the east. No stalemate.

Challenging situation for Germany- the other central powers were weak, and they had 2 fronts to deal with. But Russia had it far worse, they had been very unprepared in the first place. Low on supplies, outgunned by German war machine.

Russia’s failures in war are spark for revolution in 1917- and will cause Russia to pull out of the war

Russia gave soldiers sticks to fight machine guns- casualty rates were atrocious

Fighting continued in the Balkans- Gallipoli Campaign, British and Australian forces tried (unsuccessfully) to take Dardanelles.

Archangel Expedition Allies “unknown”

participation in Russian civil war after the revolution. (summer of 1918) Wanted to prevent Bolsheviks from taking control of the government. Prolonged civil war, taught Russians to dislike the Western powers

War at Sea Germany wanted to block

British ships from bringing in supplies. Announced they would sink any ship carrying military goods- including passenger ships. (Luisitania sunk 1915, 1198 killed) German actions seemed barbaric, cost them support of places like US- sinking passenger ships helped bring us into the war. N

Naval battles generally indecisive.

Diplomacy During War 1915, Italy switched

sides in return for promises of Austrian/Balkan territory.

1916 Zimmerman Note- Germany offered alliance to Mexico if they would attack US

1917 Balfour Note- England promised Jews, and Arabs, control of Palestine in return for support.

War outside EuropeBritish “Dominions” (Settler Colonies)

Canada, Australia, New Zealand provided significant #s of troops

Minor skirmishes fought in Africa between Eng/Ger colonists.

India- sent troops and significant supplies/resources, half promised home rule after war

Japan fought for allies- took German island colonies in Asia

British supported Arab rebellions against Ottoman Rule

The Home FrontWar involved civilians as

well as soldiers. Central gov’t had great power to coordinate war efforts. Conscription, supervision of business, price fixing, strikes illegal.

Freedom of press and speech curtailed

Germany practiced war socialism- all econ activity designed to increase military production. Draft as young as 15.

France- 3rd Republic shifted to a military dictatorship

Total WarAll resources needed to support war effort.Created centrally planned economies- rather

than capitalist. Rationing of food, fuel, luxury items. Victory GardensEach side tried to impact civilian populations

with bombings, blockades to cut supplies etc… part of Europe on verge of famine by the end of the war

Increased nationalism (through propaganda) War also promoted greater social equality by blurring class distinctions

Propaganda Information campaigns

used by both sides, designed to inspire nationalism, and hatred of “enemy”. Played on racial stereotypes (“Huns” are monsters, “Slavs” are barbarians)

Not always accurate (on purpose) designed to connect emotionally. Some of these campaigns began BEFORE war, and were used to turn attention away from other problems (rising socialism in Germany, Problems with Ireland for English)

Women’s RolesSince so many men had to be fighting- women

went to work to replace them- 43% of workforce female (up from 14% before war)

Normal for working class- but for middle class women it was a big change from the sheltered “cult of domesticity”

Led to suffrage after the war- England 1918, Germany 1919, Austria 1919, US 1920.

Skip Russian Revolution-----

We’ll come back after break

Treaty of Brest-LitovskSigned Dec 1917 Lenin

pulls Russia out of the war. Russia loses fat chunk of European territory and 1/4th of population to Germany (though it wouldn’t last)

End of WWI With Russia out- Germany

turns re energized to face the Western Front: Meuse-Argonne Offensive.

But US had declared war in 1917, and we sent in a million fresh troops “doughboys” to stop the offensive.

Germans simply cannot go on- War of Attrition has found it’s end.

Austria surrendured November 3rd 1917. November 11th Germany called for Armistice . Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to Holland.

The Russian Revolution

WWI brought issues in Russia (which had been a mess for decades) to a boiling point.

Tsars insisted on absolutism- Nicholas II’s inability to manage the war was the final straw.

Massive causalities- 7.5 million by 1917. Fighting on Eastern Front drove peasants to interior, homeless and desperate.

Review: Problems in Russia Largest population in Euro- but only 1/3 of

farmland used, famine common (nobles export food to make $$) 60% of population illiterate.

Majority of Industry not owned by Russians- resentment.

Humiliation of defeats in Crimean and Russo-Japanese Wars

Revolution of 1905 (which failed b/c army stood by Tsar) had forced creation of Duma (nobles only)- but political repression was still the norm. Reform had been promised, but not delivered.

No room for liberals/dissidents to have a voice. Socialism and other radical solutions were popular.

Nicholas II Weak Ruler. Listened to

poor advice (Rasputin) Distanced himself from the people after 1905. Wife Alexandra widely disliked.

1916 Went to the front to personally lead troops- bad plan.

Revolution(s) of 1917March (February) Crowds of workers took to the streets of St. Petersburg to protest conditions (strikes and bread shortages). Chaos grew as riots

broke out led by workers councils known as “soviets”. Army ordered to suppress, abandoned Tsar, he was forced to abdicate March 2nd. (not many deaths at this stage, only about 1000) Royal Family under house arrest at winter palace

Provisional government formed by Alexander Kerensky. No agreement on what type permanent gov’t, or amount of change. 2 main groups: Mensheviks- support moderate change,

parliamentary gov’t, capitalism, finish warBolsheviks- radical change, socialism

(communism) pull out of war

Lenin: April Thesis Lenin had been exiled to Switzerland in

1910. As revolution began, Germans sent him back to Russia in a sealed train- wanted Russia OUT of war. When he returned, issuedApril Thesis: Russia should withdraw

from war, soviets should take control of government as on behalf of the people. “All power to the soviets, all land to the peasants”

Marxism-Leninism: Russia has no proletariat- so Bolsheviks serve as the “vanguard of the revolution” taking power for them. Politburo: formed to organize/manage

revolution. Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin, Zinoviev, Kamenev

Korlinov Affair Brought about fall of

provisional gov’t. Conservatives were unhappy with Kerensky’s handling of war and inability to suppress Bolsheviks. Plotted to overthrow Kerensky and replace him with Korlinov (a noble) cost credibility.

November (October) Lenin seized power.

Held an election- didn’t get majority, so he used the army (he’s the one promising to end the war) to take over through the zemstevos and soviets.

Moved capital to Moscow.

Really creating a communist dictatorship. Trotsky head of “Red” Army- by October 26th Bolsheviks have created “Central Committee” and “Congress of Soviets”. Also “Checka”: their own secret police to eliminate opponents.

Biggest surprise is how small Bolsheviks were (had support of < 29%) and they not only took power, but held it

Russian Civil War 1918-1920 (this is where the deaths happen in

the Russian Revolution) “Reds” (Bolsheviks) vs. “Whites” (Mensheviks and everyone else- this is why they didn’t win, 18 different groups)

Brutal fighting, millions killed. Allies sent troops to help “whites” and earn permanent communist

enmity. Royal Family feared as rallying point, sent to Siberia, and executed. War Communism: applied total war concept to creating a planned economy- not a big success

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) As the “Bolsheviks”

become the “communists” they create a new name for the country to emphasize break with the past.

Lenin 1st acts were to distribute land to the peasants and Nationalize major industries

Wanted popularity with the people

Peasants had actually already “taken” the land, Lenin just legitimized.

Gave control of businesses to workers committees

Pulled out of war

New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921-28 Post war economics-

Lenin promised small business owners and landowners that they could keep rights, while state will set overall econ policy. Economy began to improve, rose above 1914 level.

Said this small capitalism was a “necessary step backwards” war communism had been unpopular.

Expected to produce a certain amount, allowed to sell whatever over that

for profit.

Democratic Centralism Central policy making was supposed to

reflect what was best for the people. Central Gov’t made exclusively of ethnic

Russians, all minority groups (Ukrainians, Poles, Latvians etc.) represented within their own “soviet socialist republic”.

Communist party quickly became an authoritarian system under a central party bureaucracy.

Results of Russian Revolution Like France, the Russian revolution will

erase the traditional political and social order. (nobility, clergy, etc…) 15 million dead, (fighting and famine) millions more fled. International trade gone

Created the 1st Communist society- a monumental event of the 20th century.

Postwar Diplomacy

27 Nations met in Paris in 1919. Everyone wants something

different…

Big Four England and France Want

reparations and permanent weakening of Germany- punishment.

Wilson has come with his “grand plan”….

David Lloyd George (Britain)

Georges Clemenceau (France)

Woodrow Wilson (US) Emmanuelle Orlando

(Italy) Central Powers

excluded entirely

14 Points

Wilson’s Vision for a new world order. Major Points:

Abolish secret treatiesFreedom of the seasRemoval of TariffsSelf Determination in Eastern EuropeAdjustment of Colonial ClaimsLeague of Nations

Versailles TreatyQuite possibly the worst treaty ever-

WWII starts right here- solves NONE of the issues that started the war, clearly reflects England and Frances desire to hurt Germany. Germany heavily penalized, given no choice but to accept treaty- under blockade from England.

War Guilt: Article 231 gave sole blame for entire war to Germany, which was forced to pay reparations of 31 billion (over 30 years) to allies. Ridiculously expensive and psychologically damaging.

Territory Loss: Germany lost 13% of pre-war land (given to France, Poland, Belgium and Denmark) Lost all land had gained from Russia. France regained Alsace Lorraine, Poland recreated. All Germany colonies taken (by England)

Military Restrictions: Designed to prevent further “German Aggression”. Size of German army strictly limited. No troops allowed in Rhineland (on Fr. Border) Forbidden to make war materials like planes and subs.

League of Nations: Wilson’s big dream. International Peace-keeping organization. Executive council of Big Four and General Assembly of all nations who wish to join. No Teeth, big failure- US doesn’t even join

Other Provisions: Bulgaria (Central Powers) lost land to Romania and Greece. Austria given $500 million in reparations. Russia did NOT get land back, it was to be used to create new territories

Self Determination: Austrian and Ottoman empires dismantled, created new countries based on ethnicities (not always well drawn). Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia (Croats, Serbs, Slovenes), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. (all from Russian territory)

Mandates: created from colonies of central powers and non-euro Ottoman territory. “Trusteeships” of other countries (Eng./Fr) because b/c they were “inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world”. British: Palestine/Arabia/Iraq. French: Syria/Lebanon. Turkey: the exception. Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk)

convinced League of Nations to authorize an independent republic of Turkey in 1923.

Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia also recognized as independent in the 1920s.

Problems with the League A marker event- the 1st

attempt at long term international cooperation. But can only make “suggestions”- no collective security. Collapsed before wwii began- but set precedent which would help create the UN

Impact of WWI 20 million (soldiers and civilians) dead. Changed social/class structure. Ends Romanov,

Hapsburg, and Hohenzollern dynasties. Political map of Europe redrawn. German resentment (Weimar Republic doomed

from start) Shift in power to US- esp as we became world’s

leading creditor in 1920s John Maynard Keynes: said harshness of treaty

would hurt econ of Germany, and thus of the world- leading to political unrest